w^^^
t^
f \
i^siiS!s;im}v^i^^M^t;-^.^>yj»^:.
REVISIONS AND CORRECTIONS
AREA Proceedings, Volume 42 (1941)
Changes in the text for correction of typographical errors, and to take account of
revisions, deletions and additions requested by committees in presenting their reports.
For revisions of matter submitted for adoption, see "Discussions."
Page 48, see Discussion, page 805 for revisions submitted by committee.
Page 49, see note above.
Page 102, under sub-head "Internal Treatment", sixth line, first word should be
"sludge" instead of "scale".
Page 106, see Discussion, page 822 for revised list of committees.
Page 176, illustration on lower half of page is Fig. 5.
Page 237, under sub-head "Accelerated Weathering Tests", delete the words "called
weatherometers" in the first line.
Page 276, under sub-section (d), add the factor "9Z," to the denominator immedi-
ately under the factor "\0P" in the numerator.
Page 356, in eighth line of the text, italic letter L under the radical should be lower
case; following line should read: "I = length of stringer in span, in inches".
Page 358, under sub-head "Welding", sixth line, "n*" should be "«s^".
Page 362, under Section (9), seventh line, delete the word "very".
Page 363, Assignment 3 should read: Non-Ballast Type Metal Floor for Steel Bridges.
Page 561, under sub-section 5. (a), the first word should be "Settling".
Page 574, second line, change "j4-in." to "^-in.".
Page 610, under sub-head "Loss of Bolt Tension", first line, change "1939" to "1938".
Page 634, under sub-head "Unloading", delete the words following the word "base"
in the second line.
Page 635, fourth line, change "double-track" to "multiple-track".
Page 636, twelfth Une, change "new" to "newly laid". In second line from the bot-
tom of the page, change "chord and point" to "chord end point".
Page 637, see Discussion, page 844 for correction in table.
Page 658, first line of text should read "Subcommittee 4".
Page 1 (in Monograph section), in second line of sub-title, seventh word should be
"before" instead of "by".
PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
FORTY-SECOND ANNUAL CONVENTION
OF THE
American Railway Engineering
Association
HELD AT THE
PALMER HOUSE. CHICAGO. ILLINOIS
March 11. 12 and 13. 1941
VOLUME 42
Copyright. 1941, by
AMERICAN RAILWAY ENGINEERING ASSOCIATION
CHICAGO
BOARD OF DIRECTION
President
Geo. S. Fanning*, Chief Engineer, Erie Railroad, Cleveland, Ohio
Acting President
F. L. C. Bond, Vice-President and General Manager, Canadian National Railways,
Toronto, Ont.
Vice-President
H. R. Clarke, Engineer Maintenance of Way, Burlington Lines, Chicago
Past-Presidents
John E. Armstrong, Chief Engineer, Canadian Pacific Railway, Montreal, Que.
Robert H. Ford, Chief Engineer (Retired), Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific Railway,
Chicago
A. R. Wilson, Engineer, Bridges and Buildings, Pennsylvania Railroad, Philadelphia, Pa.
F. E. Morrow, Chief Engineer, Chicago & Western Indiana Railroad and Belt Railway
of Chicago, Chicago
E. M. Hastings, Chief Engineer, Richmond, Fredericksburg & Potomac Railroad,
Richmond, Va.
Directors
C. J. Geyer, Engineer Maintenance of Way, Chesapeake & Ohio Railway, Richmond, Va.
F. R. Layng, Chief Engineer, Bessemer & Lake Erie Railroad, Greenville, Pa.
J. G. Brennan, Engineer of Grade Crossings, Association of American Railroads,
Washington, D. C.
Robert Faries,! Assistant Chief Engineer — Maintenance, Pennsylvania Railroad, Phila-
delphia, Pa.
C. E. Smith,! Vice-President, New York, New Haven & Hartford Railroad, New Haven,
Conn.
G. R. Smiley, Chief Engineer, Louisville & Nashville Railroad, Louisville, Ky.
J. B. Akers, Assistant Chief Engineer, Southern Railway System, Washington, D. C.
A. A. Miller, Chief Engineer Maintenance of Way, Missouri Pacific Railroad, St.
Louis, Mo.
G. P. Palmer, Engineer Maintenance and Construction, Baltimore & Ohio Chicago Ter-
minal Railroad, Chicago
Armstrong Chinn, Chief Engineer, Alton Railroad, Chicago
Treasurer
W. H. Penfield, Chief Engineer, Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul & Pacific Railroad,
Chicago
Secretary
W. S. Lacher, 59 East Van Buren Street, Chicago
Assistant Secretary
Frank McNellis, 59 East Van Buren Street, Chicago
* Deceased, January 2, 1941.
t Mr. Smith was elected by the Board of Direction on November IS, 1940, to fill the vacancy
caused by Mr. Faries' death on September 8.
NUMERICAL INDEX TO COMMITTEE REPORTS
Report Discussion
I — Roadway and Ballast 539 831
3— Ties 485 845
4 — Rail ; 639 850
Investigation of Fissures in Railroad Rails 681
5— Track 575 836
6 — Buildings 225 875
7 — Wood Bridges and Trestles 247 868
8 — Masonry 295 878
9 — Highways 149 814
10 — Signals and Interlocking 31 802
II — Records and Accounts 369 858
12 — Rules and Organization 515 864
13 — ^Water Service, Fire Protection and Sanitation 95 820
14 — Yards and Terminals 107 854
15 — Iron and Steel Structures 355 874
16 — Economics of Railway Location and Operation 44 804
17 — Wood Preservation 489 830
18 — Electricity 28 810
20 — Uniform General Contract Forms 37 819
22 — Economics of Railway Labor 213 823
24 — Cooperative Relations With Universities 155 815
25 — ^Waterways and Harbors 87 812
26 — Standardization 25 802
27 — Maintenance of Way Work Equipment 173 826
Special — Stresses in Railroad Track 753, 759 848
Special — ^Waterproofing of Railway Structures 353 877
Special — Impact 393 871
TABLE OF CONTENTS
GENERAL
Page
Constitution 10
General Information 20
COMMITTEE REPORTS
Standardization 25
Changes in American Standards Association Committee Representation 25
Canadian Engineering Standards Association (CESA) 26
Collaborating AREA Representatives on Committees of ASTM 26
Discussion 802
Electricity 28
Developments in Application of Electricity 28
Abstract of Reports of Electrical Section 29
Discussion 810
Signals and Interlocking 31
Principal Current Activities of the Signal Section 31
Discussion 802
Uniform General Contract Forms 37
Form of Agreement for Commercial Signs on Railway Property 39
Form of Agreement for Unloading Liquefied Petroleum and Other Gases 41
Discussion 819
Economics of Railway Location and Operation 44
Methods for Obtaining a More Intensive Use of Existing Railway Facilities .... 45
Methods or Formulas for Solution of Special Problems Relating to More
Economical and Efficient Railway Operation 48
Effect of Volume of Traffic on Railway Operating Expenses 50
Effect of High Speed on Railway Operating Expenses 56
Economics of Railway Location and Operation as Affected by Railway
Electrification 68
Train Resistance of Freight Trains Under Various Conditions of Loading and
Speed 69
Discussion 804
Waterways and Harbors 87
Breakwaters, Bulkheads and Jetties 88
Metal and Other Protective Casings for Pier Structures Under Water 88
Seawalls and Ocean Shore Protection, Including Effect of Wave Action and Ice 88
Reasonable Life of Steel Casings Immersed in Sea Water 90
Discussion 812
4
TableofContents 5
Page
Water Service, Fire Protection and Sanitation 95
Revision of Manual 96
Cause of and Remedy for Pitting and Corrosion of Locomotive Boiler Tubes
and Sheets 96
Cathodic Protection for Prevention of Corrosion of Steel Tanks 97
Effect of Lubricating Oil on Boilers 101 (a)
Removal of Silica from Boiler Feed Water 101 (b)
Principal Current Activities of the Fire Protection and Insurance Section, AAR.. 106
Discussion 820
Yards and Terminals 107
Revision of Manual 108
General Requirements in Terminal Facilities for Various Later Types of
Equipment 110
Terminal Facilities Required for Servicing Electrical and -\ir Conditioning
Equipment in Passenger Cars 112
Scales Used in Railway Service 114
Terminal Facilities Required for the Care of Diesel Locomotive Equipment .... 128
Classification Yards 133
Terminal Facihties Required for the Washing of Passenger Cars Mechanically... 134
Terminal Facihties Required for the Handling of Highway Trucks and Trailers
on and off Railroad Cars 136
Bibliography on Subjects Pertaining to Yards and Terminals Appearing in Cur-
rent Periodicals 140
Discussion 854
Highways , 149
Revision of Manual 150
Design and Specifications for Highway Crossings at Grade Over Railway Tracks,
Both Steam and Electric 150
Comparative Merits of Various Types of Grade Crossing Protection 151
Drawings of Typical Location for Grade Crossing Signals 152
Methods of Protecting Highway Crossings and Flangeways Against Obstructions
and Damage Caused by Use or Passage of Highway Work Equipment 152
Discussion 814
Cooperative Relations With Universities 155
Statement of Scope and Purpose 156
Means of Bringing to the Attention of Railway Managements the Value of a
Technical Education 157
Stimulate a Greater Interest in the Science of Transportation Among University
and College Students 169
Means Whereby Facihties of the University May Be Made More Directly Avail-
able for Research Work 1 70
Cooperate with Organizations of University and College Students Engaged in
Study or Discussion of Engineering or Transportation Matters 171
Discussion 815
Table of Contents
Page
Maintenance of Way Work Equipment 173
Standardization of Parts and Accessories for Railway Maintenance Motor Cars. . 174
Devices for Applying Metal Preservatives to Rail and Fastenings 177
Methods of Keeping Data on Work Equipment 183
Pneumatic Tired Tractor Equipment 194
Impact Wrenches 199
Arc Welding Equipment 200
Off-Track Grading Equipment 206
Discussion 826
Economics of Railway Labor 213
Analysis of Operations of Railways That Have Made Marked Progress in the
Reduction of Labor Required in Maintenance of Way Work 214
Relative Economy of Combined vs. Separate Bridge and Building Gangs 217
Labor Economies Resulting From Improvements in Drainage Practices 219
Added Labor Economies Resulting from Use of Off-Track Maintenance
Equipment 221
Discussion 823
Buildings 22S
Requirements and Design of Garage Buildings for Railway Service 225
Methods of Determining the Protective Value of Paints 227
Discussion 875
Wood Bridges jmd Trestles 247
Revision of Manual 248
Nomenclature of Commercial Domestic Softwoods and Hardwoods 253
American Lumber Standards for Softwood Lumber 262
Simplification of Grading Rules and Classification of Timber for Railway Uses. . 273
Specifications for Design of Wood Bridges and Trestles for Railway Loading... 273
Recommended Relationships Between the Energy of Hammer and the Weight or
Mass of Pile for Proper Pile Driving 282
Fireproofing Wood Bridges and Trestles Including the Placing of Fire Stops 291
Discussion 868
Masonry 295
Revision of Manual 296
Composite Columns and Pipe Columns (Revision of Manual) 298
Progress in Science and Art of Concrete Manufacture 305
Specifications for Lining Railway Tunnels with Metal Liner Plates and Shotcrete 307
Alternate Floor of the Non-Ballast Type (Revision of Manual) 309
Progress in Cement Manufacture and Testing 310
Specifications for the Placement of Concrete Culvert Pipe 315
Specifications for Solidification of Masonry Structures by Pressure Grouting 319
Specifications for Concrete and Reinforced Concrete Railroad Bridges and Other
Structures 321
Specifications for Test Borings 321
Special Requirements for Concrete to be Deposited Under Water (Revision of
Manual) 332
Durability of Concrete 335
Discussion g^g
Table of Contents
Page
Waterproofing of Railway Structures 353
Revision of Manual 353
Discussion 877
Iron and Steel Structures 355
Revision of Manual — Specifications for Steel Railway Bridges 356
Instructions for the Maintenance Inspection of Steel Bridges 358
Non-Ballast Type Metal Floor Steel Bridges 363
Discussion 874
Records and Accounts 360
Revision of Manual 370
Bibliography on Subjects Pertaining to Records and Accounts 371
Office and Drafting Room Practices 373
Specifications of Materials to be Used for Drawings and Drafting 373
Standard System for Filing Drawings 375
Recommended Practice to be Followed with Respect to Maintenance of Way
Accounts and Statistical Requirements 379
Resume of Developments of the Current Year in Connection with Regulatory
Bodies and the Courts 379
ICC Valuation Orders, Reports and Records 381
Changes In, Revisions and Interpretations of, ICC Accounting Classifications... 382
Methods of Avoiding Duplication of Reports and for Simplifying and Coordinat-
ing Work Under the Requirements of the ICC and Other Regulatory Bodies 385
Discussion 858
Impact 393
Discussion 871
Ties 485
Extent of Adherence to Specifications 485
Tie Averages and Costs per Maintained Mile 486
Dimensions of Ties 487
Discussion 845
Wood Preservation 489
Service Test Records for Treated Ties 490
Piling Used for Marine Construction 508
Destruction by Termites and Possible Ways of Prevention 513
Discussion 830
Rules and Organization 515
Rules and Regulations Governing Maintenance of Way and Structures Employees 515
Roadway and Track 532
Bridges and Buildings, Water Service and Work Equipment 534
Signals and Interlocking 535
Telephone and Telegraph 536
Electrified Territory 536
Discussion 864
Table of Contents
Page
Roadway and Ballast 539
Physical Properties of Earth Materials, Structural Bearing Power 541
Size of Waterway Openings, Formulas 543
Specifications for Vitrified Clay Culvert Pipe 546
Specifications for Pipe Line Crossings, for Non-inflammable Substances 555
Formation of the Roadway — Settlement ; Shrinkage, Subsidence 559
Placing Material in Embankments 561
Lighting of Tunnels 565
Corrosion-Resisting Fence Wire 566
Specifications for Wood Fence Posts 567
Electrified Fences 569
Design of Signs 570
Ballast Section Design 571
Investigate the Use of Asphalt in Ballast 571
Adherence to Stone Ballast Specifications, Particularly Size 572
Discussion 83 1
Track 575
Revision of Manual 576
Fastenings for Continuous Welded Rail 580
Plans and Specifications for Track Tools and Recommended Limits of Wear.... 584
Plans for Switches, Frogs, Crossings, Spring and SHp Switches 595
Corrosion of Rail and Fastenings in Tunnels 605
Practicabihty of Using Reflex Units for Switch Lamps and Targets 606
Bolt Tension Necessary for Proper Supporting of Rail Joints 608
Lubrication of Rail on Curves 626
Prevention of Damage Due to Brine Drippings on Tracks and Structures 628
Specifications for Laying Rails 633
Spirals for High Speed Operation 636
Discussion 836
Rail 639
Revision of Manual 641
Rail Failure Statistics 645
Controlled-Cooled and Brunorized Rail Statistics 656
Cause and Prevention of Rail Battering and Methods of Reconditioning Rail
Ends 658
Economic Value of Different Sizes of Rail 659
Continuous Welding of Rail 660
Service Tests of Various Types of Joint Bars 662
Investigation of Joint Bar Failures 666
Photoelastic Investigation of Design of Joint Bars 672
Discussion gjQ
Seventh Progress Report of the Joint Investigation of Fissures in
Railroad Rails ^gj
Introduction f-oy
Development of Internal Fissures in Laboratory Tests of Rails and in Rails in
Service ,„,
o86
Table of Contents
Seventh Progress Report of the Joint Investigation of Fissures in
Railroad Rails— Continued Page
Field Tests for Wheel Loads 692
Service Records of Test Rails 696
Origin and Prevention of Shatter Cracks in Rails 702
Chemical Composition and Metallographic Structure of Rail Steel 719
Mechanical Properties of Rail Steel 726
Non-Destructive Tests for Shatter Cracks and Fissures 743
Acceptance Tests for Rails-Drop and Bend Tests 747
Future Study of Fissures in Rails 751
Stresses in Railroad Track 753
Address by Dr. A. N. Talbot on Stresses in Track 759
Discussion 848
PROCEEDINGS
Vice-President's Address 769
Address by C. H. Buford 775
Report of Tellers 780
Address by Hon. Clarence F. Lea 782
Reports of Secretary and Treasurer 791, 801
MONOGRAPHS— SPECIAL REPORTS
Mechanization in the Maintenance of Way Department ml
Report of the Joint Committee on Standard Specifications for Concrete and Rein-
forced Concrete m2 7
Seventh Progress Report — Committee on Stresses in Railroad Track ml39
MEMOIRS
George Stokes Fanning m248
John V. Neubert m251
Robert Faries m253
Lawrence Aloysius Downs m25S
William Benson Storey m260
American Railway Engineering
Association
CONSTITUTION
Revised to June 7, 1940
Article I
, .. Name, Object and Location
1. Name
Tlie name of this Association shall be the AMERICAN RAILWAY ENGINEERING
ASSOCIATION.
2. Object
The object of the Association shall be the advancement of knowledge pertaining
to the scientific and economic location, construction, operation and maintenance of
railways.
3. Means to be Used
The means to be used for this purpose shall be:
(a) The investigation of matters pertaining to the object of the Association
through Standing and Special Committees.
(b) Meetings for discussion of reports and papers.
(c) The publication of papers, reports and discussions.
4. Conclusions
The conclusions reached shall be recommendatory.
5. Location
The office of the Association shall be located in Chicago, Illinois.
Article II
Membership
1. Classes
The membership of this Association shall be divided into five classes: Members,
Life Members, Honorary Members, Associates and Junior Members.
2. Qualifications
A. General
(a) An applicant to be eligible for membership in any class other than that of
Junior Member shall be not less than twenty-five (25) years of age.
(b) To be eligible for election to or retention of membership as a Member or an
Associate, a person shall not be engaged directly and primarily in the sale to railways
of appliances, supplies, patents or patented services.
B. Member
A Member shall be:
(a) An Engineer or Officer in the service or on the retired list of a railway cor-
poration who has had not less than five (5) years' of experience in the location, con-
struction, operation or maintenance of railways.
Graduation in engineering from a school of recognized standing shall be considered
as equivalent to three (3) years of active practice, and the satisfactory completion of
10
Constitution 11
each year of work in such school, without graduation, shall be considered as equivalent
to one-half year of active practice.
(b) A Professor of Engineering in a university or college of recognized standing.
(c) An Engineer or Member of a public board or commission who in the discharge
of his regular duties deals with railway problems.
(d) An Engineering Editor of a magazine which deals primarily with railway
matters.
C. Life Member
A Life Member shall be a Member who has paid dues for thirty-five (35) years, or
who has been retired under a recognized retirement practice and has paid dues for not
less than twenty-five (25) years.
D. Honorary Member
(a) An Honorary Member shall be a person of acknowledged eminence in railway
engineering or management.
(b) The number of Honorary Members shall be limited to ten (10).
E. Associate
An Associate shall be:
(a) An Engineer of a railway which is essentially an adjunct of an industry or
which is used primarDy to transport the products and materials of an industry to and
from a railway which is a common carrier.
(b) A person qualified by training and experience to co-operate with Members
in the object of this Association but who is not qualified to become a Member.
F. Junior Member
(a) A Junior Member shall be not less than twenty-one (21) years of age and
shall be an engineering employee of a railway corporation who has had not less than
three (3) years of experience in the location, construction, operation or maintenance of
railways.
Graduation in engineering from a school of recognized standing shall be considered
as equivalent to three (3) years of active practice, and the satisfactory completion of
each year of work in such school without graduation, shall be considered as equivalent
to one-half year of active practice.
(b) His membership in this Association shall terminate at the end of the calendar
year in which he becomes thirty (30) years of age.
(c) He may make application for membership other than as a Junior Member at
any time when he becomes eligible to do so.
3. Transfers
The Board of Direction shall transfer from one class of membership to another,
or may remove from membership any person whose qualifications so change as to
warrant such action.
4. Rights
(a) Members and Life Members shall have all the rights and privileges of the
Association.
(b) Honorary Members shall have all the rights and privileges of the Association
except those of holding elective office, provided, however, that Members or Life Members
12 Constitution
who are elected Honorary Members shall retain all the rights and privileges of the
Association.
(c) Associates and Junior Members shall have all the rights and privileges of the
Association, except those of voting and holding elective office.
Article III
Admission, Resignation, Expulsion and Reinstatement
1. Charter Membership
The Charter Membership of this Association consists of all persons elected to mem-
bership before March ISth, 1900.
2. Application for Membership
(a) A person desirous of membership in this Association shall make application
upon the form provided by the Board of Direction. In the event that Junior Membership
is desired, the application shall so state.
(b) The applicant shall give the names of at least three Members of this Asso-
ciation to whom personally known. Each of such Members shall be requested by the
Secretary of the Association to certify to a personal knowledge of the applicant with an
opinion of the applicant's fitness or otherwise for membership.
(c) If an applicant is not personally known to three Members of this Association,
the names of at least three well known persons engaged in railway or allied professional
work to whom personally known shall be given instead. Each of such persons shall be
requested by the Secretary of the Association to certify to a personal knowledge of the
applicant with an opinion of the applicant's fitness or otherwise for membership.
(d) No further action shall be taken upon the application until replies have been
received from at least three of the persons named by the applicant as references.
3. Election to Membership
(a) Upon completion of the application in accordance with Section 2 of this Article
the Board of Direction through its Membership Committee shall consider the application
and make such investigation as it may consider desirable or necessary.
(b) Upon completion of such consideration and investigation, each member of the
Board of Direction shall be supplied with all the information obtained, together with the
recommendation of the Membership Committee as to the class of membership, if any,
to which the applicant is eligible and the admission of the applicant shall be canvassed by
letter ballot among the members of the Board of Direction.
(c) In the event that an application has been made under the provisions of Section 2,
Paragraphs (a) and (b) of this Article, a two-thirds affirmative vote of the entire Board
of Direction shall be required for election.
(d) In the event that an application has been made under the provisions of Section 2,
Paragraphs (a) and (c) of this Article, a unanimous affirmative vote of the entire Board
of Direction shall be required for election.
4. Subscription to the Constitution
A person elected to membership in this Association shall subscribe to its Constitution
on the form prescribed by the Board of Direction. If this provision has not been com-
plied with within six months of notice of election the election shall be considered null
and void.
5. Honorary Member
A proposal for Honorary Membership shall be endorsed by ten or more Members of
the Association and a copy furnished each member of the Board of Direction. The
Constitution 13
nominee shall be declared an Honorary Member upon receiving a unanimous vote of the
entire Board of Direction.
6. Resignation
The Board of Direction shall accept the resignation, tendered in writing, of any
person holding membership in the Association whose obligations to the Association have
been fully met.
7. Expulsion
Charges may be preferred in writing by ten or more Members against a person hold-
ing membership in the Association. The person complained of shall be served with a
copy of such charges and shall be given an opportunity to answer them to the Board of
Direction. After such opportunity has been given, the Board of Direction shall take
final action. A two-thirds affirmative vote of the entire Board of Direction shall be
required for expulsion.
8. Reinstatement
(a) A person having been a Member, an Associate or a Junior Member of this
Association and having resigned such membership while in good standing may be
reinstated by a two-thirds affirmative vote of the entire Board of Direction.
(b) A person having been a Member, an Associate or a Junior Member of this
Association and having forfeited membership under the provisions of Article IV, Sec-
tion 3, may, upon such conditions as may be fixed by the Board, be reinstated by a
two-thirds affirmative vote of the entire Board of Direction.
Article IV
Dues
1. Entrance Fee
(a) An entrance fee of ten dollars (.$10.00) shall be payable to the Association with
each application for membership other than Junior Membership. This sum shall be
returned to an appUcant not elected.
(b) No entrance fee shall be payable to the Association on account of Junior
Membership.
2. Annual Dues
(a) The annual dues for each Member and each Associate shall be ten dollars
($10.00).
(b) The annual dues for each Junior Member shall be five dollars ($5.00).
(c) Life Members and Honorary Members shall be exempt from the payment
of dues.
3. Arrears
A person whose dues are not paid before April 1st of the current year shall be
notified by the Secretary. If the dues are still unpaid on July 1st further notice shall
be given and a delinquent Member shall lose the right to vote. If the dues remain
unpaid October 1st the person shall be notified on the form prescribed by the Board of
Direction, and shall no longer receive the publications of the Association. If the dues
are not paid by December 31st, the person shall forfeit membership without further action
or notice, except as provided for in Section 4 of this Article.
14 Constitution
4. Remission of Dues
The Board of Direction may extend the time of payment of dues, and may remit
the dues of any Member, Associate or Junior Member who, for good reason, is unable
to pay them.
Article V
Officers
1. Officers
(a) The officers of the Association shall be a President, two Vice-Presidents, nine
Directors, a Secretary and a Treasurer.
(b) The President, the Vice-Presidents and the Directors, together with the five
latest living Past-Presidents continuing to be Members, shall constitute the Board of
Direction, in which the government of the Association shall be vested, and shall act as
Trustees and have the custody of all property belonging to the Association. The
President, the Vice-Presidents and the Directors shall be Members.
(c) The Secretary and the Treasurer shall be appointed by the Board of Direction.
2. Term of Office
The term of office of the President shall be one year, of the Vice-Presidents two
years and of the Directors three years. The term of each shall begin at the close of
the Annual Convention at which elected and continue until a successor is qualified.
All other officers and employees shall hold office or position during the pleasure of the
Board of Direction.
3. Officers Elected Annually
(a) There shall be elected at each Annual Convention a President, one Vice-
President and three Directors.
(b) The candidates for President and for Vice-President shall be selected from
the members or past members of the Board of Direction.
4. Conditions of Re-election of Officers
A President shall be ineligible for re-election. Vice-Presidents and Directors shall
not be eligible for re-election to the same office until at least one full term has elapsed
after the end of their respective terms.
5. Vacancies in Offices
(a) When a vacancy occurs in the office of President the duties shall be performed
by the senior Vice-President.
(b) When a vacancy occurs in the office of either Vice-President the Board of
Direction shall select a Vice-President from among the Directors. A Vice-Presidency
shall not be considered vacant when one of the Vice-Presidents is filling a vacancy in
the Presidency.
(c) A vacancy in the office of Director shall be filled by the Board of Direction.
(d) An incumbent in any office for an unexpired term shall be eligible for re-
election to the office held; provided however, that anyone appointed to fill a vacancy as
Director within six months after the term commences shall be considered as coming
within the provisions of Article V, Section 4.
Constitution IS
6. Vacation of Office
(a) When an elected officer ceases to be a Member of the Association, as provided
in Article II, the office shall be vacated.
(b) In case of the disability of or neglect in the performance of duty by an officer,
the Board of Direction, by a two-thirds affirmative vote of the entire Board, shall have
the power to declare the office vacant.
Article VI
Nomination and Election of Officers
1. Nominating Committee
(a) There shall bo a Nominating Committee composed of the five latest living
Past-Presidents of the Association, who are Members, and five Members who are not
officers.
(b) The five Members who are not officers shall be elected annually for a term
of one year, when the officers of the Association are elected.
(c) The senior Past-President who is a member of the Committee shall be the
Chairman of the Committee. In the absence of the senior Past-President from a meet-
ing of the Committee the Past-President next in seniority present shall act as Chairman.
2. Method of Nominating
(a) Prior to December 1st of each year the Chairman shall call a meeting of the
Committee at a convenient place, at which nominees for the various elective offices
shall be selected as follows:
Number of Candi-
Nuntber of Candi- dates to be
dates to be named elected at the
by the Nominating Annual Election
Office to be Filled Committee. of Officers.
President 1 1
Vice-President 1 1
Directors 9 3
Nominating Committee 10 S
(b) The Chairman of the Nominating Committee shall send the names of the
nominees to the President and Secretary not later than December iSth of the same year,
and the Secretary shall report them to the members of the Association on a printed
slip not later than January 1st following.
(c) At any time between January 1st and February 1st any ten or more Members
may send to the Secretary additional nominations for any elective office for the ensuing
year signed by such Members.
(d) If any person nominated shall be found by the Board of Direction to be
ineligible for the office for which nominated, or should a nominee decline such nomination,
the name shall be withdrawn. The Board of Direction may fill any vacancies that may
occur in the list of nominees up to the time the ballots are sent out.
3. Ballots Issued
Not less than thirty days prior to each Annual Convention, the Secretary shall issue
a ballot to each voting member of record in good standing, listing the several candidates
to be voted upon. When there is more than one candidate for any office, the names
16 Constitution
shall be arranged on the ballot in the order that shall be determined by lot by the
Nominating Committee. The ballot shall be accompanied by a statement giving for
each candidate, his record of membership and activities in this Association.
4. Substitution of Names
Members may erase names from the printed ballot list and may substitute the name
or names of any other person or persons eligible for any office, but the number of names
voted for each office on the ballot must not exceed the number to be elected at that
time to such office.
5. Ballots
(a) Ballots shall be placed in an envelope, sealed and endorsed with the name of
the voter, and mailed to or deposited with the Secretary at any time previous to the
closure of the polls.
(b) A voter may withdraw a ballot, and cast another, at any time before the polls
close.
(c) Ballots not endorsed or from persons not qualified to vote shall not be counted.
(d) The ballots and envelopes shall be preserved for not less than ten days after
the vote is canvassed.
6. Closure of Polls
The polls shall be closed at twelve o'clock noon on the second day of the Annual
Convention, and the ballots shall be counted by tellers appointed by the Presiding
Officer.
7. Election
(a) The persons who shall receive the highest number of votes for the offices for
which they are candidates shall be declared elected.
(b) In case of a tie between two or more candidates for the same office, the
Members present at the Annual Convention shall elect the officer by ballot from the
candidates so tied.
(c) The Presiding Officer shall announce at the convention the names of the
officers elected in accordance with this Article.
Article VII
Management
1. President
The President shall have general supervision of the affairs of the Association, shall
preside at meetings of the Association and of the Board of Direction, and shall be
ex-officio a member of all committees, except the Nominating Committee.
2. Vice-Presidents
The Vice-Presidents, in order of seniority, shall preside at meetings in the absence
of the President and shall discharge the duties in case of a vacancy in the office.
Constitution 17
3. Treasurer
The Treasurer shall receive all monies, deposit the same in the name of the
Association, receipt to the Secretary therefor and invest all funds not needed for current
disbursements as shall be ordered by the Board of Direction. The Treasurer shall pay
all bills, when properly certified and audited by the Finance Committee, and make such
reports as may be called for by the Board of Direction.
4. Secretary
The Secretary, shall be under the direction of the President and Board of Direction,
the Executive Officer of the Association and shall attend the meetings of the Association
and of the Board of Direction, prepare the business therefor, and duly record the
proceedings thereof. The Secretary shall see that the monies due the Association are
collected and without loss transferred to the custody of the Treasurer, and shall personally
certify to the accuracy of all bills or vouchers on which money is to be paid. The Sec-
retary is to conduct the correspondence of the Association, keep proper record thereof,
and perform such other duties as the Board of Direction may prescribe.
5. Auditing of Accounts
The accounts of the Treasurer and of the Secretary shall be audited annually by
an approved accountant under the direction of the Finance Committee of the Board
of Direction.
6. Board of Direction
(a) The Board of Direction shall manage the affairs of the Association, and shall
have full power to control and regulate all matters not otherwise provided in the
Constitution.
(b) The Board of Direction shall meet within thirty days after each Annual
Convention, and at such other times as the President may direct. Special meetings
shall be called on request, in writing, of five members of the Board of Direction.
(c) Seven members of the Board of Direction shall constitute a quorum.
(d) At the first meeting of the Board of Direction after the Annual Convention,
the following committees, each consisting of not less than three members, shall be
appointed by the President from the Board of Direction and they shall report to and
perform their duties under the supervision of the Board of Direction.
Finance
Publication
Outline of Work of Committees
Personnel of Committees
Membership
Manual
7. Duties of the Committees of the Board of Direction
(a) Finance Committee
The Finance Committee shall have immediate supervision of the accounts and
financial affairs of the Association; shall approve all bills before payment, and shall
make recommendations to the Board of Direction as to the investment of monies and
other financial matters. The Finance Committee shall not have the power to incur
debts or other obligations binding the Association, nor authorize the payment of money
18 Constitution
other than the amounts necessary to meet ordinary current expenses of the Association,
except by authority of the Board of Direction.
(b) Publication Committee
The Publication Committee shall have general supervision of the publications of
the Association. The Publication Committee shall not have the power to incur debts
or other obligations binding the Association, nor authorize the payment of money except
by authority of the Board of Direction.
(c)' Committee on Outline of Work of Committees
The Committee on Outline of Work of Committees shall prepare and present to the
Board of Direction a report of the subjects to be investigated, considered and reported
upon by the standing and special committees of the Association during the ensuing year.
(d) Committee on Personnel of Committees
The Committee on Personnel of Committees shall prepare and present to the Board
of Direction a list of chairman, vice-chairmen and members of the standing and special
committees of the Association for the ensuing year.
(e) Membership Committee
The Membership Committee shall make investigation of applicants for membership
and shall make recommendations to the Board of Direction with reference thereto.
(f) Manual Committee
The Manual Committee shall study and recommend to the Board of Direction as
to the manner in which the material adopted for addition or deletion from the Manual
shall be handled.
8. Standing Committees
The Board of Direction may appoint standing committees to investigate, consider
and report upon questions pertaining to railway location, construction, operation and
maintenance.
9. Special Committees
The Board of Direction may appoint special committees to examine into and
report upon any subject connected with the objects of this Association.
10. Discussion by Non-Members
The Board of Direction may invite discussions of reports from persons not members
of the Association.
11. Sanction of Act of Board of Direction
An act of the Board of Direction which shall have received the expressed or implied
sanction of the membership at the next annual convention of the Association shall be
deemed to be the act of the Association.
Article VIII
Meetings
1. Annual Convention
(a) The Annual Convention of the Association shall be held in the City of
Chicago, Illinois. The convention shall open on a Tuesday in the month of March to
be determined by the President.
Constitution 19
(b) The Secretary shall notify all members of the Association of the time and
place of the Annual Convention at least thirty (30) days in advance thereof.
(c) The order of business at the Annual Convention of the Association shall be:
Reading of the Minutes of the last meeting
Address of the President
Reports of the Secretary and the Treasurer
Reports of Committees
Unfinished Business
New Business
Installation of Officers
Adjournment
(d) This order of business may be changed by a majority vote of Members present.
(e) The proceedings shall be governed by "Robert's Rules of Order" except as
otherwise herein provided.
(f) Discussions shall be limited to members and to those others invited by the
Presiding Officer to speak.
2. Special Meetings
Special meetings of the Association may be called by the Board of Direction and
special meetings shall be so called by the Board of Directiom upon written request of
thirty Members. The request shall state the purpose of such meeting.
The call for such special meeting shall be issued not less than ten (10) days in
advance and shall state the purpose and place of the meeting. No other business shall
be taken up at such meeting.
3. Quorum
Twenty-five (25) Members shall constitute a quorum at all meetings of the
Association.
Article IX
Amendment
1. Amendment
Proposed Amendment of this Constitution shall be made in writing, shall be signed
by not less than ten Members and shall be acted upon in the following manner:
The amendment shall be presented to the Secretary, who shall send a copy to each
member of the Board of Direction as soon as received. If a majority of the entire
Board of Direction so votes the matter shall be submitted to the Association by letter-
baUot.
The Board of Direction shall canvass the ballots which have been received within
sixty days after the date of issue of the letter-ballot and if two-thirds (%) of the votes
so received are in the affirmative the amendment shall be declared adopted and shall
become immediately effective.
The result shall be announced at the next Annual Convention.
20 General Information
GENERAL INFORMATION
(Revised to March, 1941.)
GENERAL RULES FOR THE PREPARATION, PUBLICATION AND
CONSIDERATION OF COMMITTEE REPORTS
(A) Appointment of Committees and Outline of Work
Standing Committees
1. The following are Standing Committees:
1. Roadway and Ballast.
3. Ties.
4. Rail.
5. Track.
6. Buildings.
7. Wood Bridges and Trestles.
8. Masonry.
9. Highways.
10. Signals and Interlocking.
11. Records and Accounts.
13. Water Service, Fire Protection and Sanitation.
14. Yards and Terminals.
15. Iron and Steel Structures.
16. Economics of Railway Location and Operation.
17. Wood Preservation.
18. Electricity.
20. Uniform General Contract Forms.
22. Economics of Railway Labor.
24. Cooperative Relations with Universities.
25. Waterways and Harbors.
26. Standardization.
27. Maintenance of Way Work Equipment.
28. Clearances.
Special Committees
2. Special Committees will be appointed from time to time, as may be deemed
expedient, in the manner prescribed by Article VII, Section 9, of the Constitution.
The following are Special Committees:
Waterproofing of Railway Structures.
Impact.
Personnel of Committees
3. The personnel of all committees will continue from year to year, except when
changes are announced by the Board of Direction. It is desirable that ten percent of the
membership of each committee be changed each year.
Members of committees who do not attend meetings of committees during the year
or render service by correspondence will be relieved and the vacancies filled by the
Board at the succeeding annual convention.
Outline of Work
4. As soon as practicable after the reports of committees for the current year have
been filed with the secretary, the Board of Direction will assign to the committees,
subjects which in its judgment should preferably be considered during the succeeding
year, provided, however, that such assignments may be subject to revision until the close
of the Annual Convention. Such assignments should not be deviated from except in
extreme cases and then not until approved by the Committee on Outline of Work.
♦Committee 12 — Rules and Organization and the Special Committee on Stresses in Railroad Track
have been discontinued by action of the Board of Direction. The Committee on Research Administration
will supervise investigations on track stresses.
General Information 21
_ , (B) Preparation of Committee Reports
General
5. The objectives of the Association are advanced through the work of the com-
mittees in two ways — (1) the development of useful information pertinent to their assign-
ments to be presented to the Association "as information", and (2) the formulation of
recommended practices to be submitted for adoption and publication in the Manual.
(a) Whether the report on any particular assignment should take the form of
"information" or a "recommended practice", depends largely on the nature of the assign-
ment. Some assignments will be fulfilled completely by the presentation of information;
others call for information in support of appended recommendations that are submitted
for adoption. In still other cases, the primary objective is a comprehensive statement of
recommended practices, but the development of these recommended practices may entail
investigation or research work, the results of which are of such importance as to war-
rant their presentation as information prior to the submission of the recommendations.
In some cases, also, it may be advisable to submit as information matter in the form of
recommended practice, with a view to inviting suggestions and criticisms that may serve
as the basis for revisions prior to the resubmission of the matter for adoption a year later.
Planning the Work
6. In pursuing the work on any assignment, the first step is necessarily one of fact
finding, including (a) a study of available literature on the subject, particularly reports
of previous investigations, (b) a compilation of current practice, especially recent changes
in practice, and (c) resort to original tests or experimentation, after a canvass of all
other sources of information indicates that research work is necessary.
Collection of Data
(a) Committees are privileged to obtain data or information in any proper way.
If desired, the secretary will issue circulars of inquiry, which should be brief and concise.
The questions asked should be specific and pertinent, and not of such general or involved
character as to preclude the possibiUty of obtaining satisfactory and prompt responses.
They should specify to whom answers are to be sent, and should be in such form that
copies can be retained by persons replying either by typewriter or blueprint.
(b) Requests for appropriations for the conduct of research work should be sent
to the secretary with a supporting statement setting forth: (a) the nature of the infor-
mation sought; (b) how the railroads are adversely affected by the lack of this informa-
tion; (c) the estimated cost of the investigation; (d) the estimated time to complete the
work; (e) the basis for assuming that the investigation will produce the data desired;
and, (f) an estimate of the savings to be realized or other advantages to accrue from the
successful completion of the investigations. A request for funds to continue or complete
an investigation shall include a statement of the results obtained to date.
Reports
7. Committees should pursue their investigations on all assignments but are expected
to present progress or final reports for publication only on those assignments regarding
which pertinent information has been developed.
(a) Committees are privileged to present the results of any special study or investi-
gation they may be engaged upon in connection with their assignments that may be
considered of sufficient importance to warrant presentation.
(b) Reports of information, supplementing previous reports of progress, may include
a brief review of matter previously presented, but should avoid extended repetition of
such matter.
21 General Information
(c) Matter offered for adoption and publication in the Manual should be submitted
in full, regardless of its publication in previous years unless the matter being offered
appeared in identical form not more than one year before being submitted for adoption.
(d) Illustrations accompanying reports should, when possible, be prepared so that
they can be reproduced on one page. The use of inserts should be avoided.
(e) One of the most important duties of each committee is to examine its own
subject-matter in the Manual each year and submit such revisions of or supplements to
the Manual as are deemed necessary to keep it up to date. New matter for publication
in the Manual and revisions thereof must be submitted in the form and manner specified
in the General Rules for Publication of the Manual.
Form of Reports
8. Committee reports shall be prepared in accordance with the Instructions published
in the annual pamphlet of committee assignments and personnel.
(C) Publication of Reports
Dates for Filing and Publication of Reports
9. For the convenience of those attending the convention, the reports of committees
to be presented at any session of the annual convention will be published, so far as pos-
sible, in the same bulletin. To carry out this plan requires a careful scheduling of the
filing of reports and the publication of bulletins, and the arrangement of the convention
program. It is of utmost importance that chairmen file complete reports of their com-
mittees on or before the dates specified on the schedule furnished them.
Written Discussions
10. Written discussions of published reports will be transmitted to the chairman of
the interested committee who will read or present them by title or in abstract at the
convention. Written discussions will be published in the Proceedings as a part of the
discussion of the committee reports.
Verbal Discussions
11. Each speaker's remarks will be submitted to him in writing before publication
in the Proceedings, for the correction of diction and errors of reporting, but not for the
elimination of remarks.
Seauence ^^^ Consideration of Committee Reports
12. The sequence in which committee reports will be considered by the convention
will be determined by the Board of Direction.
Method
13. Reports offered as information will be presented by title or by a brief outline of
the contents. Comments or criticisms may be offered from the floor upon invitation from
the presiding officer.
14. Matter submitted for adoption and publication in the Manual may receive
consideration by one of the following procedures:
(a) Reading by title.
(b) Reading, discussing and acting upon each conclusion separately.
(c) By majority vote, discussion will be had on each item. Clauses not objected to
when read will be considered as voted upon and adopted.
General Information 23
Action on Reports
IS. No formal action is to be taken by the convention on matter submitted as
information, whether in the form of a progress or final report.
Action on matter submitted for adoption and publication in the Manual will be
one of the following:
(a) Adoption as a whole as presented.
(b) Affirmative action on the amendment of a part or parts of the matter presented,
followed by adoption as a whole, as amended.
(c) Adoption of a part, complete in itself, and referring of remainder back to the
committee.
(d) Recommittal with or without instructions.
Note. — An amendment which affects underlying principles, if adopted, shall of itself
constitute a recommittal of such part of the report as the committee considers affected.
The Chair will decline to entertain amendments which in his opinion are primarily
a matter of editing.
(E) Publication of Abstracts by Technical Journals
The following rules will govern the releasing of matter for publication in technical
journals:
Committee reports, requiring action by the Association at the annual convention,
will not be released until after presentation to the convention ; special articles, contributed
by members and others, on which no action by the Association is necessary, are to be
released for publication by the technical journals after issuance in the bulletin; provided,
application therefor is made in writing and proper credit be given the Association,
authors or committees presenting such material.
GENERAL RULES FOR PUBLICATION OF THE MANUAL
Title
1. The title of the volume will be "Manual of the American Railway Engineering
Association."
2. The Board of Direction shall have the authority to withhold from publication
any matter which it shall consider as not desirable to publish, or as not being in proper
shape, or as not having received proper study and consideration.
Contents
3. The matter adopted by the Association for publication in the Manual shall be
considered Recommended Practice, but shall not be binding on the members. Recom-
mended Practice, as defined by the Board of Direction (May 20, 1936) is a material,
device, plan, specification or practice recommended to the railways for use as required,
either exactly as presented or with such modifications as may be necessary or desirable
to meet the needs of individual railways, but in either event, with a view to promoting
efficiency or economy, or both, in the location, construction, operation or maintenance
of railways.
Requisites for Adoption
4. The Manual will include only such matter as has been made the subject of a
special study by a standing or special committee and embodied in a committee report,
pubUshed not less than thirty days prior to the Annual Convention, and submitted by
the committee to the Annual Convention, and which, after due consideration and dis-
24 General Information
cussion, shall have been voted on and formally adopted by the Association. Subjects
which, in the opinion of the Board of Direction shall be reviewed by the Association
of American Railroads, may be referred to that association before being published in
the Manual.
5. All conclusions included in the Manual must be in concise and proper shape for
publication, as the Manual will consist only of a summary record of the definitions,
specifications and principles of practice adopted by the Association, with a brief reference
to the published Proceedings of the Association for the context of the committee report
and subsequent discussion and the final action of the Association.
Revision
6. Any matter published in the Manual may be amended or withdrawn by vote
at any subsequent Annual Convention, provided such changes are proposed in time for
publication not less than thirty days prior to the Annual Convention, and in the fol-
lowing manner: (a) upon recommendation of the committee in charge of the subject;
(b) upon recommendation of the Board of Direction; (c) upon request of five members,
made to the Board of Direction.
7. Revisions of or additions to the Manual authorized by action at each convention
will be published annually in the form of loose-leaf sheets which will be made available
to all holders of the Manual. These supplemental sheets will be accompanied by instruc-
tions for insertion of the new sheets and the withdrawal of sheets that have been super-
seded, as well as those that have been withdrawn by action of the Association.
Report of Committee 26 — Standardization
F, L. Nicholson,
Chairman,
J. E. Armstrong
F. L. C. Bond
A. E. BOTTS
John Foley
W. H. Penpeeld
W. G. Arn
L. H. Lapfoley
H. M. Church
J. F. Leonard
J. G. Brennan
H. G. Morgan
C. A. Knowles
W. T. Dorrance
B. W. DeGeer
C. H. Mottier
R. A. Van Ness
H. M. Stout
H. R. Duncan*
H. F. Brown
W. G. Nusz
G. M. O'Rourke
G. P. Palmer
G. R. Westcott
Dr. a. N. Talbot
A. R. Wllson
J. A. Lahmer
J. B. Hunley
Committee
* Appointed to succeed C. F. Ford, chairman of Committee 17 — Wood Preservation, who died on
June 9, 1940.
To the American Railway Engineering Association:
Your committee reports on the following assignments:
1. What AREA recommended practices should be advocated for general use on
railways ?
Your committee submitted to the membership at the 1940 convention a tabulation
of recommended practices and urged their adoption insofar as possible by the railroads
represented in the Association. Such use, it is believed, will result in economies in con-
struction and maintenance and most satisfactory performance.
The committee makes no additional recommendations at this time.
2. What AREA recommended practices should be sponsored as subjects for national
standardization ?
The recommended practices as adopted and printed in the Manual are largely for
the benefit of the railroad industry, and with possibly few exceptions are not subjects to
be sponsored for national standardization through the American Standards Association
or like organizations.
The committee has no recommendations to make at this time.
3. Maintain contact with standardization bodies and keep the Association informed
on important matters developed by such contact.
The interests of this Association are cared for by duly appointed representatives to
these national organizations. The committee furnished to the members in its report at
the 1940 convention, a hst of members representing this Association on the committees
of the American Standards Association and on the committees of the American Society
for Testing Materials.
The changes during the year in representation on committees of the American
Standards Association are as follows:
.45^4 Projects:
Bl — Screw Threads, Standardization and Unification of,
Committee 4— Rail (C. & M. Section)!
C. B. Bronson appointed representative to replace J. V. Neubert, deceased
t As this representation is sponsored by the AAR, the AREA committees are designated as repre-
senting the Construction and Maintenance Section.
Bulletin 420, November, 1940.
25
26 Standardization
B18 — Bolt, Nut and Rivet Proportions
Committee 4— Rail (C. & M. Section)
C. B. Bronson appointed representative to replace J. V. Neubert, deceased;
R. T. Scholes appointed alternate to succeed J. B. Myers
Committee IS — Iron and Steel Structures (C. & M. Section)
O. E. Selby appointed to replace P. G. Lang, Jr., deceased
The representation of the AAR on Standards Council of the American Standards
Association has been changed as follows:
Principals
A. R. Wilson (Engineering Division), term extended to December 31, 1942
Alternates
A. L. Sorensen (Purchases and Stores Division) replaces C. B. Tobey
J. D. Rogers (Operating- — Transportation Division) appointed
The Canadian Engineering Standards Association, through Mr. W. R. McCaffrey,
its secretary, reports the pubhcation during the year of new standards or revisions of
existing standards, as follows:
AS —1940— Portland Cement (3rd Edition)
AS7— 1940— High Early Strength Portland Cement (included in AS— 1940)
B12— 1939— Galvanized Steel Wire Strand (2nd Edition)
B53 — 1939 — Code for Identification of Piping Systems
C14— 1939— Reinforced Concrete Poles (2nd Edition)
The following standards have been the subject of discussion by appropriate com-
mittees during the past year and such progress has been made that it is anticipated
revised standards will be published during the year, as follows:
Al — 1928 — Steel Railway Bridges (Revision)
A16 — 1930 — Steel Structures for Buildings (Revision)
(New edition will be S16— 1940)
A23 — 1929 — Concrete and Reinforced Concrete (Revision)
SS9 —Metallic Arc Welding (Bridges and Buildings)
The American Society for Testing Materials, through Mr. C. L. Warwick, secretary,
reports the following changes:
Committee AS on Iron and Steel
AREA Committee 13 — ^Water Service, Fire Protection and Sanitation
Ray McBrian appointed to replace J. J. Laudig as representative; W. L.
Curtiss appointed alternate
Committee C9 on Concrete and Concrete Aggregates
AREA Committee 8 — Masonry
C. P. Marsh appointed representative to succeed W. K. Hatt
Committee D7 on Timber
AREA Committee 17 — Wood Preservation
Add Dr. Hermann von Schrenk, to correct error of omission in last
report to the Association
Committee C4 on Clay Pipe
AREA Committee 1 — Roadway and Ballast
Add W. C. Swartout, appointed
Standardization 27
The report of Committee Al on Steel presented at the 1940 annual meeting included
five new tentative specifications — one on factory-made wrought carbon-steel and carbon-
molybdenum-steel welding fittings, and four covering carbon and alloy-steel forgings.
respectively, for general industrial and railroad use. An addition was made in the carbon-
steel specifications for general industrial use providing a grade for use in bridges with a
minimum tensile strength of 66,000 lb. per sq. in., and a yield point of 33,000 lb. per
sq. in.
Committee Cl on Cement recommended new specifications for Portland cement
comprising five types. These include one for use in general construction, another for high
early strength, one for use when a low heat of hydration is required, one for use when
high sulfate resistance is required, and one for use when special properties of the three
latter types are not required. It is expected that the new tentative standard will replace
the present Standard Specifications for Portland Cement (C9 — 38) and for High Early
Strength Portland Cement {C7A — 39).
This report is submitted as information.
The Committee on Standardization,
F. L. Nicholson, Chairman.
Report of Committee 18 — Electricity
H. F. Brown, Chairman, W. L. Morse D. B. Thompson, Vice-
D. J. Brumley R. J. Needham Chairman,
D. M. BuRCKETT S. R. Negley W. M. Vandersluis
F. W. Gardiner A. E. Owen R. P. Winton
Paul Lebenbaum H. W. Pinkerton Committee
To the American Railway Engineering Association:
Your committee reports on the following subjects:
1. Developments in the application of electricity to railway service.
Progress report, presented as information below.
2. The principal current activities of the Electrical Section, Engineering Division,
AAR, by synopsis, supplemented with list and reference by number of adopted specifi-
cations, designs and principles of practice.
Progress report, presented as information page 29.
The Committee on Electricity,
D. B. Thompson, Vice-Chair man.
Report on Assignment 1
Developments in the Application of Electricity to Railway Service
During the past year there have been very few new developments. There has, how-
ever, been a widening of the usefulness of previous development, thereby providing the
railroads with several more ways in which electricity can be made to serve them.
For electrified roads using direct current, the ignition rectifier is proving an efficient
and desirable conversion unit.
The recently developed air-blast circuit breaker and other makes of breakers in
which the arc is interrupted in air (thus obviating the use of any insulating oil) should
be of interest on railroads where heavy alternating currents must be handled.
Plate type rectifiers for quiet and efficient battery charging are being favorably
received. They are available in portable and stationary types for charging batteries on
shop and baggage trucks, and on passenger cars. In addition, small units have been
developed for mounting underneath passenger cars.
The a.c. transformer type welder is finding broad fields of usefulness in railroad
shops for many classes of work.
Lowered cost of lamps and accessories, plus lengthened lamp life, has increased the
advantages of fluorescent and high intensity mercury vapor lighting. Improved illumi-
nation with lower power consumption makes it well suited for use in offices, stations,
shops and passenger cars. Lamps for 64-volt d.c. operation are now available, and
improved inverters are furthering the use of 110- volt a.c. units on passenger cars.
For greater passenger comfort, electrically refrigerated drinking water coolers are
now available in several different types for installation on passenger cars.
Bulletin 420, November, 1940.
28
Electricity 29
Floodlighting, which has long been used in railroad yards, is now being applied to
highway grade crossings in an effort to further reduce accidents.
The severe weather that was experienced in many localities last winter has shown
the need for a more extensive use of tubular type track switch heaters. They have been
remarkably successful in keeping important interlockings free from trouble due to frozen
switch points.
In the field of switching engines, the Diesel-electric switching locomotive has demon-
strated its merits from the standpoint of both economy and availability.
Where fine dust or pollen is objectionable, the electrostatic air cleaner is efficient and
may prove a desirable adjunct to air conditioning systems in offices and restaurants.
The use of rubber either in the form of molded material or rubber coating of metal,
is being promoted in connection with the insulation of third rails and running rails for
the purpose of preventing electrolytic action as well as to provide voltage protection.
There seems to be a considerable field and a demand for this form of rubber insulation
and future studies and developments will result in a more general use.
Report on Assignment 2
The Principal Current Activities of the Electrical Section,
Engineering Division
The reports of the committees of the Electrical Section, Engineering Division, have
been published in Bulletin 419, September-October, 1940, and are therefore merely
summarized here.
Power Supply. — In general, the assignments to this committee cover the relative
economy and advantages of Diesel-electric power and purchased power; electrical power
supply design for air conditioning and battery charging service; consolidation of meter-
ing, and form of contract for the purchase of electrical energy for other than traction
purposes, as well as to study the feasibility of a standard electric power supply for
electric traction.
Electrolysis. — The purpose of this committee is to report on the various practices
of electrified railroads in preventing leakage of stray currents through the foundations
and guys of catenary supported structures; to report on the electrolytic corrosion of
insulation hardware; to study the methods used on various railroads and other utihties
for handling their electrolysis problems in regard to organization, period of surveys and
equipment used; to report on the methods of protection applied to foreign cables and
other similar structures where they enter the railroad right-of-way.
Electric Heating and Welding. — The committee report covers the use of thermal
pliers for producing low-voltage high-amperage current from standard a.c. distribution
circuits. They find their principal use in localized heating, such as sweating terminal lugs
and copper tubing joints. The committee also reports on the comparative advantages and
disadvantages of a.c. 60-cycle and 180-cycle, and d.c. rectifiers, motor generators and
other equipment and methods of control used in welding. There is also a report on
recent developments in snow melting equipment and its installation, as well as a report
on the prevention of the formation of sleet on transmission wires.
Application of Motors. — This is a report of a joint committee comprised of repre-
sentatives of the Electrical sections of the Mechanical and Engineering divisions. It
covers the inspection and maintenance of motors, as well as repair shop practice ; a report
30 Electricity
on alternating-current commercial electric motor characteristics; motor control for
various types of equipment and the design of motor supply circuits.
Clearances for Third-Rail and Overhead Working Conductors. — This committee has
prepared a clearance diagram, entitled Clearance Lines for Pantograph, Catenary Con-
struction and Adjacent Permanent Way Structures. The diagram presented last year as
information was presented in revised form at the annual meeting of the Electrical
Section on October 29, 1940, and, in accordance with action taken, will be submitted to
the Member Roads for letter ballot approval.
Track and Third-Rail Bonds. — This is a progress report presented as information
only, and includes a study of detail bond design with the view of developing specij&ca-
tions for welded bonds; information concerning rail joint clearance and its effect on rail
bond design, including experience with various types of bonds; and a report on various
methods of welding, using gas or electricity, or by brazing, types of electrodes and their
chemical composition, best suited to each method.
Illumination. — The committee report touches on fluorescent lighting for offices,
drafting rooms, etc., and also on the availability and types of drying lamps which were
discussed last year under the caption "Heating Lamps".
High Tension Cables. — The report contains information concerning the selection,
handUng and maintenance of high tension cables.
Application of Corrosion-Resisting Materials to Railroad Electrical Construction. —
The report of this committee covers a continuation of the study of corrosion-resisting
materials as installed at Lambert Point on the Norfolk & Western Railway, with a view
of obtaining qualitative and quantitative data on the service life of various metals.
In conclusion, attention is directed to the interest shown by the various committees
in the effort being made to avoid duplication in the work of different sections of the
AAR concerned with the use of electricity. The committees have collaborated with
various committees of other sections for the purpose of avoiding such duplication as
well as obtaining valuable suggestions from other sections interested in the same subject.
Report of Committee 10 — Signals and Interlocking
H. G. Morgan, Chairvian,
F. H. Bagley
G. H. Dryden
W. J. EcK
W. H. Elliott
P. M. Gault
W. N. Hartman
C. R. HODGDON
J. C. Mock
R. D. Moore
F. W. Pfleging
W. M. Post
A. H. RuDD
J. E. Saunders
H. H. Orr, Vice-Chairman,
H. L. Stanton
E. G. Stradling
G. K. Thomas
C. H. Tillett
W. M. Vandersluis
F. B. Wiegand
Committee
To the American Railway Engineering Association:
Your committee reports on the following subjects:
1. Developments in railway signaling.
No report; no developments worthy of mention have taken place since the annual
meeting in 1940.
2. The principal current activities of the Signal Section, AAR, by synopsis, supple-
mented with list and reference, by number, of adopted specifications, designs and
principles of practice.
Progress report — presented as information.
The Committee on Signals and Interlocking,
H. G. Morgan, Chairman.
Report on Assignment 2
The Principal Current Activities of the Signal Section,
AAR, by Synopsis
Supplemented With List and References by Number of Adopted
Specifications, Designs and Principles of Signaling Practice
W. M. Post (chairman, subcommittee), G. H. Dryden, W. J. Eck, J. C. Mock, W. N.
Hartman, C. H. Tillett.
Current Activities of the Signal Section, AAR, Since November 1939
There are now available 23 of a series of 24 pamphlets on American Railway Signal-
ing Principles and Practices, prepared for the education of signal men and others desir-
ing to study this subject.
The work performed during the fiscal year of 1939 and reported at the 1940 Annual
Meeting covers the following subjects:
1. Costs involved in stopping trains — progress report.
2. Costs (other than fuel and water) involved in stopping trains.
3. Additions and revisions to Chapter III — Principles and Economic Phase of
Signahng.
4. Economy in signaling construction and maintenance costs by using 78-ft. rails
instead of 39-ft. rails.
Bulletin 420, November, 1940.
31
32 Signals and Interlocking
5. Economy of slide detector fences.
6. Train operation by signal indication.
7. Economic value of car retarders — progress report.
8. Economic value of electrically lighted lamps.
9. Mechanical facing point locks for spring switches — ^progress report.
10. Protection of traffic against slides and rock falls.
11. Switch, frog and crossing layout plans — collaborating with AREA Committee S.
12. Summary of automatic train control and automatic cab signals in the United
States as of January 1, 1940.
13. Applications to the Interstate Commerce Commission for modification of signals,
etc.
14. Hearings before the Interstate Commerce Commission.
15. Activities of radio communication for railroad purposes — cooperative report.
16. Interstate Commerce Commission rules, standards and instructions for installa-
tion, inspection, maintenance and repair of automatic block signal systems, interlocking,
centralized traffic control systems, automatic cab signal systems continuously controlled,
dragging equipment and slide detectors and other similar protective devices; other simi-
lar appliances, methods, and systems.
17. Devices and methods to control automatic signals or special signals for the
protection of traffic against high water at vulnerable points and fires at bridges and
trestles.
18. PossibiUty of hazard or false operation resulting from the use of rail fissure
detector cars and recommended protective measures.
19. Protection against lightning — progress report.
20. Development of proposed inductive coordination measures involving railroad
power lines and power equipment — progress report.
21. Tables showing capacity available in various types of storage and primary
batteries at solution temperatures ranging from zero degree to 100 deg. F.
22. Electric insulating materials in general — cooperative report.
23. General classification for signal interruptions.
24. Illumination of crossings.
25. Corrective measures to minimize or eliminate phantom indications of flashing
light signals.
26. Modifications of the National Electrical Safety Code to avoid confliction with
recognized signal practice.
27. Noteworthy changes in signal practices.
Revised Specifications Submitted to Letter Ballot
Old No. New No.
Channel Pins 23-39 23-40
Installation of Made Ground for Protection Against Abnormal
Potentials 60-39 60-40
Electric-Pneumatic Interlocking 6733 67-40
Signal Glasses (exclusive of kerosene hand lantern globes) 69-39 69-40
Multiple-Conductor Rubber-Insulated Cable with Weather-
Resistant or Flame-Retarding Braid Covering 89-39 89-40
Multiple-Conductor, Rubber-Insulated, Submarine Cable, Lead
Sheathed and Round Steel Armored 90-39 90-40
Single and Multiple-Conductor, Rubber-Insulated Lead Sheathed
Cable 91_39 9i_40
Signal s and Interlocking
33
Old No.
Zero-Degree Fahrenheit Lubricating Oil, Summer Grade 102-39
Forty-Five Degrees Below Zero Fahrenheit Lubricating Oil,
Winter Grade 103-39
Single-Conductor, Rubber-Insulated Wire and Cable with Flame-
Retarding, Moisture-Resistant Braid Covering or Weather-
Resistant Braid Covering 11 1-39
Paint and Painting 120-39
Circuit Controller for Drawbridges 130-39
Track Circuit Rail Bonding 135-39
Single and Multiple-Conductor, Rubber-Insulated, Lead-Covered
Parkway Cable Armored with Flat Steel or Zinc Tape 145-39
Car Retarder System 147-35
Electro-Pneumatic Switch Operating Mechanism 152-39
Railroad Highway Grade Crossing Signs 155-39
Reflector Unit 156-39
Single and Multiple-Conductor, Rubber-Insulated, Non-MetalUc
Sheath Cable 161-39
Tractive Armature Direct-Current Polarized Relay 165-39
Copper-Covered Steel Line Wire with or without Weather-
Resistant Covering 167-39
Copper Alloy Line Wire with or without Weather-Resistant
Covering 168-39
Hard-Drawn Copper Line Wire with or without Weather-Resistant
Covering 169-39
Interlocking at Drawbridges for the Protection of Train Movements 175-38
Weather-Resistant Braid Covering for Insulated Wire and Cable 182-39
Enameled Round Copper Magnet Wire 193-40
Copper-Bearing Steel Line Wire with or without Weather-Resistant
Covering 196-40
* (Old title Specification for Galvanized Copper Bearing Steel Line Wire.)
Revised Drawings Submitted to Letter Ballot
Pipe Adjusting Screws (details and assembly) 1002
Forged Cranks (details) 1007
Screw and Solid Jaws (details) 1016B
Jaws — Tang End and Adjustable Link (details and assembly) 1019B
Multiple Unit Terminal Block 1054A
Ball Studs (details and assemblies) 12S4A
Ball Socket Screw Jaw 12S4A
Switch Circuit Controller Lug 125SC
Switch Circuit Controller Rods 12S6A
Plunger Switch Lock — Rectangular Plunger 142SC
Plunger Switch Lock-Details — Rectangular Plunger 1426C
Highway Crossing Gate and Slow Track Sign Lamp Hangers 1496
Method of Applying Compensation 1536
Highway Crossing Signal Assembly — Wig- Wag Type 1651B
Highway Crossing Signal Assembly — Wig- Wag Type 1652B
Highway Crossing Signal Assembly — Flashing Light Type 1653B
New No.
102-40
103-40
111-40
120-40
130-40
135-^0
145-40
147^0
152-40
155-40
156-40
161-40
165-40
167-40
168-40
169-40
175-40
182-40
1002B
1007B
1016C
1019 C
10S4B
1271A
1272A
12SSD
1256B
1425D
1426 D
1496B
1536B
1651C
1652C
1653C
34 Signals and Interlocking ■
Old No. New No.
Highway Crossing Signal Assembly — Flashing Light Type 1654B 1654C
Highway Crossing Flashing Light Signal Assembly — Cantilever Type 1686 A 1686B
Highway Crossing Sign— SO-Deg. Reflector Type 1691A 1691B
Revised Requisites Submitted to Letter Ballot
Automatic Block SignaUng Circuits
Automatic Block Signaling Systems (Old title Requisites for Automatic Block Signal
System)
Centrahzed Traffic Control. (Old title Requisites for CentraHzed Traffic Control System)
Highway Grade Crossing Signals
Interlocking (Consolidation of old Requisites for Interlocking System, and Require-
ments for the Protection of Traffic at Movable Bridges)
Mechanically Locking the Levers of Interlocking Machines
Minimizing the Effect of Foreign Current on Direct-Current Track Circuits
Track Welding or Heat Treating in Track Circuit Territory
Revised Instructions Submitted to Letter Ballot
Alternating-Current Relays (Old title Instructions for Inspecting, Testing and Maintain-
ing Alternating-Current Relays)
Alternating-Current Track Circuits (Old title Instructions for Maintenance and Opera-
tion of Alternating-Current Track Circuits)
Car Retarder Systems (Old title Instructions for Maintaining and Testing Car Retarder
Systems)
Copper-Oxide Caustic Soda Primary Cells (Old title Instructions for Installation and
Maintenance of Copper-Oxide Caustic Soda Primary Cells)
Direct-Current Track Circuits (Old title Instructions for Maintenance and Operation of
Direct- Current Track Circuits)
Electric Lamps (Old title Instructions for Maintaining and Testing Electric Lamps)
Insulated Rail Joints (Old title Instructions for Inspecting, Testing and Maintaining
Insulated Rail Joints)
Insulation Resistance (Old title Measurement of Insulation Resistance)
Interlocking (Consohdation of old Instructions for Maintaining and Testing Interlocking
Plants; Signal Maintenance; and Inspecting and Testing Mechanical Locking of an
Interlocking Machine)
Light and Motor Semaphore Signals (Consolidation of old Instructions for Maintaining
and Testing Motor Semaphore Signals, and Maintaining and Testing Light Signals)
Rectifiers and Motor-Generators (Old title Instructions for Maintaining and Operating
Rectifiers)
Resistance of Made Grounds (Old title A.R.A. Sig. Sec. 1377B — Methods of Measuring
Ground Resistance)
Spring Switches (Old title Instructions for Maintaining, Inspecting and Testing Spring
Switches)
Storage Batteries (Consolidation of old Instructions for Installation, Maintenance and
Operation of Nickel, Iron, Alkaline Storage Batteries, and Installation, Maintenance
and Operation of Lead Acid Type Storage Batteries)
Switch Circuit Controllers (Old title Instructions for Inspecting, Testing and Maintain-
ing Switch Circuit Controllers)
Signals and Interlocking 3£
Tractive Armature Direct-Current Relays (Old title Instructions for Inspecting, Testing
and Maintaining Direct-Current Relays)
Wire and Cable (Old title Instructions for Handling Insulated Wires and Cables)
Revised Miscellaneous Matter Submitted to Letter Ballot
Definition for Technical Terms Used in Signaling
Form of Agreement for Interlocking Plant
Joint Signal Facilities — Construction Cost Detail
Performance Report — Automatic Highway Grade Crossing Protection — A.A.R. Sig. Sec.
7054
Stringing Tensions for New Suspension Strand with Various Sizes of Cables (Old title
Recommended Sags for Messenger Wire)
New Specifications Submitted to Letter Ballot
No.
Air Depolarized Carbon Caustic Soda Primary Cell 172-40
Fusible Asphaltic Base Sealing Compound for Protecting Wire Entrances, Out-
lets, Sleeves, Potheads, etc., Against the Entrance of Moisture 184-40
Cold Application Compound for Closing Wire Entrances and Openings 188-40
Tantalum Rectifiers and Valves 189-40
Flashing Light Signal Lamp Unit 190^40
Flame-Retarding, Moisture-Resistant Braid Covering for Insulated Wire and
Cable 191-40
Single-Conductor, Asbestos Varnished-Cambric Insulated Signal Wire with
Flame-Retarding Braid Covering 192-40
Cotton-Covered Round Copper Magnet Wire 194-40
Silk-Covered Round Copper Magnet Wire 195-40
Metal Plating
Various Types of Steel
New Drawings Submitted to Letter Ballot
Electric Hand Lantern 1346A
Porcelain Covers (Air Depolarized Primary Battery) 141 7A
Base for Five-Inch Mast 1447A
Base for Five-Inch Mast 1448A
Crossing Gate Arm 1491A
Electric Hand Lantern Lens 1609A
New Requisites Submitted to Letter Ballot
A.C. and D.C. Coded Signal Systems
Fence for the Protection of Traffic Against Shdes and Rock Falls
New Instructions Submitted to Letter Ballot
Automatic Block Signaling Systems
Electric Locks for Interlocking Machines
Specifications Submitted to Letter Ballot for Removal from the Manual
No.
Galvanizing for Iron or Steel
Weatherproof Covering for Line Wire 163-39
36 Signals and Interlocking
Drawings Submitted to Letter Ballot for Removal from the Manual
No.
Method of Laying Single and Sewer Pipe Duct 1331
Duct Reducers, Mandrels, Duct Plugs and Dowel Pins 1332
Manhole Frame (Ten Inches High) and Cover 1333
Cable Hanger Sockets, Sewer Steps and Manhole Clevis 1334
Vitrified Clay Duct 1335
Method of Laying Single and Multiple Duct 1336
Concrete Manhole 1337
Brick Manhole 1338
Manhole Frame (Four Inches High) and Cover 1339
Adjustable Resistance (for Testing) 1422A
Requisites Submitted to Letter Ballot for Removal from the Manual
Protection by Signal in Emergencies
Switch Indicators
Instructions Submitted to Letter Ballot for Removal from the Manual
Maintaining and Handling Dry Cells
Installation and Operation of Switchboard
Miscellaneous Matter Submitted to Letter Ballot for Removal from the Manual
Table of Wires Required for Stranded and Flexible Conductors
Report of Committee 20 — Uniform General
Contract Forms
W. G. Nusz, Chairman, N. D. Hyde J. S. Lulie, V ice-Chairman,
E. H. Barnhart F. R. Layng C. B. Niehaus
Clark Dillenbeck S. L. Mapes H. A. Palmer
W. D. Faucette a. a. Miller W. M. Post
J. P. Hanley O. K. Morg.an W. R. Swatosh
B. Herman F. L. Nicholson E. L. Taylor
Committee
To the American Railway Engineering Association:
Your committee reports on the following subjects:
1. Revision of Manual.
At the request of the Electrical Section of the Engineering Division, a subcommittee
of Committee 20 has been collaborating with Committee 1 — Power Supply of the Elec-
trical Section in a comparison of the Form of Agreement for the Purchase of Electrical
Energy for Other than Traction Purposes (Manual page 20-101) with a tentative form
drawn up by the Committee on Power Supply, but it was deemed desirable to continue
the study before proposing any revision of the form now in the Manual.
2. Form of agreement for commercial signs on railway property.
A tentative form of this agreement was submitted at the last convention of the
Association. All suggestions received have been considered and the committee now pre-
sents a form of agreement for adoption as recommended practice page 39
3. Form of lease for air-right development.
No report. The committee has given this a great deal of study over the last two
years but is unable at this time to present a form of lease.
4. Form of agreement for wire or cable line crossings, collaborating with Committee
3 — Overhead Transmission Line and Catenary Construction, Electrical Section, Engi-
neering Division, AAR.
The committee has nothing to report on this assignment at the present time. Sug-
gestions received from the Rural Electrification Authority for revisions of the form
adopted by the Association on March 12, 1940, are being considered.
5. Form of agreement for unloading liquefied petroleum and other gases.
This contract was prepared at the request of the Association of American Railroads
to provide protection for handling these commodities. A form of agreement is submitted
for adoption as recommended practice page 41
The Committee on Uniform General Contract Forms,
W. G. Nusz, Chairman.
3Iame£f C. Srtoin
Committee 20 cannot close its transactions for the year without recording with the
deepest regret the death of Past-President James C. Irwin, at Newtonville, Mass., March
20, 1940.
Those who have had the opportunity of serving on Committee 20 during the past
quarter of a century were endeared to Mr. Irwin and have lost in his passing a friend
Bulletin 4J0, Novrmber, 1940.
37
38 Uniform General Contract Forms
and counselor whose achievements were many and whose position and work were a
Uving example to be followed by the members of the Association.
James Clark Irwin was born on September 23, 1868, at Cheyney, Delaware County,
Pa., the son of WilUam Henry and Catherine (Browning) Irwin. He attended the Protes-
tant Episcopal Academy at Philadelphia and was graduated from the University of
Pennsylvania in 1890 with the degree of Bachelor of Science and, in 1891, received the
degree of Civil Engineer from the same university.
He is survived by his wife; three sons, James C, Robert M., and John, and one
daughter, Katharine. Another son, WilUam H., died in 1923, following mihtary service
in the World War.
In 1892, Mr. Irwin entered railroad service with the New York Central System and
was continually in the service of this railroad and its affiliated hnes until his retirement,
during which period he held the positions of assistant transitman, assistant superintendent
of signals, division engineer, signal engineer, assistant to general superintendent, engi-
neering assistant on staff of vice-president, resident engineer and superintendent of con-
struction, office engineer, chief engineer (Rutland Railroad) and valuation engineer
(Boston & Albany Railroad), holding the last named position until his retirement on
October 1, 1938.
Mr. Irwin was a member of the American Society of Civil Engineers; the American
Standards Association; the Signal Section, Engineering Division, AAR; and the American
Railway Engineering Association, in addition to other important organizations. He held
many responsible positions in these societies and as a member of the AREA he served
on the Committee on Uniform General Contract Forms (1909-1940), as vice-chairman
(1910-1913), inclusive, and 1923-1926, inclusive, and as chairman from 1927 to 1931,
inclusive; on Committee 26 — Standardization (1927-1930) and as chairman from 1931
to 1935, inclusive; on Committee 12 — Rules and Organization, as vice-chairman (1939-
1940); as director of the Association from March, 1932 to March, 1935; vice-president
from March, 1935 to March, 1937; and as president in 1937-1938, as well as chairman.
General Committee, Engineering Division.
In addition to the engineering societies of which he was a member, Mr. Irwin was
identified with many other organizations and for 15 years he was active in St. John's
Church (Episcopal), Newtonville, Mass., as vestryman, junior warden or senior warden.
Mr. Irwin's energy, interest, personality, abiUty and kindly disposition won for him
a host of friends who could not fail but be impressed with his high standards of life,
his earnestness and sincerity in all that he undertook and his careful consideration and
gentleness toward all. He gave unselfishly and unstintingly of his time and experience
to Committee 20 and to the entire Association; nothing was too difficult for him to do,
and no work that he undertook was too laborious for him not to give it scrupulous
attention. His many associates, both in a social and professional way, will testify that
they were bettered and profited by all their contacts with Mr. Irwin, and the member-
ship of Committee 20, as well as his other friends and associates, will continue to miss
him keenly. By his death, the committee and the Association lost a true friend and a
valuable member.
W. D. Faucejte, Chairman,
F. L. Nicholson,
J. S. LiLLIE.
Committee on Memoir
Uniform General Contract Forms 39
Report on Assignment 2
Form of Agreement for Commercial Signs on Railway Property
0. K. Morgan (chairman, subcommittee), E. H. Barnhart, J. P. Hanley, N. D. Hyde,
S. L. Mapes, A. A. Miller, C. B. Nieliaus, H. A. Palmer, E. L. Taylor.
Your committee prepared a form of agreement and submitted it to the Association
in Bulletin 413, page 48, November, 1939, for information and discussion. Minor changes
have since been made and the agreement is now submitted for approval of the Association
and printing in the Manual.
FORM OF AGREEMENT FOR COMMERCIAL SIGNS ON
RAILWAY PROPERTY
1940
THIS AGREEMENT, made this day of , 19....,
by and between , a corporation organized and existing
under the laws of the State of , hereinafter called the Railway
Company, and
hereinafter called the Licensee:
WITNESSETH:
The Licensee desires to construct, maintain and use a commercial sign upon the
property of the Railway Company situated at and
substantially as shown on the plan and in the specifications hereto attached, designated
as dated and made a
part hereof:
It is mutually agreed as follows:
1. License
The Railway Company gives permission to the Licensee to construct, maintain and
use a sign upon the property of the Railway Company,
in accordance with said plan and the specifications forming a part hereof, and subject to
the requirements of the Railway Company.
2. Display Copy
The permission herein given is upon the express condition that any sign erected
and advertising displayed thereon during the term of this agreement shall be in sub-
stance, form, kind and character satisfactory to and approved by the
of the Railway Company, and upon any breach of this condition by said Licensee, such
license shall terminate at once.
3. Permits and Taxes
Prior to the erection of said sign the Licensee shall, at its sole cost and expense,
procure all necessary consents and permits from all public authorities having jurisdiction,
and shall pay all license fees and taxes, or increase of taxes, assessed against or imposed
on or by reason of said sign, and at all times during the continuance hereof, shall comply
with all rules, regulations and requirements of said authorities and of the National Board
of Fire Underwriters relative thereto.
40 Uniform General Contract Forms
4. Cost and Maintenance
The Licensee shall at its sole cost and expense, in a manner satisfactory to the
of the Railway Company, construct and maintain said
sign and keep the land and buildings appurtenant thereto in a cleanly condition, free
of litter and refuse matter occasioned by said sign, at all times during the continuance
of this agreement.
5. Changes of Structures
The Licensee further covenants and agrees that if and in case the location of the
sign should in the opinion of the Chief Engineer of the Railway Company require
the strengthening of any building, roof, sidewall or appurtenance thereto, or increase
the load so as to require additional support, or to cut through any roof for the attach-
ment of said sign or its supports, the same shall be done and said alterations thereafter
maintained during the term of this agreement by the Licensee at its sole cost and
expense, and to the satisfaction of the Chief Engineer of the Railway Company.
6. Removal
Upon notice of termination of the license, the Licensee shall at once and at its sole
cost and expense remove said sign and restore, if requested by the
of the Railway Company, the Railway Company's property to its former condition;
and if the Licensee within days shall fail so to do, said sign shall forthwith
become the property of the Railway Company, and all right, title and interest therein
of the Licensee shall terminate, or the Railway Company may, at its option, remove
said sign and restore the Railway Company's property to its former condition at the
sole cost and expense of the Licensee, which cost and expense the Licensee covenants
and agrees to pay upon demand.
7. Rentals
The Licensee shall pay as rental therefor Dollars
($ ) per annum, in advance, for each year and at the same rate for any
part of a year unexpired at the termination of this license.
8. Liability
The Licensee shall not in any way or at any time interfere with the safe passage
of the Railway Company's trains; and shall indemnify and save harmless the Railway
Company from any and all damage, loss or injury, including injury resulting in the
death of any person whomsoever, suits, claims, liabilities, recoveries, or demands resulting
directly or indirectly from the installation, maintenance, use or existence of said sign,
whether caused by the negligence of the Railway Company or otherwise.
9. Risk
The Licensee assumes all risk of loss or damage to its property on the premises
of the Railway Company, however caused, and hereby releases the Railway Company
from all liability on account of such loss or damage.
10. Term
This agreement shall continue in force for years, and thereafter from
year to year until terminated by either party giving to the other days* notice
in writing at the last known address, of its intention so to do and upon the expiration
of the time mentioned in such notice this agreement shall terminate.
Uniform General Contract Forms 41
11. Assignment
This agreement shall not be assigned or in any manner transferred without the
written consent of the of the Railway Company.
Until terminated as herein provided, this agreement shall inure to the benefit of and
be binding upon the legal representatives and successors of the parties respectively.
In Witness Whereof, the parties hereto have executed this agreement in
, the day and year first above written.
Company
Attest By
Secretary
Licensee
Witness By
Report on Assignment 5
Form of Agreement for Unloading Liquefied Petroleum
and Other Gases
W. R. Swatosh (chairman, subcommittee), W. D. Faucette. F. R. Layng, J. S. Lillie,
A. A. Miller, F. L. Nicholson, W. M. Post.
Your committee submits the following form, which was prepared at the request of
the Association of American Railroads and has received the approval of its Law Depart-
ment and the endorsement of the General Committee of the Engineering Division. The
matter of protecting the railroads appears to be urgent and this agreement is submitted
for adoption and printing in the Manual.
FORM OF AGREEMENT FOR UNLOADING LIQUEFIED
PETROLEUM AND OTHER GASES
(Using Railway Facilities)
1940
THIS AGREEMENT, made this day of , 19. . . . ,
by and between , a corporation, organized and existing
under the laws of the State of , hereinafter called the Railway
Company, and ,
hereinafter called the Industry:
WITNESSETH;
Whereas, the Industry desires to unload
(Liquefied petroleum gas, chlorine gas, etc.)
from an industry track located on the premises of the Railway Company at or near
Station, County of ,
State of , described as follows:
. , and
42 Uniform General Contract Forms
Whereas, the Railway Company desires to license and permit the Industry to use
certain unloading facilities along the Industry track belonging to the Railway Company,
the facilities to be operated by the employees of the Industry.
Now, Therefore, in consideration of the payment to the Railway Company of
Dollars ($ ) , the receipt of
which is hereby acknowledged, and the covenants herein contained, it is mutually agreed:
1. Grant
That the Railway Company hereby grants the right and permission to the Industry
to use its facilities, located along the industry track for the purpose of unloading
without charge to the Industry, except
(liquefied petroleum gas, chlorine gas, etc.)
as herein provided, the unloading facilities to be operated by the employees of the
Industry.
2. Ownership of Facilities
It is understood that the title to and the sole ownership of all of the facilities shall
remain in the Railway Company and that the Industry does not acquire any interest
therein.
3. Use by Others
The permission herein granted to the Industry is not for the exclusive use of the
above described unloading facilities; it being understood and agreed that such facilities
may be used also by other patrons of the Railway Company. It is understood and
agreed further that the Industry shall not use the unloading facilities for the benefit of
any other person, firm or corporation, without the written consent of the Railway
Company.
4. Permits and Licenses
The Industry shall obtain, at its expense, any and all authority, license and permis-
sion from municipal and governmental authorities that may be necessary for it to unload
or handle the commodity herein specified.
5. AAR Circulars and Instructions
It is understood and agreed that in using the facihties, the Industry shall fully
comply with and be governed by Circular 17A or 17B, dated May 1, 1939, and Circular
17C, dated October 10, 1940, of the Association of American Railroads, respectively, and
amendments to or reissues thereof, or such other circulars and instructions as may be
issued from time to time by either the AAR or the Bureau of Explosives, and that the
unloading shall also be under the jurisdiction of and subject to the instructions of the
of the Railway Company.
6. Clearances
The Industry shall not place or permit any obstructions over the Industry Track
less than feet above the top of the rail nor alongside of the said track less
than feet from the center of the track.
7. Liability
The Industry' agrees that it will protect, indemnify, and forever hold harmless the
Railway Company from any and all claims, liabilities and expenses which the Railway
Company shall incur by reason of any real or alleged injury (including injury resulting
in death) to any person or persons whomsoever, (including the employees of the parties
Uniform General Contract Forms 43
hereto), and from all loss, claims, liabilities and expenses by reason of any real or alleged
damage to or destruction of property (including the property of the parties hereto),
arising out of, or in any way attributable to the use of said unloading facilities by the
Industry, or the unloading of or the removal
(liquefied petroleum gas, chlorine gas, etc.)
of the same from the premises of the Railway Company by the Industry, regardless of
whether or not such injury or damage is caused by the negligence of the Railway Com-
pany, its agents or employees.
8. Assignment
The Industry shall not assign this contract nor any rights thereunder without the
written consent of the Railway Company.
9. Duration and Cancellation
This agreement shall be in effect after 19 ... .
and continue in effect until terminated by days' written notice from either
party to the other. Such notice shall be sufficiently given and delivered if deposited in
the United States mail, enclosed in an envelope, properly stamped and addressed to the
Railway or to the Industry, as the case may be. All notices or other communications
from one party to the other with respect to this contract shall be addressed, as the case
may be, to the Railway Company,
(Street and Number) (City) (State) or the
(Industry) , (Street and Number)
(City) (State) , unless and until notice in
writing of a change of address shall have been given by one party to the other, in which
event the new address shall be used.
As hereinbefore provided, this agreement shall inure to the benefit of and be binding
upon the parties hereto, their heirs, executors, administrators, successors and assigns.
In Witness Whereof, the parties hereto have executed this agreement in
, the day and year first above written.
Railway Company
By
Industry
Witness:
Witness:
Report of Committee 16 — Economics of Railway
Location and Operation
H. M. Stout, Chairman,
E. G. Allen
E. Y. Allen
B. T. Anderson
J. A. Anderson
S. E. Armstrong
T. B. Ballantyne
J. W. Barriger, III
C. H. Blackman
V. T. Boughton
J. C. Bradley
C. W. Breed
Richard Brooke
J. L. Campbell
S. B. Clement
L. E. Dale
Miss Olive W. Dennis
J. H. Dyer
H. H. Edc5erton
J. A. Erskine
E. K. Eugene
J. M. Farrin
R. P. Forsberg
G. W. Hand
J. L. Haugh
C. H. R. Howe
E. A. Humphreys
W. B. Irwin
E. E. Kimball
E. E. King
A. W. Laird
Fred Lavis
R. S. Marshall
F. H. McGuigan, Jr.
L. G. MORPHY
F. N. Nye
J. A. Par\nt
H. R. Peterson
J. W. Porter
J. F. Pringle
C. P. Richmond
L. S. Rose
M. F. Mannion, Vice-
chairman,
E. H. Roth
F. A. Russell
H. F. Schryver
B. J. Schwendt
O. E. Selby
H. M. Shepard
H. A. Shinkle
L. K. Sillcox
H. W. Snyder
C. B. Stanton
R. R. Strother
J. E. Teal
H. M. Tremaine
W. D. Wiggins
H. W. Williams
S. L. WONSON
J. A. Wood
J. S. WORLEY
Committee
To the American Railway Engineering Association:
Your committee submits its report on the following subjects:
1. Revision of Manual.
A new study of "the cost of stopping and starting trains", preliminary to recom-
mendation of the revision of the material now in the Manual, section 21, pages 2-5, has
been begun. In this the collaboration of the Signal Section, Engineering Division, AAR,
has been secured. No report.
2. Methods for obtaining a more intensive use of existing railway faciUties.
Progress report, directed to the intensification of use of railway faciUties resulting
from the operation of the port control organization recently set up. Submitted as in-
formation . . page 45
3. Methods or formulas for the solution of special problems relating to more eco-
nomical and efficient railway operation.
Progress report; supplementary discussion of the sub-topic (k) Economic relation
between track structure and traffic to be handled. Submitted as information.... page 48
4. Effect of volume of traffic on railway operating expenses, collaborating with
Committee 22 — Economics of Railway Labor.
Progress report. This year there is presented a method for determining the effect of
volume of traffic on transportation expenses. Submitted as information page SO
5. Effect of inland waterway transportation on the economics of railway operation,
collaborating with AAR Committee on Waterway Projects and with Committee 25 —
Waterways and Harbors.
No report.
Bulletin 420, November, 1940.
44
Economics of Railway Location and Operation 45
6. Effect of high speed on railway operating expenses.
Progress report. Analysis of increase in power requirements and the resulting in-
creases in costs due to increases in speed in hauling a given volume of traffic. Submitted
as information page 56
7. Effect of rail lubrication on train operation, collaborating with Committee 5 —
Track.
No report.
8. Economics of railway location and operation as affected by railway electrification,
collaborating with Electrical Section, Engineering Division, AAR.
Progress report — submitted as information page 68
9. Effects of speeds in excess of 75 miles per hour on the economics of railway
location.
No report.
10. Effect of highway transportation on the economics of railway operation.
No report.
11. Train resistance of freight trains under various conditions of loading and speed.
Progress report. Introductory to the work on this assignment a resume of some of
the more important work which has been done in the establishment of general resistance
formulas — submitted as information page 69
12. Development of modern power units and the effects on the economics of railway
location and operation.
No report.
13. The general course of the cost of railway transportation and operation over the
past 100 years, the principal determining elements and the economic significance.
No report.
14. The advantage derived from stiffness of track in improving economics of train
operation.
No report.
The Committee on Economics of Railway Location and Operation,
H. M. Stout, Chairman.
Report on Assignment 2
Methods for Obtaining a More Intensive Use of Existing
Railway Facilities
L. E. Dale (chairman, subcommittee), E. Y. Allen, B. T. Anderson, C. H. Blackman,
C. W. Breed, J. H. Dyer, W. B. Irwin, H. F. Schryver, B. J. Schwendt, H. A.
Shinkle, J. A. Wood.
Previous studies and reports made by this subcommittee have discussed the accom-
plishment of the desired objective by means of pooling, coordinating terminals antl
consolidating railroads. The present report describes a plan made effective by the Asso-
ciation of American Railroads which has been designed to insure the maximum use of
railroad facilities and equipment at the Atlantic and Gulf ports through cooperative
efforts of individual railroads, shippers and receivers of freight and the steamship com-
panies and so avoid a repetition of congestion and delay to traffic such as occurred
during the World War.
46 Economics of Railway Location and Operation
An unprecedented rate of increase in railroad traffic, starting the middle of August
1939, when weekly revenue carloadings totalled 660,000, reaching 800,000 cars by the
middle of September and a peak of about 860,000 cars in October (this increase being
coincident with the start of the European War), directed attention to the necessity for
effective action to prevent any recurrence of rail traffic congestion such as was experienced
at the end of 1917. At that time in the territory north of the Ohio and Potomac rivers
and east of the Mississippi river and Chicago 62,247 carloads of freight were delayed
short of their ultimate destination, in addition to which there were held by the lines at
and west of St. Louis, 31,421 carloads; at and west of Chicago, 24,836 carloads; at and
south of the Ohio river gateways 14,061 carloads; and at and south of the Potomac river
gateways 1S,S4S carloads. Most of this freight was for destinations within a line drawn
from Portland, Me., through Albany, N.Y., and Rochester, Harrisburg, Pa., and Balti-
more, Md. Delivery could not be made because of large accumulations of cars already
at terminals awaiting delivery.
The significance of these figures is that this use of railroad equipment for storage
purposes, due to inabiUty to release cars at destination, was a major cause contributing
to congestion, and that congestion can be prevented by avoiding such misuse of railroad
equipment.
Because of the probabiUty that a substantial increased movement of export freight
would take place, the AAR, through its Car Service Division, placed in effect early in
November 1939, a plan for preventing serious congestion at Atlantic and Gulf ports.
Under that plan, a manager in charge of port traffic was appointed to direct a system
for controlling the movement of rail traffic to these ports to the extent necessary to
prevent accumulation of more traffic than can be promptly unloaded.
During the first ten months that the plan has been in effect it has been necessary
to exercise control over the movement of freight in only one instance, i.e., bulk grain
and soy beans for handling through the public elevator at New Orleans, La., due to
limited storage space. In the month of December 1939, over 250 cars were handled by
permit, and additional grain was accepted as rapidly as ships were available to transport
the grain from the port.
There have been two instances where cars accumulated more rapidly than the
facilities available appeared able to dispose of them currently, and each of these situ-
ations was quickly resolved through cooperative action of the several interests directly
concerned.
Under the plan now in operation no restriction is contemplated on the movement
by rail of any freight, export or domestic, to Atlantic and Gulf ports so long as facil-
ities are available to transfer such freight promptly to ships or into warehouses, thus
avoiding the use of freight cars for storage purposes.
The plan placed in effect by the Car Service Division is comparatively simple.
Under it a manager of port traffic is located at New York. He has complete authority
with respect to the supervision of any control placed on traffic moving to or through
any port. At each of the principal Atlantic and Gulf ports, local committees consisting
of representatives of the port and of the railroads entering these ports have been created.
Each of these committees keeps closely in touch with the situation. Written detailed
reports are made at regular intervals to the manager of port traffic, advising him as to
the number of loaded cars received daily, the number unloaded, the number held for
unloading and other pertinent information pertaining to the situation at that port.
The manager in charge of port traffic has thus far devoted his attention largely to
keeping in close touch with the situation at the various ports along the Atlantic and
Gulf coasts in order to make sure that no congestion develops and to bringing about
Economics of Railway Location and Operation 47
increased cooperation on the part of shippers, exporters, steamship operators and port
authorities in utilizing to the maximum the facilities already available. Should a sudden
increase in freight traffic develop, or other circumstances arise, the manager of port
traffic has authority under the plan to require that before any freight for export is
loaded on freight cars for shipment that formal assurances be given that the shipment
will be promptly unloaded at destination so that the cars will be promptly released and
returned to active service.
Because of the heavy movement of export freight through the Port of New York
special attention has been given this area. A daily report is received by the secretary of
the General Managers' Association (which includes all roads operating within the New
Vork area) showing the following information:
(a) Car float freight for New York station delivery.
(b) Car float freight for Brooklyn terminal delivery.
(c) Freight for New Jersey terminal deUvery.
(d) Freight interchanged by car float.
(e) Freight interchanged by rail.
(f) Tidewater coal situation.
(g) Company fuel situation.
(h) Grain — received, on hand, in cars, elevators and boats,
(i) Cars released and on hand in the several Brooklyn terminal companies,
(j) Lighterage freight unloaded and on hand.
(k) Carload freight in storage on covered piers, open piers and ground.
(1) Carload storage space available but not used,
(m) Cars held outside the terminal district awaiting movement to it.
(n) Number of Hghters held at steamship piers in excess of 48 hours awaiting
unloading.
This information is given the manager of port traffic by the secretary of the General
Managers' Association each day, together with supplemental information at intervals
showing the detail of railroad lighters delayed by steamship companies and cars on
hand over IS days for unloading, so that the manager of port traffic has currently a
picture of the port operations before him. His point of contact with the railroads at
New York is the secretary of the General Managers' Association, with whom any ques-
tion pertaining to operating conditions in the New York district is handled.
The Maritime Association of the Port of New York, through its Traffic Advisory
committee, is the point of contact for the manager of port traffic with the steamship
people. Conferences are held regularly between this committee and the Lighterage com-
mittee of the General Managers' Association, for the discussion of mutual problems
pertaining to the handUng of hghterage freight in the New York district. Illustrative of
the effectiveness of the work done is the fact that prior to November IS the average
number of lighters delayed over 48 hours awaiting unloading to ships was over ISO daily.
During December 1939, this average was 104; during January 1940, it was lOS; March,
88; and May, 7S. The volume of traffic handled increased during this period.
Records show that the volume of business handled through the Port of New York
during the first six months of 1940 has approximated two-thirds of the volume handled
daily during the peak of the World War movement. The volume handled on peak days
has approached that of 1918. During the month of August the tons of export freight
handled through the North Atlantic ports exceeded that handled August 1918, and the
volume at the Port of New York practically equalled that handled in August 1918.
This traffic has been handled without congestion and with satisfaction.
48 Economics of Railway Location and Operation
Report on Assignment 3
Methods or Formulas for the Solution o£ Special Problems Relating
to More Economical and Efficient Railway Operation
C. H. R. Howe (chairman, subcommittee), J. L. Campbell, J. A. Erskine, J. M. Farrin,
H. R. Peterson, E. H. Roth, H. F. Schryver, H. A. Shinkle, J. A. Wood.
Economic Relation Between Track Structures and Traffic
to Be Handled
Your subcommittee desires to supplement its reports on this subject, published in
Volumes 40 and 41 of the Proceedings, with a graphical illustration (Chart IX) showing
the economical limitations of rail weights which may be used with various traffic densi-
ties. The basic data used in preparing the chart are shown in the accompanying Tables
F and G.
The investment values given in Table G are assumed, as they would vary in any
given case. The costs of labor shown are actual, being derived from the average man-
hours spent by each group of railways for the year 1936, as reported to the Interstate
Commerce Commission. However, as the labor hours published by the commission are
given per equated mile, it is essential that a conversion be made into hours per main
track mile, in terms of which calculations are customarily made. The conversions are
shown in Table F. The conversion into money was accomphshed by using a fiat rate of
40 cents per hour. The basic labor costs and the respective average traffic densities, are
those shown in Tables A and C of the report of this subcommittee beginning on page 130
of Vol. 40 of the Proceedings.
It will be noted on the chart that the intersection of the horizontal line, representing
the cost to own and maintain, and the vertical line, designating the average traffic
density of any particular group, is taken as the point of origin for increased cost as
traffic density increases. It will be noted also that the slope of the line indicating the
rate of cost increase is determined by the cost to the lighter weight rail group of handling
the traffic density of the next higher heavier weight rail group.
In the application of this mathematical procedure the interest rate on the invest-
ment will remain the same, but the replacement costs will increase approximately in
direct proportion to the increase in traffic density. The increases in labor costs are
obtained through the use of the formula evolved on page 134, Vol. 40 of the Proceedings,
namely, 1.00 + (0.3855 X percent traffic density increase).
Take for example the 112-lb. rail costs for handling a traffic density of 5,248,898
g.t.m. per mile and determine the costs of handhng the 11,309,126 g.t.m. traffic of the
131 -lb. rail group on the lighter rail.
Interest remaining the same $1,290
Replacement cost increasing in the ratio
11,309,126 _ 2 15 w 0.05% = 0.108
5,248,898
Investment $25,800 X 0.108 = $2,786
Increased labor cost, 1 + (0.386 X 116) = 1.448
$614 X 1-448 = $ 889
Total cost for 131-lb. track traffic on 112-lb. track $4,965
49
CHART No. IX
■
-
-
-
r-
r-
-
I—
TRAFFIC
[
)ENS
TIE
S 1
RE(
9
jm
EC
TO
JUSTIFY INCREASED RAIL WEIGHT
-i
-1
-,
-r-
j,
— — i 1 1
, , ; 1
-
-
-
-
-
-
---
--
--
-
—
II
—
I
:
-
~
J
:
-
-
-
-
-
-
h
u
-
~
~
--
^
~
-
--
>V85_
»3floa
' 1 !
-
-«
-
_
J
_
-^
_.
.2i.
_
_
_
lO-
_
_
_
_
_
^_
_
^
1
i_
_
_
:
^ '■'
-
-o
—
1
-
-H
—
P 1
--
-
-
-
1°"^
-
^
-
-
-
-
r
-
r
-
-
-
-
--
r
-
-
_ ^-^
M
~r»t^
-
-
--
—
-
—
s-
,
-
-
_
^
-
-
-
-
-
_
-
_
^
_
_
__
-
_
i
^
__
— M-s^
~
'~
~
1 —
'
"
-
^
7-
-^
-1
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
--
;:--*-
^
-
-
--
M
o
>i
,
-:^''-
&
o
o
S
^
W
rTi
-e
-• "^
^
".
']
--
^
''
7
»*,ooa
1
^
"■
,
.-
■
~^
■ 1
1
2
»
•3JZ6H3
-Av^
.
1
1
r~_
__
_
.
_
_
J
1
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
-
^
_
_
_ _
i 1 !
_,
r
h
u
«
K
K-
X
<
Z
<
2
1 '
,
^
''
u
■ 1
$3,4^27
iW32^
^'
1
.-'t
S i i
.-1
»3.l94-ll2'Av.
-^,.^
;
r
'■
1
- "■+ ~
--fT-1-r
1 1
1
^
tioca
*Ae!i4r»
i:£v^^«
i J'"'
■ 1
1
<-^
»^A54-9£
_^
• 1
1
IT
r
1
k
.
_
_
I'll
1
i
_
_
_
_ _
-^
_
_
_
__
z
i
_
<
1
_
_
_
_ _
_
_
_
_
__
r
; 1
^
i?:
:»
o
o
»-
s
• 2/>00.
- t t
"t !
■ i ! r
i 1 ! 1
a
- — o
J-
1=
-'-
j:
-Vii
--
-
2
-
-
-
-
;
2
2
-
-
-^
-
-
-
-
2
--
^
-
-
-
-
--
WM4
:z::::::z:|;E
u
o
o
_ — . o
1- — s
l!
u
^-
—
i_
—
^
— c
c
— c
c
1
\-
J
J_
\-
P.
n
-'-
-
— c
Gro
55 T
ON
=8
-§
le;
§ g
o 1
= °. 1
5 Per Main Track Mile Per Year
-
-
_
-
-
-
-
2
0'
0-
0-
^
_
-
8
0
0
0
E
-"
lEEE-IEEEEE
0
q
Economics of Railway Locat ion and Operation
49
tsa
CO CO o
;;>£.>« ,>• (DOOM-*
^ a
115 <0 00
=0 O fe^l rtr-T-nVT
5A
^ -Q.
S-C
■a bS^^ fc?^ fcS'S
a P
-S A^ •- OOMOOOO
i^ ^"^v 50N00O
<0OM
t-i.fihcaoo-^oo
5; 2 o Oi-iNco
M 03 CO CO
(14
~ ^ b o>-*ooo
o-c:'^ . . « -
lJ Lrl 5 I o t- oi u5
O j!
•Q. . .'"
A NCOTiit-
o
. c 1^
^
i C
i2ae3|3«5g
H
a c 1? u
t-
ObcS^-^-^^
«9-
•3
to-^co'*
~ W tj lOlOOiOO
CT3 H * - .. -
b)
in iri o 10
<u >2 u M< o ■* t-
rs5 o - ' - -
m 10 00 iJ5
£55:2
00N.-1
O rt CO
50 Economics of Railway Location and Operation
It is the opinion of this committee that any railway preparing a similar chart,
substituting its local factoral values, will find it provides a simple solution of many rail
weight problems.
This report is submitted as information.
Report on Assignment 4
Effect of Volume of Traffic on Railway Operating Expenses
J. F. Pringle (chairman, subcommittee), C. H. Blackman, Richard Brooke, S. B. Clement,
C. H. R. Howe, J. A. Parant, B. J. Schwendt, H. A. Shinkle, J. A. Wood, J. S.
Worley.
In previous reports the committee has shown by analysis of mass statistical data the
effect of volume of traffic, measured by gross ton-miles, on operating expenses as a whole.
While this method of approach is of considerable interest, your committee is of the
opinion that a method whereby estimates can be made with a reasonable degree of
accuracy of the effect of traffic volume on each of the general expense accounts under
the peculiar conditions that pertain on any particular road will be of practical value.
Railway accounting divides operating expenses into six general accounts. The fol-
lowing shows these and their relative importance on Class I American and Canadian
railways:
Approximate
percentage of
total operating
General account expense
1. Maintenance of way and structures 16
2. Maintenance of equipment 26
3. Traffic expense 4
4. Transportation 49
5. Miscellaneous operations 1
6. General 4
Total 100
The Association has adopted a prior report of the committee offering a method
whereby the effect of traffic density as expressed in gross ton-miles on maintenance of
way and structures expense can be determined.
The effect of volume of traffic on maintenance of equipment expenses has been studied
and a report made thereon by the Mechanical Division of the AAR.
Your committee this year submits as information a method for determining the
effect of volume of traffic on transportation expenses.
It is recognized that certain primary accounts of this group of expenses bear a
direct relationship to traffic density while others are more or less independent and vary
only to a minor extent even with large variation in traffic volume.
Volume of railway traffic is measured by units chosen to reflect the resulting
revenue and expense items and no one of these units can be used to the exclusion of
others in a study of the effect of volume on transportation expense.
The common measure of volume of railway traffic is gross revenue but this in itself
cannot be used as a measure of transportation expense and the first step in determining
the effect of volume is the establishing of the relationship between revenue and certain
Economics of Railway Location and Operation 51
units which can be used to measure transportation expense as expressed in the various
primary accounts.
Railway revenues, for the purpose of this study, may be divided as between —
(1) freight revenue, including switching
(2) passenger revenue, including mail and express
(3) all other
For the Class I railways of the United States and Canada, group 1 (freight) repre-
sents approximately 82 percent, group 2 (passenger) 14 percent and group 3 (all other)
4 percent. If, therefore, the study is confined to the effect of variations in freight and
passenger revenues any error due to neglect of other revenue will be negligible.
The relationship between freight and passenger revenue shows considerable variation
on different railways and as this relationship has considerable effect on operating expenses,
it must be determined for the particular property under consideration.
Having divided the gross revenue as indicated above, the next step is to relate
revenue to the transportation units which cause expense. These units are:
For freight service
(1) Net ton-miles
(2) Gross ton-miles
(3) Freight train-miles
(4) Freight train car-miles
For passenger service
(1) Passenger train-miles
(2) Passenger train car-miles
Table 1, with notes, affords a convenient method of relating revenue and transpor-
tation units.
Having determined the transportation units for the selected test period and estimate
period, it is necessary to relate the primary accounts of the transportation group of
expenses to the units so determined. Certain of these primary accounts combine both
freight and passenger expense, and the expense due to each must be separated.
For convenience, the primary accounts may be grouped as shown in the accom-
panying table.
Grouping of Primary Accounts
Approximate percentage
of total transporta-
Group Designation tion expense Accounts included
1 Supervision 4.6 371, 372
2 Station service 18.7 373, 376
3 Yardaervice 17.6 377, 378, 380, 381,
382, 383, 384, 385,
386, 387, 388, 389
4 Train and locomotive operation 52.6 392, 393, 394, 395,
396, 397, 398, 399,
400, 401, 402
5 Si^al and crossing protection 1.5 379, 404, 405, 406
6 Casualties-- -.- 1.8 415, 416, 417, 418,
419, 420
7 Miscellaneous operations 2.7 374, 375, 403, 407,
408 , 409
8 General expense 0.4 410, 414
9 Joint facilities, debit and credit 0.1 390, 391, 412, 413
100.0
The percentage which each group bears to the total will vary with conditions on
individual roads, and must be determined for that road. The percentages shown are onlv
used to show generally the relative importance of each group.
52 E c o n omics of Railway Location and Operation
Table 1
Selected Test Period and Estimated Earnings and Operating Units
Selected
Test Period Estimate
Freight revenue
Passenger revenue
Other revenue
Total revenue
Net ton-miles
Gross ton-miles
Freight train-miles
Freight train car-miles
Passenger train-miles
Passenger train car-miles
Notes: 1. In estimating net ton-miles based on freight revenue allowance must be made
for any probable change in freight rates, or nature of tonnage to be handled.
2. In estimating gross ton-miles based upon net ton-miles allowance must be
made for any change in nature of tonnage handled which might affect average
car loading or relationship between empty and loaded car movement.
3. In estimating freight train-miles based upon gross ton-miles, allowance must
be made for reserve capacity of trains already operating and for any possible
increase in locomotive capacity. Fixed or scheduled freight train service which
must be operated to meet service requirements will often be found to have a
reserve capacity and minor increases in traffic can be handled without increase
in mileage.
4. In estimating freight train car-miles based on net ton-miles allowance must
be made for any probable change in nature of tonnage handled which would
result in a change in average car loading or in the relationship between empty
and loaded car movement.
5. Passenger train-miles are dependent on policy as well as volume of traffic.
In estimating passenger train-miles the policy of the company in respect to
increasing or decreasing passenger service must be given consideration. In gen-
eral, passenger train mileage will not vary with minor fluctuations in passenger
earnings. Consideration must be given also to any probable change in passenger
rates.
6. Passenger train car-miles may be assumed to vary with the passenger traffic
but the extent depends upon the amount of change in traffic expected, and the
reserve capacity of the cars already operating. Coach car-miles may be assumed
to vary directly; luxury cars, i.e. parlor and sleepers, to a much smaller extent.
The following indicates for each group the method to be followed in determining
their probable variation with traffic volume. Necessary correction must be made for
changes in wages and material prices.
Group 1. Supervision. This group includes Accounts 371, Superintendence, and 372,
Despatching Trains. These accounts are not affected by changes in relationship
between passenger and freight traffic, and only to a slight degree by changes
in volume. It may be assumed that these expenses will vary 10 percent of the
variation in traffic volume as expressed in gross revenue.
Group 2. Station Service. This group includes Accounts 373,. Station Employees, and
Account 376, Station Supplies and Expenses. Those portions of Accounts 373
and 376 due to the expense of operating large freight offices and sheds, vary
almost directly with the volume of freight traffic while that portion due to
expense of operating stations with less than a total staff of four men, and
passenger stations, will show very little variation with ordinary changes in
traffic. For these reasons it is necessary to divide the expense as between vari-
able expense, which is the expense incurred at larger freight stations, and fixed
Economics of Railway Location and Operation
S3
« w
S at
looooooooooom
r* IOOOOOOOOOOOU3
[£° 04 CO <o ;o ;o <o U3 «o <c ;o Tr eg
cC5
co^
ea o
S '
TJT)
,^ i- O w u w
C o CD
3 cii rt a
O O 'i t; c3 ?, T)
- X t«
:.S 5 o oi
m M i._o " g m
T2 13 ^ *^ Q> -^ *a
ta 01^ 3:5 c tu
o<
E . — _ .
.5 7* c-t-ooooc»c»oowoooooooo
V. H m CO « CO CO eo ec CO CO CO c<5 CO
TO 3 cS
2;ss
sis
o — •
J=
E-i
CS
21
0
•J^J3
= ^
CJ
di
?>?
c
. <u
0
^ 23
' j: .s b
^ ^'2 2
"Sib S
oT-- m S,
o == =
!3 8°|
O S: ^ -*^
S C 01 >-
c rt a)
+J CO o +-> P
S a).S
0
0 05 0
"S-c
S 3 !«
cl
7. Th
th vol
tiere v
tching
C
.2
S'g ^'g
a)
P
386,
tion
yard
ger s
-a t^ a
0
in-r a) 0)
00 3=: s
84,3
eir V
sma
n pas
ja
V
d
0)
coj- = —
rt
co-.*':^'?
>!
aj
CO " M S" S, 3 «
ooajor, — ■""o
co"S"c"'C2 ■
00(DCO>>«*2 -
. 0) o ° ti c g
M & P g 0) o •>,
2tn33a)0roc •
o.ti o ■—
-uS^S-ds
•<(«■<
54
Economics
of Railway Location and OperaU^n .
2„°
■u'SSSJE-iE-iEhE-'EhHE-'E-'HEhEh
u, oooo
5 HE-iHHHHHE-'E-iE-'E-"
<■
lis
T3 a) -Ji oj iJ X
<p m g li 01 S
o c3 o ci3 C~,
•" ^ r* W '^^ fliTl
O O 5 *^v- g 5)
a*^ N M ■"! •* "5 U3 t- 00 gj O N
^ C m c S
.5 -S g *^ o
2 t- i ►■ d
■^ M q bo ., •
■!-> C +• c ?J t-
■S. I* « S e .2
bfi tn m to T, .w
• rT m o tn Q) ii
j; (J! £ 0! fe.2
.^ .T* •[-• -^ _ DD
^ ^ S ^5:S
o o o u rt fl
0) a> a) oj cj-a
1^ b ^ ^^ C c4
■O'O'O'O rt -t»
C3 cij cd rt OJ -u
B2 " "5 "
tJ c c c^ fe
3 3 2 3^ a
O O O O u,
(S ta « c« rt
0) Q) Cy 0) C 03
S S S S X fl
jj *J JJ ■!-> « 2
rt rt rt rt 5
j3j3ja.rt E a)
-cna-OTJ S >,
a* S 9i 2 c c3
asssga
CO tn t/l ra ^ 0
pj 03 rt tfl -^ p
a, 0) 0) a) ., O
^^^^ g g
c4 cq ra » n tn
asga^jis
t- t- C
OJ QJ o
03 S 2 a) « S
ajfediPuflK !>
:!n
<^ - . ^
«goo^
CcOmM
+5 fl a
rt o o
-t-> u u
O " £. "^
Economics of Railway Location and Operation 55
expense which is the expense at small stations and passenger stations. Variable
expense varies directly with volume as measured in tons of l.c.l. freight
handled, or if this figure not obtainable, net ton miles may be used. It may
be assumed that the group will vary 50 percent of the variation in traffic
volume as measured either in tons of l.c.l. freight handled or net ton miles.
Group 3. Yard Service. This group includes those expenses due to yard switching serv-
ices. The expenses included in the group are dependent upon the relationship
as between passenger and freight service as well as upon volume of each. For
convenience Table 2 has been set up and probable variation of each item with
traffic volume indicated.
Group 4. Train and Locomotive Operation. This group includes those expenses due to
train and locomotive operation both passenger and freight. They are dependent
upon the relationship between passenger and freight services as well as upon
the volume of each. For convenience Table 3 has been set up and the probable
variations of each item with trafiic volume indicated.
Group 5. Signal and Crossing Protection. This group of accounts includes expense due
to switch and signal tenders, signal and interlocker operation, crossing protec-
tion and drawbridge operation. The effect of volume of traffic on these items
is slight. It may be taken as 10 percent of the variation in train mileage.
Group 6. Casualties. This group includes such items as clearing wrecks, damage to prop-
erty, etc. No material error will result if they are assumed to vary 70 percent
of the variation in traffic volume as expressed in gross revenue.
Group 7. Miscellaneous Operations. This group includes special expenses and their extent
varies on each road. The extent of variation of each primary account in the
group must be determined in accordance with the peculiar conditions pertaining
on the individual property under consideration.
Group 8. General Expense. This group includes stationery and printing, other expenses
and insurance. No material error will result in assuming that these expenses
vary 10 percent of variations in gross revenue.
Group 9. Joint Facilities. The extent that this group of expenses will vary with traffic
is dependent upon the agreements as to joint facilities that are in effect on the
property for which estimate is being made.
Table 4
The percentages used in the following table are given to illustrate the method. They
must be determined for each particular property as indicated in the report. When once
so determined for the conditions pertaining to any property they may be used from time
to time as long as there are no major changes in conditions.
Percent
Total
Expense Tran'^portation
Group Name Expense
1 Supervision 4.6
2 Station service 18.7
3 Yard service 17.6
4 Train and locomotive operation 52.6
5 Signal and crossing protection 1.5
6 Casualties 1.8
7 Miscellaneous operations 2.7
8 General expenses 0.4
9 Joint facilities, debit and credit 0.1
100.0 64.43
Summary
Having determined in the manner indicated above the extent of variations in each
group for the particular property under consideration, a summary may be made as
shown in Table 4 and the figures thus obtained may be used to estimate future trans-
portation expenses for any given variation in traffic.
This report is submitted as information with the recommendation that the subject
be continued.
Percent
f" Percent
/arialion
Variable
with
of Total
Traffic
Trans pn. Exp.
10
0.46
50
9.35
58
10.21
80
42.08
10
0.15
70
1.06
40
1.08
10
0.04
56
Economics of Railway Location and Operation
Report on Assignment 6
Effect of High Speed on Railway Operating Expenses
M. F. Mannion (chairman, subcommittee), V. T. Boughton, C. W. Breed, J. H. Dyer,
A. W. Laird, J. W. Porter, J. F. Pringle, H. F. Schryver, B. J. Schwendt, H. W.
Snyder.
Increases in speed require increased fuel and water consumption for steam locomo-
tives. This increased fuel and water consumption is greater for a ten-mile increase in
speed from 40 to SO miles per hour than for an increase from 30 to 40 miles per hour.
Also the increased fuel and water consumption is greater for an increase in speed from
SO to 60 miles per hour than for an increase from 40 to 50 miles per hour. In other
words, the higher the speed, the larger the increase in fuel and water consumption.
Increases in speed also have a very material effect on power requirements. The power
requirements for handling a given volume of traffic increase very rapidly as the maximum
speed of the service is increased. This increase in power requirements necessitates addi-
tional capital expenditures and increases maintenance of equipment expenses in proportion
to the increase in power requirements.
In order to show the effect of high speed on fuel and water consumption and power
requirements. Tables 1 and 2 have been compiled for three different types of service,
passenger train, coal and ore trains and manifest freight trains, based on data contained
in Chapter 16 of the Manual. These tables are a composite summary for six different
groups of locomotives based on 37. S, 35.0, 32.5, 30.0, 27.5, and 25.0 horsepower per ton
on drivers and give the average weight of train for any maximum speed and the average
TABLE NO. 1
COMPOSITE StJMMAKY
PASSEBCTK OR COAL AND ORE TKAINS
AVERAGE SPEED
OeUJSIVE OK TIME STOPPED
BETWEEN STOPS
40 ^0
43.76
34.53
27.85
24.94
22.41
20.20
18.15
16.42
15.11
14.34
71.
54.
42.
33.72
27.27
24.43
22.03
19.82
17.84
lb. 15
14.88
14.09
17.64
15.97
14.71
13.93
10b. b2
69.06
52.56
41.
32.55
26.40
23.66
21.38
19.2'
17.3^
15.74
14.51
13.72
105. Ifa
68.10
51.85
40.54
32.12
26.09
23.42
21.16
19.06
17.22
15.61
H.39
13.60
W - Weight of LocomotlTe (EnglDe & Tender) in ^ns
Economics of Railway Location and Operation 57
COMPOSITE
StMIAET
MANIFEST FEEICaT TRAINS
ATERAGE
aPKKD
EXCHJSIVE OF
TIME STOPPED
wa
WEIGHT OF TRAIN
MILES
WTklEBl STOPS
SPEED
(TRAILING \ffiIGHT)
20
2'i
30
40
50
60
80
10c
)
^
3.7HW
55-90
58.25
59.88
b2.1«
63.60
64.59
55.5b
b5.B9
66.67
p. 54"
6.75 "
48.41
50.37
51.70
53.60
54,7§
56.61
57.
,26
55
44.52
46.30
47.56
49.24
50.28
51.04
51.98
52.
■P
50
8.25-
40.58
42.25
43.37
44.&5
45.80
46.44
41.82
47.29
42.58
47.
,81
45
10.24 "
36.64
38.op
39.05
40.39
36.06
41.24
^}-
,04
40
12.87 "
16.16 -
32.83
34.06
34.93
1:1?
37.29
37.94
38.
.33
35
28.70
29.78
30.54
3ii54
32.61
33.19
33.
.53
H.P. HOUES PER
1000 GROSS TOl!
'-MII£S'
(TRAILING)
^
3.78 W
50. bg
49.10
38.77
34.58
4H.02^
46.6^
37.06
45. Hb
4^.32
36.06
35.56
ITTiT
5-54 -
b.75 -
40.05
i:§5
36.46
35.
2
55
35-^2
33.02
32.50
32.16
31.72
3i'
50
8.25-
31.88
31.07
30.35
e9.6i
2b!o&
28.88
28.50
28.
.29
45
;^°-f4 "
28.40
27.63
27.11
26.47
23.78
25.82
25.49
25.
,31
40
'12.8? -
i&.iS •
25.40
24.75
24.31
23.46
23.24
22.37
22,
.81
35
23.03
22.45
22.07
21.58
21.30
21.09
20.87
20,
.72
W - Wei
ght of
LocomotiTe (En
glne «t
Tender)
In Tons
speed, exclusive of time stopped, for various distances between stops; also the horsepower-
hours per 1,000 gross ton-miles trailing weight.
Suppose we wish to determine what the effect would be on coal and water con-
sumption and power requirements if we increased the maximum speed of certain coal
trains from 45 miles per hour to 60 miles per hour, the locomotives used in this service
being a 2-10-2 type, weight on drivers 175 tons, weight of locomotives 240 tons and
weight of locomotive (engine and tender) 420 tons. From Table 1 we find that at the
maximum speed of 45 miles per hour, a trailing weight can be hauled equal to 13.74
times the weight of the locomotive, or 13.74 times 420 tons or 5,771 tons. At the maxi-
mum speed of 60 miles per hour a trailing weight of only 7.56 times 420 tons or 3,175
tons can be hauled. From this it can be seen that in order to haul any given volume of
coal per month, say 100,000 tons, at a maximum speed of 60 miles per hour instead of
45 miles per hour, would require an increase of over 80 percent in the number of loco-
motives and trains. This increase in the number of trains would also result in the same
percentage increase in delays, as delays per train vary directly with the number of trains.
Wages of train and engine crews would also be increased as well as equipment repairs.
From Table 1 we can also obtain the number of horsepower-hours required per
1,000 gross ton-miles. For a maximum speed of 45 miles per hour and a distance between
stops of 25 miles, the horsepower-hours per 1,000 gross ton-miles are 21.31. For a maxi-
mum speed of 60 miles per hour and a distance between stops of 25 miles the horsepower-
hours per 1,000 gross ton-miles are 29.62. So it is evident that in order to handle any
given number of gross ton-miles at this increased maximum speed will require an increase
in coal and water consumption of approximately 40 percent.
A prehminary study of the effect of any other increase in maximum speed on power
requirements and fuel and water consumption can be obtained in the same manner as
above.
The following exhibit is a more detailed discussion of the factors involved and con-
ditions to be considered if a detailed study of the effects of proposed increased speeds
is desired.
58 Economics of Railway Location and Operation
Exhibit A
In studying the cost of operating high speed trains it is important to begin with an
analysis of some of the fundamental factors which determine the feasibility of the service
and which also have an effect on the cost.
The tables in the body of the report establish the relation which exists between
certain of those factors; for example, the relation between the weight of the train and
the weight of the locomotive to obtain any desired speed on various grades for three
classes of trains, namely passenger trains, coal and ore trains and manifest freight trains.
The tables also show the relation between the maximum and average speed for
trains on level tangent track making frequent stops, and the horsepower-hours required
to obtain these average speeds. The average speeds do not include any allowance for the
duration of stops because this time is a variable which must be allowed for separately.
The horsepower-hours are based on the boiler output (excluding power for aux-
iliaries) and therefore are proportional to the fuel and water required to perform the
desired service. Thus in the early stages the feasibility of performing any service and
the magnitude of some of the items involved can be partially determined from these
tables.
In developing the tables for steam locomotives it has been necessary to take account
of some of the factors connected with the design and also some of those which have to
do with operation. The purpose of this exhibit is to present some explanatory notes
regarding those details for reference in case they are desired.
I. Design
(a) Tracking qualities of locomotives
(b) Weights of locomotives
(c) Horsepower capacities
(d) Types of trains
(e) Train resistance
II. Operation
(a) Grades and curves
(b) Weights of trains
(c) Frequency of stops
(d) Slow downs
(e) Power consumption
I. Design
(a) Tracking qualities. — The tracking qualities of a locomotive depend upon the
mechanical design and construction and are more or less reflected by the wheel arrange-
ment.
(b) Weights of locomotives. — The weights of locomotives depend upon the wheel
arrangement and the permissible weight per axle which in turn is fixed by or determines
the type of roadbed and track construction that is suitable for their operation.
(c) Horsepower capacity. — Theoretically the horsepower capacity of a locomotive
depends upon its physical dimensions and allowable weight subject to design experience
and skill.
For the purpose of this discussion it is assumed that the weight, tracking qualities
and horsepower capacities of typical steam locomotives are as set forth in Table 1601
on page 16-15 of the Manual.
Tables 3 to 13 are divided into six groups based on 37.5, 35.0, 32.5, 30.0, 27.5 and
25.0 horsepower per ton on drivers. These horsepowers are typical of one or more types
Economics of Railway Location and Operation
59
TABLE NO. 3
PASSENGER OR COAL AND ORE ISMSS
CRODP I (37,5 HP PER TON ON DRTVERS)
Typical locomotives 4-4-2
Weigit on Drivers 70 Tons
Weight of Engine I43 "
Weight of LoeomotlTe (Engine & Tender) 253 "
Ratio of
Weights
1.00
2.04
J.62
AVERACE SPEED
EXCLDSIVE OF TIME STOPPED
MAI
110
100
WEIGET OP TRAIN
(TRAimro wExom) 20
•95 w 7SI
1.51
2.25
3.29
2*)
T3T30"
40
72.60 76.4D 79
66.15 69.60 72.20
59.50 62.50 64.70
MILES BETWEEN STOPS
30 40 50 60 80 100
.70 21.40 24-55 2'''* 95*^ 101.75
.40 88.40 91 .00 92.70
.85 78.40 80.10 82.40 83.80
.05 70.15 71.60 73.50 74.80
HP HRS. PER 1000 GROSS TON MILES (TRAILING)
127.26 122.10 iia.as 11^.85 110.96 109.04 106.62 105.16
88.00 84.AO 81.92 78.73 76.70 75.30 73.70 72.70
65.21 62.64. 60.82 58.40 56.96 55.97 54.77 54.05
50.00 48.06 46,63 44.81 43.72 42.99 42.09 41.54
110
.95 w
100
1.51-
^
(2.25 "
3.29 "
11 - Weight of LoeomotlTe (Engine & Tender) in Ions.
TABLE NO. 4
PASSENGER OR COAL AND ORE TRAINS
ORODP II (35.0 HP PER TON ON DRIVERS)
IVplcal LocomotlTes
Weight on Drivers
Weight of Engine
Weight of Locomotive (Engine 4 Tender)
4-4-2
70 Tons
128 "
ider) 224 "
4-6-4
105 Tons
192 "
337 "
AVERACE SPEED
Ratio of
Weights
1.00
1.82
3-21
EXCIDSIVE OF TIME STOPTBD
MAX
WEiarr of train
SPEED
(TRAIUNO WEIGHT) 20
100
1-73 w 7i.b5
2.56 " 65.60
3.61 « 59 .iO
5.10 •• 52.60
^
7.40 " 45.33
^5
9.00 " 41.56
10.90 " 37.83
50
45
13.40 " 33.92
laiES HETlffiEN STOPS
':n
HP HRS. PER 1000 CROSS TON MILES (TRAILING)
79.5? 76.99 73.71 70.64 68.73 67.45
50.99
40.42
32.39
26.10
23.32
21.15
I9.I6
"^4:90
50.28
39.86
31.96
25.79
23.08
20.95
18.94
LOO
3.61
11
5.10
7.40
55
9.00
50
10.90
45
13.40
.16
48.10
38.15
30.69
27.39
24.76
22.36
58.63
46.15
36.78
29.49
26.75
23.82
21.53
51
44.«2
35.80
28.52
25,40
23.18
20.95
54.54
43.15
34.50
27.63
24.72
22.39
20.23
53.12
42.03
33.65
27.01
24.17
21.91
19.80
52.17
41.31
33.04
26,61
23.81
21.59
i9.52
Yf - Weight of locomotive (Engine k Tender) in Tons,
60
Economics of Railway Location and Operation
TABLE KO.3
PASSENGER OR COAL AND ORE -TRAINS
GROUP III (32.5 HP PER TON ON DRITERS)
Typical Locomotives 4-6-2 2-8-4 4-8-4
Weight on Drivers 105 Tons I40 Tons I4D Tans
Weight of Engine 173 " 230 " 230 "
Weight of Locomotive (Engine & Tender) 302 " 404 " 404 "
Ratio of
Weights
1.00
1.65
2.88
AVERAGE SPEED
EZCLDSIVE OF TIME STOPPED
WEIGHT OF TRAIN
(TRAILING WEKarr) 20
2a
7^50"
69.90
63.00
55.55
47.9')
MIES BEIV/EEN STOPS
30 40 "iO 60
Ho. 00
72.30
65.30
76.10
68.20
60.20
51.90
47.65
43.50
39.07
^
100
1.79 w
2.59 -
3.70 "
5.26 "
7.61-
9.22 "
11,13 "
13.80 ••
72. bo
66.40
60.10
53.00
45.85
42.05
38.46
34.55
44.05
40.35
36.22
49.
45.65
41.70
37.45
50
78.50
^ 30
80.20
70
70.30 71.70 73.65 7.
61.95 03.15 64.75 6|
40.13
b3
54
49.85
45.48
40.90
12.40
3.65
55.65
51.05
46.55
41.85
74.85
56.A6
51. §0
47.18
42.42
HP HRS. PER 1000 CROSS TON IglJS (TRAILING)
80T9O
LOO
1.79 w
^
2.59 -
3.70 -
S
5.26-
7.61 -
55
9.22 ••
50
11.13 "
45
13.80 "
77,24
61.^4 55,30
48,07 46,28
38.36 36.97
30.57 25.49
27.46 26.44
24.76 23.86 23.i(
22.15 21.37 20.83
75.30
57.71
44.94
35-27
28.89
25.74
72.22
55.38
43-
34.
27.
24.87
22.51
20. 16
70.41
54.00
42.30
33.83
27.11
24.35
22.07
19.76
53.0S
41.61
33.30
26.70
24.00
21.77
19.50
bb.70
51.23
40.21
32.25
25.91
23.30
21.17
18.96
W - Weight of Locomotive (Engine * Tender) in Tons.
TABLE NO. 6
PASSENGER OR COAL AND ORE TRAINS
GROUP IV (30 HP PER TON ON DRIVERS)
TTjioal Locomotives 4-8-2
Weight on Drivers 140 Tons
Weight of Engine 210 "
Weight of Locomotive (Engine k Tender) 364 "
AVERAGE SPEED
2-8-4
140 Tons
210 "
364 -
EXCLUSIVE OF TDffl STOPPED
2-10-4
175 Tons
262 "
455 "
WEIGHT OF TRAIN
(TRAILING WEIGHT) 20
7.77 "
9.40 "
11.50 "
14.00 "
17.40 "
21.70 "
27.30 "
34.30 "
46.18
42.52
38.71
35.1^
-25
MII£S BETWEEN STOPS
30 40 50 60
31.25
27.35
3.25
5.79
44.50
40.60
36.75
32.70
28.60
24.35
19.75
57:80
49.90
46.00
41.92
37.92
33.70
29.50
25.13
20.47
bo. 50
52.13
48.00
43.70
39.45
35.11
30.72
26.20
21.44
b2.10 b3.35
53.53 54.50
49.20 50.05
44.82 45,63
40,45 41,15
80
35.9t
26,87
22,08
36,60
32,02
27.35
22,52
-^
55.K)
51,20
46,65
42,05
37.40
32-73
27.97
23,10
Ratio of
Weights
1.00
1.50
2.60
100
56.60
51.90
47.30
42.62
37.90
33.15
28,35
23.45
HP. HBS, PER 1000 GROSS TON HILES (TRAILING)
s
5.3rfw
7.77 "
5*)
9.40 "
50
11.50 "
45
14.00 "
40
17.40 -
55
21.70 "
}0
27.30 "
25
34.30 -
3tl.ll 3b. 7,
30.44
27.26
24.44
22.10
15.87
18,07
16,72
16.30
29.38
26,29
23.53
21.07
28.60
34.45
28.60 27.64
25,63 24.80 24,31
22.52 22.25 21. "
20.81 20.18
19.22 18.78 18.23
17,49 17.10 16.62
16.19 15.83 15.39
15.73,, 15.35 14.87
33.b? 33.1b
27.06 26.
19.81
.90
lb.32
15.13
14.59
.68
23.98
21.51
19.56
7.90 17.69 17.41
6.32 16.13 15.89
14.95
14.40
32. bl
26.20
23.56
21.15
19.25
17.
15.89
H.73
14.16
32.14
25.91
23.31
20,93
19,06
17.25
15.74
14,60
14.02
W - Weight of Locomotive (Engine k Tender) in Tons.
Economics of Railway Location and Operation
61
TABI£ KO. 7
PASSEKCER OR COAL JUTO ORE TRAINS
CROUP V (27.5 HP PER TON OK DRIVERS)
Eat.'^o of
typical LoeomotlTea
2-8-2
2-10-2
Wei6,^t3
Weight on Drlvera
140 Tons
175 Tons
1.00
Weight of Engine
192 -
240 "
1.37
Weight of Locomotive (Engine ft, Tender)
336 "
420 "
2.40
AVERAGE SPEED
KXDLDSIVB OF TIME STOPPED
MAX
-lo-
ss
50
45
40
35
30
25
WEIOT OF TRAIN
(TRAILING WEIGgIT)
7.5a W -
9.19 -
11.20 "
13.80 "
17,30 -
a. 70 »
27.50 -
35.00 -
MtUES HETOEEN STOPS
20 2'i 30 40 'jO &0
Ab.37 4H.53 I '^0.20 ^2.35 53.70 54-70
80
42.93
39.30
35^
31.68
27.80
23.75
19.35
44.95 46.30 48.20 49.45
41,07
37.15
33.06
29.02
24.78
20.25
38!28
34.05
29.85
25.53
20.93
44,02
39.75
35.35
31,00
45,10
40,70
36.21
31.73
27.15
22.38
50,
45.Bfe
36!8o
32.23
27.60
22.78
55.90
51.40
46,82
42,22
37.55
32,90
28,15
23.28
100
IST70
52.10
47.42
42.75
38.03
29
^
23,62
HP HRS. PER 1000 CROSS TON MILES (TRAILING)
28.09
25.11
22,60
20.25
18,14
16,45
15.08
4.28
2b.b5
23.88
21.56
19. 3&
17.3b
15.78
^11
"2^
23.63
21.35
19.19
17.21
15.64
14.35
13.5b
"Go"
55
50
45
40
35
30
25
7.58 w
9.19 "
11.20 "
13.80 "
17.30 "
21.70 "
27.50 "
35.00 "
30:9b
27,52
24.70
22.03
19.69
17.80
j,b.29
^^5-49
i:
23,85
21,32
19.07
17.26
15.80
15.01
29.05
25.93
23.^0
20.84
18.65
16.88
27.52
24.63
22.19
19,90
16.18
14.87
H.04
27.13
24.29
21.91
I9.&6
17.62
16.00
W - Welgh^ of Locomotive (Engine ft Tender) In Tons.
TABLE NO. 8
PASSENGER OR COAL AND ORE TRAINS
CROUP VI (25.0 HP PER TON ON DRIVERS)
typical Locomotives
Weight on Drivers
Weight of Engine
Weight of locomotive (Engine ft Tender)
Ratio of
- 6 ;« 6 - 4
4-6/6-4
Weights
210 ibas
210 Tbns
1.00
300 '•
300 "
1.43
462 "
462 "
2.20
AVERAGE SPEED
EJOCIDSIVE 07 TIME STOPPED
UAX
SPEED
-Eo"
55
50
45
40
35
30
25
WEICST OF TRAIN
(TRAILIKB.WEIGHT)
7.45
9,04
11,10
13.70
17,10
21.70
27,50
35.40
J^
MLES BETOKEN STOPS
30 40 50 60
4fa,9b 49,00 I 50,b0 52,fa5 54,00 ^4,90
43.35 I 45.50 46.65 48.50 49.65 50,50
1 41.30 42,55 44,20 45,25 46,00
80
5b, 10
51,60
46,95
42,30
37.65
3^.01
28,30
23.50
5b. 85
52.25
47,50
42,80
38,12
28,65
23,80
BP HRS, PER 1000 GBOeS TON MILES (TRAILIHC)
bo
7.45 w
55
9,04 "
50
11,10 "
45
13,70 "
40
17.10 "
55
21.70 »
30
27.50 "
25
35.40 "
21.9
19,51
17.44
15.95
14.93
V - Weight of Locomotive (Engine ft Tender) in Tons.
62
Economics of Railway Location and Ope ration
TABLE DO. 9
MANIFEST FHBICnr TRADE
GROUP II (35.0 HP PER TON ON DEITORS)
Typical locomotives 4-4-2
XelgHt on DrlTsrS 7° ^°s
Weight of Engine 128 "
Welgtt of LocomotlTe (Engine 4. Tender) 224 "
4 -'6 - 4
105 Tbns
192 "
337 "
AVERAGE SPEED
Ratio of
HelBhts
1.00
1.82
3.21
■EKIDSIVE OF TDCE STOPPED
WEICIiT OF TRAIN
(TRAILING WEIGHT)
47T85
43.83
39.90
35.77
Jl.
57.75
49.85
45.70
41.57
37.30
MILES BETWEEN STOPS
30 40 50 60
59.20 bi.85 63.30 64.35
51.30
47.00
42.77
38.40
25
54.45
49.90
45.40
40.80
55.30
50.70
46.10
41.45
65.70
56.40
51.75
47.05
42.28
100
bb.50
57.10
52.35
47.60
42.80
HP HRS. PER 1000 GROSS TON MILES (TRAILING)
:Er-^ -^ — '-^^
45.86 48.72 47.29 4b.43
38.78 38.32 37.27 36.64
34.74 34.00 33.07 32.51
31.71 30.43 29.63 2S.14
27.97 27.39 26.66 26.23
36.23
28.82
25-93
3.60 w
5.33"
6.55 -
8.00 -
9.90 "
51.49
fa
28.84
45.15
35.68
31.67
28.42
25.57
44.72
35.38
31.39
28.17
25.35
Weight of LocouDtive (Engine &. Tender) in Tons.
TABIS NO. 10
MANIFEST FREICSn' TRAINS
GROUP III (32.5 HP PER TON ON DRIVERS)
Ratio Of
Typical LoooaotliTBS
4-6-2
2-8-4
4-8-4
Weights
Weight on Drivers
105 Tone
140 Ttons
140 Tbns
1.00
Mei,>;ht of Engine
173 "
230 "
230 -
Weight of LocoQOtlve (Engine i Tender)
302 "
404 "
404 -
AVERAGE SPEED
EXCLUSIVE OF TBIE STOPPED
WEIG!!T OF TRAIN
(TRAILING aEICTT)
MILES BETWEEN STOPS
2*1 30 40 50 60 i
58.40 60.10 62.30 63.70 64.70 6'
3.82 W
5.60
6.80
8.26
10. vl
12.70
I'i.So
53.40 54.to 55.40
49.00 50.10 51.00
44.70 45.67 46.J3
40.13 41.02 41.63
35.70 36.48 37.03
31.17 31.90 32.35
95
56.50
51.90
47.20
42.45
37.73
33.00
66.71
57.17
52.46
47.75
42.95
38.17
33.36
HP HKS. PER 1000 CROSS TON MI1£S (TRAILING)
cry -ii aH AC 'Zi^r'jr{''''7trYr\ /(C IP
50.13 48.45 47.41 46.16 ^
39.81 38.51 37.70 36.69 3
44.80
35.67
3i'22
28.83
25.67
23-39
21.48
ZEzT
.60 "
.80 -
1.26 -
.31 "
35
31.8b
28.39
25.77
23.65
34-42
30.95
27.57
25.05
23.00
33.71
30.34
27.03
24.5b
22.57
32.81
29.58
23.98
22.02
$:
32
32.27
29.13
25 -gs
23.63
21.70
44.14
35.16
31.44
28.45
25.33
23.09
21.21
u
31.20
28.22
25.13
22.91
21.05
W - Weight of Locomotive (Engine k. Tender) In Ttona.
Economics of Railway Location and Operation
63
TABLE RO. 11
MAMirasT FREIGHT TRAINS
GEODP IV (30.0 HP PER TON ON DRIVERS)
Ratio of
lypical LoconotlTOB
4-8-
2 2
-8-4
2-10-
4
Weights
Weight
on Drivers
140 Tona 140
Tons
^^1^
ns
1.00
WelBht
of Engine
210 "
210
"
2.60
Weight
of LocoootiTe
(Engine & Tender)
364 "
364
"
455 "
AVERAGE SPEED
EXCLDSIVE OF
TBffi STOPPED
MAX
JffllGHT OF TRAIN
IQIES
HETWEN STOPS
SPEED
(TRAILING WEIGHT)
20
25
30
40
50
60
80
100
S
3.90 W
48.35
1 5a-30
bO.OO
b2.20
b3.bo
fa4.bo
feES
66.68
5.71 "
1-95 "
50. io
51-70
55-55
54.72
55.50
57.25
v>
44.50
46.30
47.58
49.25
50.50
51.00
51.95
52.55
47.78
■50
8.51 "
40.58
36.66
42-15
38.08
43.30
44.80
45.75
46.40
41.80
47.25
45
10.50 "
39.06
4D.40
41.25
fd
43.04
38.27
40
13.05 "
15.30 -
32. b3
33.88
34.76
35.93
3b.b9
37.20
35
2ti.53
29.62
30,40
31.42
32.07
32.53
33.10
33-44
HP BBS. PER 1000 GROSS TON MILES (TRAILING)
4OT^
35.68
31.88
28.55
25.71
23.21
21.15
3.90 W
60
5.71
6.95
55
50
8.51
45
10.50
40
13.05
35
16.30
50.01
39.64
35.32
31.50
28.27
25.44
23.17
4p4
38.46
34.29
30.62
27.54
24.77
22.57
33.60
30.03
26.99
24.33
22.18
4ba3
36.67
32.74
29.29
26.35
45
3b
32.22
28.85
25.97
23.44
21.39
44.12
35.18
31.45
28.13
25.34
22.93
20.95
34.§8
31.19
27.96
25.19
22.77
20.80
W - Weight of Locomotive (Engine & Tender) in Tons.
TABU! DO. 12
M&HIFEST FREIGET TRAINS
(HWnP V {27.5 HP PHJ TON ON DRTVaS)
Typical LoooootlTes Z ~ % 1- Z 2-10-2
Weight on Drirers I4D Tons 175 Ttons
Weight of Engine igs " 240 "
Weight of Locomotive (Engine & Tender) 336 " 42O "
Ratio of
Weights
1.00
1.37
2.40
AVERACZ SPEED
B3tCLDSIVE OF TIME STOPPED
MAX WEIGHT OF TRAIN
SPEED (TRAILING WEIGHT)
3.79 W
5.57
6.79
8.29
10.29
12.90
16.27
MILES EEIVIEEN STOPS
40
44.85
41.07
37.10
33.02
28.95
50.60
46.60
42.65
38.46
34.21
30,00
30
bo. 20
51.70
47.60
43.68
39.41
35.07
30.72
40.
62;
53.80
49.45
45.10
40.67
36.18
31.67
.^
63,80
54.90
50.47
46.00
41.47
36.87
32.30
60
b4.70
55.70
51.15
46.60
42.05
37.38
32.72
80
fab. 00
56.70
52.10
47.40
42.75
38.00
33.27
bb:??
57.34
52.65
47.91
45. iz
38.38
33.61
HP HRS. PER 1000 GROSS TON MIIJS (TRAILING)
3.79 "
5.57
b.79
8.29
10.29
12.90
16.27
51.12 49,5b 45,49 47.ib 4b.35
40.17 39,00 38,22 37,24 36.65
35.70 34.69 34.01
31.90 31.05 30.48
28.36 27.63 27.15
24.69
22.31
24.27
21.94
33.17
29.78
26.55
23.75
21.48
32.67
m
23.44
21.21
36.26
32.33
29.07
25.95
23.23
21.02
45.15
35.77
31-91
28.71
25.65
22.96
20.79
44.75
28/50
25.46
22. 81
20.66
W - Weight of locomotive (Engine & Tender) in Tona.
64
Economics of Railway Location and Operation
mflLE NO. 13
MAKIPEST FREIGHT TRAINS
OHOUP VI (25.0 HP KS TON ON DRIVERS)
Typical loeomotlTes 2 - G / 6 - 4
Weight on Drlrera 210 Tons
Weight of Engine 300 "
Weight of locomotive (Engine 8: Tender) 462 "
MAX
55
50
45
40
35
AVERAGE SPEED
EXCUJSIVE OF TIME STOPPED
WEIGHT OF TRAIN
UIIES EETOEEN STOPS
(TRAIUNG WEIGBT) 20 2') 30 40
8.18
10.22
12.81
16.33
49.15
45.28
41.45
37.43
33.45
29.23
51.00
46.95
42.90
58.73
34.60
30.25
52.30
48.15
43.95
39. b5
35.40
30.95
54.02
49.68
40*.88
36.45
31.90
.32-
-6/6-4
210 Tons
300 "
462 "
60 80
55-12
50.65
46.17
41.65
37.10
32.45
55.90
51.35
46.77
42.17
37.55
32.85
56.85
52.20
47.57
42.85
38.IJ
33.38
Ratio of
Weights
1.00
1.43
2.20
100
"57^
52.74
48.02
43.25
38.50
33.69
HP HRS. PER 1000 CBOSS TON MILES (TRAIIJNC) ^_
p.A7 w 40.21 39.09 3b.34 37.41 3b.H5 3b.47 3b.oi 35
8.18
10.22
12.81
16.33
35.70 34.74 34.10 J3.31 32.83 32.51 32.11 31.88
32.09 31.00 30.47 2^.79 25.39 29.12 28.79 28.58
28.15 27.46 27.00 26.43 26.09 25.86 25.57 25.40
23.13 22.89 22.74
20.72 20.51 20.38
25
:ll
24.48 24.09 23.61 23
22.43 21.92 21.57 21.14 20.89
■M
W - Weight of Locomotive (Engine is. Tender) in Tons.
of locomotives which are shown at the top of each table and correspond to the definite
weight distributions shown in the right-hand columns in the headings for each table.
For example, it is assumed that for locomotives in Group II the engine weighs 1.82 tons
and the engine and tender weighs 3.21 tons for every ton on drivers and for Group III
the engine weighs 1.65 tons and the engine and tender 2.88 tons per ton on drivers.
Thus the ratio of the weight of the engine to the weight on drivers will indicate in
which group (or between which groups) the locomotive belongs. It is then necessary
to assume what the weight of the locomotive (engine and tender) is, obtaining this
weight by multiplying the weight on drivers by the corresponding ratio shown for
typical locomotives, which in the case of Group II is 3.21 and for Group III is 2.88.
(d) Types of trains. — In practice there are four types of trains which need to be
considered, namely, passenger trains, coal and ore trains, manifest freight trains and
trains consisting of empty cars.
It is assumed that typical passenger trains will consist of 60-ton vestibule cars, coal
and ore trains of 80-ton freight cars and manifest freight trains of 45-ton freight cars.
No data have been worked up for empty trains.
Modern types of passenger cars are lighter than standard vestibule equipment and
are streamlined which would be expected to modify the results of passenger train oper-
ation. The following discussion on train resistance clarifies this point.
(e) Train resistance. — The resistances of the tj^pical trains have been based on the
Davis formulas because they are regarded as more or less standard and because the re-
sults of some recent high speed tests made by the Mechanical Division with a train com-
posed of 60-ton vestibule passenger cars checked closely with the Davis formulas and
other tests with 80-ton freight cars also conformed with the Davis formula.
By referring to Fig. 1 it will be seen that the resistances of 60-ton vestibule passenger
cars and 80-ton freight cars as obtained by the Davis formulas are practically the same.
Economics of Railway Location and Operation
65
14
13
ja 12
/
/
r
/i^
/
/
/
/
/
f
/
/
y
A
/
^
X
^r^
y
/
--•
/
^
y
y
^
y^'
"^^^
^\
\
,.-
^
>^
^
^
^
^
^
--^
s^"
??
^^^
--^
A- Resistance 45
B- Resistance 50
C- Resistance 50
D- Resistance 60
E- Resistance 60
ton
ton
ton
ton
ton
freight car
vestibule passenger car
stream lined pass cor
vestibule passenger car
freight car
^
D^
EG
40 50 feO
Miles per hour
70
60
90
100
Fig. 1. — Chart of Davis Formulas for Train Resistances of Passenger and Freight Cars.
For this reason data pertaining to coal and ore trains also apply to passenger trains
composed of 60-ton vestibule cars.
If it is assumed that streamlining reduces the effective cross section of passenger cars
25 percent then the resistance of SO-ton streamlined cars will also approximate the re-
sistance of 80-ton freight cars and the same data will apply to 50-ton streamlined
passenger cars.
Ordinarily it can be assumed that any other steps, such as articulation or reduced
cross section which are available for reducing the weight of passenger cars still further,
will reduce the resistance of the train. Consequently on this basis the data given for coal
and ore trains cover a wide variety of passenger trains of the same total weight.
In the case of freight trains there is no practical way to compensate for the higher
resistance of the lighter weight per car, hence it has been necessary to work up separate
tables based on 45-ton cars for manifest freight trains. These tables are shorter than
those for passenger or coal and ore trains because there is practically no demand for
speeds in excess of 70 miles per hour or for trains in excess of 140 to 150 cars in manifest
service.
II. Operation
(a) Grades and curves. — Grades and curves have a modifying effect on all the
relations which are shown in the tables, because they effect the train resistance, the speed
and weight of trains, and also the power consumption. These effects are in some respects
susceptible of mathematical determination but they are also the cause of speed restrictions
which are unpredictable.
66
Economics of Railway Location and Op e r a t i o n
TABLE NO. 14
UASUDU SFEEIS HI'S TARIOtlS WEIOBT TRAINS
ON M?FERENT GRADES
PASSENGEER OR COAL AND ORE TRAINS
UMC
-BISCEMT
(SJJE
SPEED
-0.2
-0,1
Lerel
0.1
0.2
0.4
0.6
1.0
110
1.69 w
1.26 W
.95 1^
1.70 "
.71 w
.52 W
.25 w
.66-
.07 W
0.00 w
100
2.91 -
2.19 "
1.33"
1.0b -
.06 -
^
4.35"
b.59 -
3.21 -
.2.47 "
1.95"
1.56 -
1.04 -
.26 -
4.66 -
3.53-
3:
2.23 -
3.28-
4.58-
1.52 -
1.06 "
.51 "
S
10.62 "
17.3? "
23.06 -
J>^:
5.2p -
7.56-
2.25 •
3.14"
1.62 -
2.29 "
.90 ;;
W
13.30 -
16.65 -
9.17 -
6.48 -
3.72 "
2.72-
1.62 -
•jO
31.27-
11.17 "
8.25 -
4.40 -
3.23-
1-94 -
A-J
21.24 "
13.74 -
10.01 -
7.79 -
5.27 -
6.40 -
3.87-
40
27.84-
36.74 "
17.27-
12.35 "
11.'64 -
4.70 -
2.91 "
3^
21.70 -
18.84 "
7.75 -
5.70 -
6.90 -
3.56"
^0
27.43 "
14.24-
9.40 -
4.33 -
25
34.90-
23.37 "
17.45 "
U.42 -
8.34"
5.27-
W - Weight of LoeomotlTe (Engine fc Tender) In Tons.
TABLE- NO. 15
UAXQTOM SPEEDS WITH VARIOUS WEIGMT TRAINS
ON DIFFERENT GRADES
MANITEST FREIGHT TRAINS
MAX
PERCENT
GRADE
SPEED
-0.2
-0.1
Level 0.1
0.2
O.A
0.6
1.0
^
b.30 w
4-75 *
3.78 W
3.10 w
2.59 W
3,69 "
1.87 W
2.66 -
1.38 w
.79 w
9.76 "
i:i:
5.54"
4.46 "
2.00 "
1.20 -
5")
12.52 -
6.75 "
5-39 "
4-43 "
3.19 -
2-28 "
1.49 -
50
16.25 "
11.05 "
8.25"
6.52 -
5-33 "
3.80-
2.86 -
1.79 "
4'j
1A.03 -
18. 12 -
10.24 "
7,97 "
6.49 "
4.60 "
3-47 "
2.19 "
40
12.87 "
16. iS -
9.08 -
7.95 "
5.61 "
4.24 "
2.70 "
35
12.23 "
9.75 "
6.83"
5.15 -
3.31 -
W - Weight of LoeomotlTe (Engine & Tender) In Tons.
(b) Weights of trains. — Tables 14 and IS show the relation between the maximum
speed and weight of train for a number of different grades starting with — 0.2 percent
and increasing up to +10 percent. These data are only indicative because they are diffi-
cult to apply in practice, so that over an actual profile it is generally necessary in the
final analysis to resort to first principles.
(c) Frequency of stops. — The relation of the average speed to the maximum speed
for trains on level track making frequent stops varies somewhat with different types of
locomotives. When the distance between stops is short it is sometimes impossible for the
train to reach maximum speed before applying brakes. In this study, the ratio of average
speed to maximum speed is based upon:
1. Operation of the locomotive at normal capacity
2. An assumed uniform braking distance for all speeds of 75 miles per hour or less
and a uniform retardation rate for speeds in excess of 7S miles per hour
Economics of Railway Location and Operation 67
Normal horsepower capacities are based on Table 1601 in the Manual. The time and
distance consumed in braking will vary with the type of train, speed, manner in which
brakes are applied and the type of brake equipment. Tables 1 to 13 are based on the
average of several classes of locomotives and give a reasonably close approximation of
speed relations. Should the method outlined be employed in the examination of any
typical operation, appropriate factors, applicable to the service on the railway involved,
must be substituted. The heavy dividing lines in the tables have been inserted to indi-
cate the approximate distance between stops required, under the stated conditions of
acceleration and braking, to permit the attainment of maximum speed before the brakes
must be applied.
When using these tables it is important to adjust for the duration of stops, and
include an allowance for slow downs.
(d) Slow downs. — It is variously estimated that two to three slow downs from
maximum to 70 percent speed on level track for a distance of ^ mile are equivalent to
making a stop. Two slow downs correspond to high speed passenger trains and three
slow downs to slow speed drag freight trains.
The time lost making stops can be obtained by speed-time-distance calculations
according to the method presented in Chapter 16 of the Manual.
(e) Power consumption. — The horsepower-hours are based on the normal output of
the boiler exclusive of auxiliaries. It is generally assumed that 1.0 horsepower-hour is
equivalent to IS lb. of steam, and that 15 lb. of steam corresponds to 30,000 to 32,000
B.t.u. fired, or about 2.3 lb. of 13,000 to 14,000 B.t.u. of coal per horsepower-hour.
Some authorities include the steam required for auxiliaries and use 18 lb. of steam
per horsepower-hour or 36,000 to 39,000 B.t.u. fired. This is equivalent to about 2.75 lb.
coal per horsepower-hour. In the final analysis it is usually more satisfactory to make
separate allowances for auxiliaries.
Conclusions
It will appear from the application of the data contained in these tables that high
speed has a wide-spread influence not only as regards fuel and water consumption, crew
wages, and way and equipment maintenance, but also as regards capital expenditures.
Actually, the operating expenses and capital expenditures will very likely be greater
than those anticipated, based on the theoretical data presented in this report.
This report is offered as information.
68 Economics of Railway Location and Operation
Report on Assignment 8
Economics of Railway Location and Operation as Affected by
Railway Electrification
Collaborating with Electrical Section, Engineering Division, AAR
E. E. King (chairman, subcommittee), T. B. Ballantyne, V. T. Boughton, L. E. Dale,
E. K. Eugene, F. N. Nye, E. H. Roth, H. A. Shinkle, C. B. Stanton, H. M. Stout.
This year the subcommittee has brought together data on the electrification of steam
railroads in Mexico, Cuba, Costa Rica, Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Venezeula,
Australia, and New Zealand. These data are shown in- Table 1. The materials for all of
these countries except Brazil were obtained by United States consuls, commercial attaches,
and trade commissioners in those several countries upon the request of the Railway
Section, Transportation Division, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, Depart-
ment of Commerce of the United States. The division has been very generous in its help
in getting together these data for the use of the subcommittee. The information on the
PauUsta Railway in Brazil was obtained directly from charts, profiles, and tables secured
by the United States embassy in Rio de Janeiro. That for the other two lines in Brazil,
the Western Minas and the Central Railway of Brazil, was obtained from the report of
the Electrification committee of the National Electric Light Association as indicated in
its last issue, Publication No. 247, March 1933, Electrification of Steam Railways, and
from the issues of the Railway Gazette, London.
Table 1 shows the locations of the electrified sections, the gage of the track, the total
number of miles electrified, and gives information concerning tunnels, ruling grades, sys-
tems of electrification, kinds of traffic involved, number and capacity of motive-power
units, energy requirements, and reasons for electrification. As the last column of the table
indicates, some of these lines were electrified on account of tunnel operation, some on
account of heavy grades, some on account of scarcity of fuel, some on account of density
of traffic, and some to bring about general economy in operation.
Practically all installations are direct current with overhead type of distribution
system. The voltages on the d.c. projects vary from 600 to 3,000. The only a.c. installa-
tions are on the Pacific Electric Railway in Costa Rica, where the power is single phase
with a voltage of 15,000, and on the Guaqui to La Paz Railway in Bolivia, where the
power is three phase with a voltage of S7S. In suburban service, motor cars are com-
monly used, but for through freight and passenger service, locomotives are generally
employed.
With the exception of one line. The Chile Iron Mines Company, the report includes
only those lines that were at one time operated wholly or in part by steam power, but
which are now operated in part, at least, by electric power supplied from a central
station.
It was the intention of the subcommittee to secure data on all of electrified lines of
the eastern hemisphere as well as those of the western, but the war conditions have made
this undertaking practically impossible. This completes the study of this phase of the
economics of railway location and operation as affected by railway electrification. It is
hoped that at some later date when conditions throughout the other countries have
become more stabiHzed, that the subcommittee will be able to secure data on their elec-
trifications and to include them in a report similar to this one.
The report is submitted as information.
TABLE 1 PRINCIPAL CHARACTERISTICS OF STEAM RAILROAD ELECTRIFICATIONS ON LINES THROUGHOUT THE WORLD
FOR STATISTICAL YEARS INDICATED
COHTIMENT COUNTPY
Railway
LOCATION
In
MILES
End
of
Stotis-
ticol
Year
RULING CBAEIE
TUNNELS
SYSTEM OF ELECTBlf (CATION
TRin-
CffllOK
BEOUI
TE«
TBIC«
ELECTRIC MOTIVE-POWER EQUIPMENT
kw-hus of eneooy
supplied duoing
the last year
TRAFFIC
AFFECTED
PRINCIPAL REASONS
FOR ELECTI!\F1CATV0N
Routj
Mciin
Trotk
All
rrodo
Cur-
rant
Volts
Pho!! CljCiC
Contod
Line
FREIGHT LOCOMOTIVES
PASSENOER LOCOMOTIVES
rASSENGE«MOTO0.CA«
°h
Lonqth
ft
No
Lengtti
ft.
No
WiiqM
■fens
HP
No
Tn'T
Troeivs
HP
No
WlqH
^EFfc""
«r
Qanandtad
'^J^oho5fl(^
Totol
ConsuTTKd
UNITED STATESi 5cc -c?0- -n 'rocccdrnqi M A
RE. A Vol 40. 1939, page 180
Canada I d,--c
di*to
NORTH
AMERICA
VEXICO
El Pctttdsi Ry 'SwBL-tR Limb)
Nao' Chlhuahuo
30
18
18
23
12/31/58
imn
65l0
1
500
ac
600
-
O.H.
1924
1925
\
"
11400
£l980
200
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
0
1.280,600
1.280,600
Fra'tqht
Qractar Effinonoj of ^Itfc Pcv*ar
Mexican R-c Co Ltd
Espsranza to Po50 del Mocho
56.5
64
64
75
H3«
4.70
52,800
IG
3,4 09
D.C
3000
O.H.
1923
1925
,2C«
1545
54,000
2800
SEE
fRElSIIT
-
-
-
0
17,520,000
r7.520.000
Freiqht
HaovgGroo«5- Conqaa*ion
"fE^VE-' Cusas Rt-
Hovana to Motzano^
56.5
81
81
103
1939
2.50
4,257
"
0
D.C.
1200
-
O.H.
1919
1920
11
60
20,000
820
-
-
21
32,5
1800
220
0
5,241,806
5.241,808
Passenger
Haavq Qmdas, Firti scarce
CU5A
-rn-HE- -E.aM'NaL Rv
Coso Blanco - Pcglo
56.5
35
J5
60
1939
2.11
560
»
0
D.C
1200
-
-
O.H.
1919
1920
u
es Hirshatj
Cuboi
Bq
Dollinq
Stock
LN -E- ^ -WAY5 OF Havana
Movano 8c Suburbs
56i
84.4
I0J2
1432
6/30/39
156
4,560
0
0
D.C.
600
-
O.H.
1905
1906
I
60
?8;88S
loo
!3
11
1
-
-
-
-
0
3.142.610
3,142,810
PQSsenqer&Freiqht
Econonnj
CBnULMQBCA CCS-TA RiCA =i;- = =.EC-a,c Rv
5anJos«''o fV^torcnos Circuclas to
Alaluela.ond El (tobic fo E5parata
n
87
57
92
I93t
2.S0
22,966
1
1,100
A.C.
15,000
1
20
O.H.
1929
1930
■ >'
66
39,648
too
SEE
FREIOI T
13
6,465,400
0
6,465,400
Ganaro! fcFraiqht
Water abundant-, Hiqti Cost af Cool
CEf-:i. isjENT'NE Ch-
66
44
94
120
6/30/39
0.8
5,906
0
0
D.C.
800
-
-
3R
1916
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
5fl
10>0
Bl,123,2!8
0
1!4II,850
Suburban fbsswqtr
Improve Schedules
1 ABDENTINA
2j'yc5 i-qE5 Western Ry.
Buenos Aires to Moreno
66
22
63
82
1937
3.80
410
2
18,762
O.C.
800
-
-
3R
1915
1923
2
70
19,700
920
-
-
-
-
74
S3
13,600
800
0
35,405,460
35,405,460
Fniiqht 1 Suburton
Irnprove Sarvice-. Increas*
Capocjttj, r.jpra' :c<"oticr
-=-EN-"-t T:^NStMDlNE
Bolivia
c-'jtsu' -c -A Pa: By.
Lo Paz to Alto
3M
5
7
9
1939
7.00
1,476
0
0
A.C,
575
3
50
an.
1905
3
22
6500
200
2
220
7200
250
3
100
100
0
469,199
420,000
Rassanqarifrlight
5h0r+ar iiCffn^i j;a i.c-oqe
Grj^leof J!-., Fj,'l=norr,j
Pauusta. Ry
Jundiohij to Rincoo
8311
m
206
252
1939
1.80
29,651
0
0
ac.
3000
-
O.H.
1919
1922
1
If
#
1
1
ill
iS:IJ8
-
-
-
-
Q
69,46^275
69,469,275
fc5Stnqjr8tfrjiqht
Hiqh Cosf of l.-noc-ted Coal
Improve Troffic
Wejtekn Minas By.
Barro Monsa to Auqusto Pestana
39.4
46
48
1953
xm
158,400
O.C.
IbOO
-
O.H.
1927
1929
8
160
-
-
-
-
Passenqjr8< Freiqht
Hi'qh Cost of Lmooried Cool
tfnorove Traffrc
CemHAi. Rt of Bra-zil
R)o do iJon«iro ^o Novo Iquoisu ond
630
27
«2
1937
D.C.
3000
-
O.H.
1916
1937
15
84
1,580
6 MM
US
52
709
-
-
-
-
t^ssenqerfli freight
Dense Troffic; Steep G-ades
BntEKEV STta TO •, WLE IM« MINES ro
Tofo to Cruz Qronde
56J
l.-i
15
186
1939
0
-
(1
0
D,C.
2400
-
O.H.
1914
1922
3
IJO
42.200
1,370
-
-
742,600
0
739,600
Freiqht
MeovLj Grades ; Yfeter sccrte
Chile
:»rt»MA StL'PERA iWLO-O^ILEAN
Totopillo to Tpqre, Toco &. Btdre dtVoldjvio
n
24
24
33
6/30/39
450
126,720
0
0
D.C,
1600
-
O.H.
I9J1
19Z7
7
66
26,460
1,118
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
0
5.465,664
4465,664
Fraiqht * Mixad
Hmvij Grodes; fw! iWotir scarce
Valparaiso to Los And85&.5ontjoqo
fifll
144
181
745
1939
2.25
48 730
6
3i498
ac.
3000
-
O.H.
1921
1924
15
113
34,729
1,680
1268
25,180
-
-
-
-
0
46,387,744
48387 744
P355anqari Fniiqht
HC0V4 Snides. Fwl scarce.
Incraose Copootu
.JVCAL '5\.HEfiMr^HE 0^
Rio Blanco, Chile to Arqentim Bortfcr
«4
n
22
24
1939
8.00
5,709
SI
21,080
D.C.
3000
O.H.
1925
1927
3
94
16,200
886
SEE
FREiqHT
-
-
-
0
602,530
802,530
Possffnqari Freight
-:..-:':,- --f':- i:!' s:rTt
VENEZUELA -- ':.: ■■■- i ■-■■-■ui P-.
Lo OuQira to Coracos
36J1
13
23
25
12/31/36
4.25
101,711
8
1,312
O.C.
1600
-
O.H.
1926
1928
6
353
3.660
456
-
4
30.8
1,180
264
1,560,000
0
592 800
411 Traffic = r : ^ - •.•-.—
OCEANIA
Australia
'^^ ': -- :■•-"_ '"'f^KVEMT PjuLwfirs
Sijcineij & Suburbs
563
94
2SI
281
6/30/39
1!3
''lis
3
20,872
D.C.
1500
-
O.H.
1926
-
-
-
-
-
456
IIS
i'S'.Sm
to
474,259,177
0
203714,725
Possenqcr
:;- ■:' -.-;--:--.^ x-ntw^
V,,.,, .,_ -, „.,.
Melbourne & Suburbs
63.0
173
349
439
6/30/38
3.30
3,168
3
1,075
D.C
1500
OH.
1919
12
616
2^150
620
359
53
179,747,383
3,194
Suburban R3sscnq?r
.n:-:cs: .:r:: %
NEW Zealand
Hew '.■■.J.--Z ;r.i>.ik'£HT Railways
Otira to Arthurs Pass
«
8
8
13
3/31139
J.I6
33,000
1
28,092
ac
1500
-
O.H.
1920
1923
JM
5«
14,000
1240
SEE
FREIQ
HI
-
-
-
1,872,200
R3Ssanqer8L freiqht
Lcpo Turne' i. 5tto Srwlie^t
Chhstchurcti to Lyttleton
12
6
n
19
3/31/39
0.67
3,960
1
8,514
D.C.
1500
-
-
O.H.
1126
1939
jW
56
14,400
H8S
SEE
FBEIS
HT
-
-
-
2,259.960
Subort fciJS.lFrt
Tunnel
Wdlinqton to Poskokoriki
42
16
41
57
3/31/39
1.75
5,280
7
21,3?5
D.C.
1500
-
-
O.H,
1931
,(0)
915
19,000
1240
SEE
FEEIO
n
-
-
-
-
Suburt fVjssfcfraiqfit
Tunnel fltOrodien+s
Wcllinqton to Johnsonville
a.
6
6
s'"
3/31/39
238
700
7
3^104
nc.
IMO
-
-
O.H.
1935
1938
1*"
One of lh« 8 abovo lo b< uiod intsrchonqaobly on
this ond thcWGllinqton-PoskaUonVi Lin«
6
48
10,000
660
1,694,980
3ut>ufb PosvlFrftqht
Tbnnels atC3rTidien*s
en Not includinq Wdllinqton Yard "' Fraiqht kPossinqir 5«™cs .--
E cono m ics of Railway Location and Operation 69
Report on Assignment 11
Train Resistance of Freight Trains Under Various Conditions
o£ Loading and Speed
L. K. Sillcox (chairman, subcommittee), J. A. Anderson, J. W. Barriger III, L. E. Dale,
J. M. Farrin, A. W. Laird, M. F. Mannion, L. G. Morphy, J. W. Porter, O. E. Selby,
R. R. Strother.
Foreword
The organization of a new subcommittee and the assignment of investigation of
freight train resistance inaugurates a new subject for report by Committee 16. Various
elements of train resistance have been studied as specially assigned subjects of AREA
committees at various times. The work of this committee then consists of investigating
all available data bearing upon the subject, evaluating their appropriate application
under modern conditions and, if possible, presenting a final preferred method with mod-
ifying factors to meet specific conditions.
This introductory report endeavors to assemble many of the general train resistance
formulas, both freight and passenger, which have had at least limited or local use
through the years and to discuss the effect of various train resistance components. Factors
derived through the operation of passenger trains have been reported since many resist-
ance components have their equivalents in both principal services and many of the best
train resistance data have been accumulated through the operation of test passenger
trains.
Train Resistance
Train resistance, the combination of forces which must be overcome to set a train
in motion, continue it in motion at a constant speed, or to accelerate it to a higher
speed, is customarily divided into two main divisions; first, those resistances inherent
to all train operation; and second, those encountered only on grades, curves, during the
acceleration cycle, or when operating in adverse winds, called incidental resistances.
They may be segregated as follows:
A. Inherent Resistances
1. Track or flange resistance
2. Rolling resistance
3. Oscillatory and miscellaneous frictional resistance
4. Journal friction
5. Air resistance in still air
B. Incidental Resistances
1. Grade resistance
2. Curve resistance
3. Acceleration resistance
4. Wind resistance
In addition to the above, there is to be considered the machinery friction of the
steam locomotive and the motor gearing, bearing, and other transmission losses of elec-
tric or Diesel-electric power units, active between the power source and the rails, but
this resistance does not enter into practical consideration of power requirements inasmuch
as power ratings are usually referred to tractive effort at the rail.
70 Economics of Railway Location and Operation
Inherent Resistances
Inherent resistances are deiined as those met when operating at constant speed on
tangent, level track in still air. As will be noted from the preceding paragraph, they
arise from five main sources:
A (1) Track or Flange Resistance. — As the car truck moves along the rails, it
generally oscillates laterally, the wheel flanges bearing first upon one rail then the
other, at each impact introducing a force tending to change its direction. Further,
frictional resistance results from the rubbing action between wheel flanges and rail
heads. Light equipment exhibits this oscillating or nosing tendency to a greater
degree than do the heavier, conventional cars with their greater inertia combined
with six-wheel trucks resisting the development of resonant oscillation. Moreover, a
wheel flange throat, worn to a shorter radius than that of the rail head, superimposes
a wedging action between the flange and rail head, materially increasing the rubbing
friction between the two surfaces.
A (2) Rolling Resistance. — Low track joints and track in poor surface from
any cause aggravate the condition, since the impact at speed of a car wheel upon
any track irregularity initiates or intensifies the oscillatory motion and increases
flange pressure. A resilient track structure constantly presents an uneven surface to
the rolling wheel, introducing an equivalent adverse grade, the extent of the tendency
varying directly with the yielding properties of the track. Rolling resistance is so
closely associated with track and lateral oscillatory resistances that it is impossible
to segregate and measure the effect of any one component. The deformation of the
wheel and rail surfaces extends further into a bending and depression of rails, thus
providing an uneven track, indirectly augmenting flange pressure.
A (3) Oscillatory and Miscellaneous Frictional Resistance. — Oscillatory or mis-
cellaneous frictional resistance as here defined is intended to include all undirected
but unavoidable motions which are incidental to train operation; the swaying and
interaction of car bodies with consequent energy absorption, spring compression and
recoil, recurrent surges throughout the train, friction at coupler faces, journal box
pedestals, bolsters, and center plates, along with many other miscellaneous unpro-
ductive motions, combine to form an important fraction of total train resistance.
A (4) Journal Friction. — Journal friction arises from contact between the rotat-
ing axle journal and its relatively stationary bearing. This resistance component
varies over a wide range of values depending directly upon journal box tempera-
ture, viscosity and other characteristics of the lubricant employed, and its proper
distribution between journal and bearing. Indirectly, atmospheric temperature and
length of period of rest or motion are important in so far as they influence bearing
temperatures. Much of the lubricant is squeezed from the journal bearing of a car
at rest, draining into the journal box, leaving a partially and poorly lubricated sur-
face. The viscosity of the oil may be increased due to lower temperature, increasing
its shearing resistance.
A (5) Air Resistance in Still Air. — Head-end resistance, the most important of
these components when rail motor cars and very short trains are operated, is a func-
tion of frontal area, shape and nature of the surface, and vehicle speed. It is due to
displacement of the air by a vehicle and the production of a high pressure zone
through which' the vehicle endeavors to press. Rear-end suction is closely associated
with head-end resistance but is negative in its effect, retarding forward motion of
the vehicle. Air resistance of a locomotive is reported by Goss to be approximately
four times the corresponding resistance of the last car of a train, based upon labo-
ratory tests conducted in still air. Rear-end suction is dependent upon tail fairing.
Economics of Railway Location and Operation 71
cross-sectional area at the rear, and train speed. Mathematically, it combines read-
ily with head-end resistance, responding to similar factors, and generally is so
treated. Skin friction is caused by the dragging action created by the relative motion
of air with respect to the sides of car bodies and the formation of eddies and pres-
sure strata. As train length increases, skin friction dominates in air resistance effects.
It can be controlled by provision of smooth car sides and roofs, which carry less
depth of air in the high pressure stratum adjacent to the exposed areas, reducing
eddy and shearing resistances. Ground effects, truck resistances, and the obstruction
to free air flow created by attachments beneath car floors combine all the effects of
head-end, rear-end suction, and skin friction in a complex and still indeterminable
manner.
Incidental Resistances
Incidental resistances are those which are not common to train operation under all
conditions.
B (1) Grade Resistance. — Grade resistance is a fixed and unalterable quantity
which is dependent only upon the rate of rise of track. It is equal to 20 lb. per ton
of train weight per one percent of grade, or 0.3788 lb. per ton of train weight per
foot rise per mile.
B (2) Curve Resistance. — Curve resistance arises; first, from the additional force
required to change direction of motion along a curved path; second, from the
slippage of wheels fixed to a common axle traversing rails of different lengths; and
third, from the increased and sustained flange pressure. Practice superelevates the
outer rail to compensate at least partially for the centrifugal action of vehicles as
they negotiate curves but the amount of superelevation provided can be perfectly
adapted only to one speed for any given degree of curvature and height of center
of gravity of locomotive or car equipment. Curve resistance may be reduced by
the use of rail or flange lubricators, as disclosed in the report of Committee 16 on
page iSl in Vol. 41 of the Proceedings. Experiments have furnished various values
for the allowance necessary for curve resistance but it is customarily taken as 0.8 lb.
per ton per degree of curvature regardless of train speed except for locomotives
with their longer wheel bases and guiding duties where it is taken as two pounds per
ton of weight on drivers.
B (3) Acceleration Resistance. — The resistance which opposes increase in speed
of a vehicle is termed acceleration resistance and, when expressed in terms of pounds
per ton, is dependent only upon the acceleration rate. From the basic equation,
F = ma, where F is the force in pounds required to accelerate mass, m, at a rate of
"a" feet per second per second, can be developed the formula:
F^n.iliizli.
t
where — ' " , the ratio of increase of speed to time, represents average acceleration
rate during time, "f". Here Vi and Vn are initial and final speeds, expressed in miles
per hour and referred to time "t" in seconds. To include the inertia effect of rotating
wheels it is necessary to increase this value by an estimated five percent from which:
F.= 95.65 ^^ — ^'
t
When applied to problems involving electric cars, the coefficient is increased to 100
in recognition of the rotational inertia of traction motor rotors. In this case:
72 Economics of Railway Location and Operation
F=10Q ^'~^'
t
or F=10QA
Where A = acceleration rate in miles per hour per second, if it is desired to
express F directly in terms of acceleration.
B (4) Wind Resistance. — Adverse natural winds increase the resistance of trains
at a rate which varies approximately with the square of the speed. Early investi-
gators of train resistance ignored this source of power consumption or interpreted it
quite inaccurately as is evidenced by the omission of any term containing the second
power of speed. Wind resistance differs from the resistance of trains in still air only
in its possibility of directional effects. That is, with a head wind (zero deg. yaw.
the angle between the longitudinal a.xis of the train and wind direction) the effect
is only that of increasing relative train speed by an amount equal to wind speed
when confronted by a directly opposing wind or decreasing the speed of the train
relative to the air in a tail wind. As the direction of opposing air flow varies from
0 deg. yaw, its effect is intensified until the worst condition is reached at 45 deg.
yaw (quarterly wind). Side winds force wheels against rail heads, thereby increasing
flange pressure and its accompanying flange friction a measurable amount. Wind
tunnel tests conducted in recent years have been of great value in comparing one
vehicle contour against another; the advantage of various expedients such as shroud-
ing, recession of protruding accessories, etc., having been determined.
A study of the numerous train resistance formulas written in an effort to accurately
predict requirements of a given train, well indicates improvement in the understanding
of all the elements involved. It has been noted that, in many cases, early equations con-
tain no term variable with the second power of vehicle speed. Sometimes no effort was
made to associate the general equation with variable speed, and the effect of average car
weight was neglected. Representative equations and their sponsors are listed below.
These, of course, are not recommended for use but are presented as of historical interest,
illustrative of the refinements incorporated in present-day, accepted formulas when
viewed in the light of their predecessors.
Train Resistance Formulas
R ■=. resistance in pounds per ton
Ri =. resistance in pounds (total)
iJa = air resistance in pounds
Rm =: machinery resistance in pounds
F = speed in miles per hour
W = weight of train in tons
C = number of cars in train
A <= frontal area in square feet
Wa = weight per axle in tons
n = number of axles
P = weight of power unit in tons
T = weight of trailing unit in tons
Z,= length of train in feet
G = perimeter of cross-section in feet
t = weight on drivers in tons
wi ^ number of driving axles
t' := total weight of locomotive and tender in tons
n' = total number of locomotive and tender axles
Economics of Railway Location and Operation 73
Source
Formula Notes
D. K. Clark
/2 = 7.2 + 0.0053 F' Date: 1855
Baldwin
0
Engineering News
R = 2+ il
4
Freight
Baltimore & Ohio
(1 11 ((
Rt = 2.2W+ 122C ] Temp, above 35' F.
Rt = 3.0W-{- 137C f Speed range " bet. 20° & 35° F.
Rt=4.0W+ 1S3C f 7-35m.p.h. " " 0° & 20° F.
Rt = SAW + 171C ) " below 0° F.
S. L. Cluett
R — 5 4 4- OOOIF^-!- Emntv nri
(v -\- 6)
S. L. Cluett
R — 3 8 4-0 0076F' -1- ^^'^ Loaded car"
E. C. Schmidt
W+ 1
Kiesel
/?. = lOOC -f l.SPF -^ 0.01F(F-f 16) VPFC
Passenger
C.B.&Q.
R=.2.S+ '"
468
P. R.R.
R — 3 + 0.1315 F
General Electric
i? - 5° + 0.03F + 0-°02T'\4 f 1 + C - n
w ^ w V ^ 10 ^
Blood
R — 3 + 0.12V + ^0.0014 + °"^^ \ F'*
Cole
i?— 5.4+0.002 (F— 15)' -^ ^°°
^ (7+2)='
Davis
/?-4 + 0.13F+0-^^^'7l+^-l^
PF V 10 /
Mailloux
/?- 3.5 + 0.15 F + (002C + 0.25 \^.
Westinghouse
^_ F lOV-
10^36TF
Pullman
p_ 9A 12.5 0.03F(3P+r) + . 00095 ^F'
VWa "^ PFa + W.n
.0000095 V-^ G F'°^
W.n
C.M.St.P.&P.
i? = 18.7f + 80«. + 2.6r+ :
Kiesel
/?m= [22 + 0.15(77,— l)F]i
Air Resistance
Gcss
R. = 0.1V'
Gcss
R^ = o.nv^
Gcss
R. = 0.C01V'
Goss
R. = 0.00026F'
Goss
^. = 0.0001F'
Machinery friction only
Head end
Locomotive and tender
First car
Last car
Intermediate car
74 Economics of Railway Location and Operation
Various investigations of train resistance components have been conducted to eval-
uate the effects of the following variables:
1. Curve resistance as modified by rail lubrication
2. Rail weight
3. Curve resistance as affected by train speed
4. Temperature of the air
5. Track construction
6. Car weight
7. Locomotive contour
8. Passenger train contour
9. Air conditioning
10. General formulas
1. Rail Lubrication (Reported in AREA Proceedings, Vol. 41, page 151)
Prior to the installation of mechanical lubricators on the Denver & Salt Lake, a
test train was made up and a series of tests was run, maintaining comparable speeds, on
the unlubricated curves. Subsequent to the installation of the lubricators, and after the
track section had been in operation for a period, another series was run with the same
test train to determine the reduction in curve resistance effected by lubrication of the
rails and flanges. It was found that the reduction approximated 50 percent, as follows:
Curve Resistance per Degree
in Pounds per Ton
Average Maximum
Before lubrication O.S52 0.79
After lubrication 0.274 0.422
Reduction 0.278
Percent reduction S0.4 ....
The test train consisted of a dynamometer car, 4 cars loaded with coal, 25 empty
gondolas, and a caboose, total weight 899 tons.
2. Rail Weight and Condition (Reported in AREA Proceedings, Vol. 31, page 1524)
These tests were conducted by the Kansas City Southern to determine resistance on
two weights of rail laid upon the same roadbed. New sections of 85 and 127-lb. rail were
used along with 85-lb. old rail. The three types were laid consecutively on main line
roadbed. One series of tests was conducted with rail laid in the following order: 8S-lb.
old rail; 127-lb. new rail; followed by 85-lb. new rail. The positions of the new rails
were then interchanged and another series was run, the worn 85-lb. rail being retained
in its original position as a check on the constancy of factors other than rail section
weight. New and worn wheels were tested in this manner except that the second series
was made only with new wheels. The test train consisted of four loaded gondolas and
a dynamometer car, the locomotive being detached from the cars before test was made
and after journals had been initially warmed. The following conclusions were drawn:
(1) The 127-lb. rail exhibited 0.3 lb. per ton less resistance than the 85-lb. rail
throughout the 7-19 m.p.h. speed range
(2) Worn wheel resistance proved to be greater on new rail than on old rail of the
same weight (is not supported by data below)
(3) Worn wheel resistance was greater on new 127-lb. rail than on new 8S-lb. rail
(see (1) above and table below)
(4) No difference was observed in train resistance between worn and new wheels
on rail which had been worn to fit the worn wheel contour (see table below) :
New Wheels
Speed Resistance
m.p.h. Lb. per Ton
Worn Wheels
Speed Resistance
m.p.h. Lb. per Ton
14.8 3.8
15.7 3.7
17.0 4.5
14.8 4.3
15.7 5.1
17.0 4.5
Economics of Railway Location and Operation 75
Test
Section Rail
1 New 85 lb.
2 New 127 lb.
3 Worn 85 lb.
An investigation to determine why old rails were causing more resistance than new
contours on new rail developed the following:
(1) A wedging action is set up between worn wheel treads and new rail, since the
wheel treads are worn to a shorter radius of curvature than that of the new
rail head
(2) Two distinct areas of contact and pressure at different wheel circumferences on
the hollowed wheel treads result in sUppage at one or both areas and consequent
resistance
(3) Contact areas at different wheel circumferences on the two wheels of a single
axle result in slippage at one or all areas and consequent resistance
(4) Contact areas of new rails on worn wheels were found to be on the unworn
and unpolished part of the wheel in some instances
It was concluded that probably (3) was the only factor of any consequence.
3. Train Speed on Curves (Reported in University of Illinois Bulletin No. 92,
September, 1916)
A 28-ton, electrically propelled, car was used in these tests. The test car was run
first in one direction and then in the other over one of the curves and its adjacent tangent.
The curves varied in degree from 2 to 14J4 with superelevation of 0.75 to 5.9 in., re-
spectively, on the extreme curves. By operating in both directions consecutively, and on
curved and tangent track, under like conditions, it was possible to very nearly eliminate
wind effects and to obtain a direct measure between tangent and curved track resistance.
It was observed that curve resistance varied directly with car speed and degree of curva-
ture and it was possible to write the following equation for curve resistance in pounds
per ton:
i?c = 0.058 5C
where, S = speed in miles per hour
C = curvature in degrees
The report points out the danger involved in extending the use of this equation
beyond the conditions of the test. That is, train speed above 40 m.p.h., curvature greater
than IS deg., and cars exhibiting design features differing widely from those of the test
car: 56,000 lb. in weight, carried on two, four-wheel trucks, spaced 23 ft. 3 in., center to
center, truck wheel base, 6 ft. 4 in., and self-propelled with four, SO-hp. motors.
Tests reported in University of Illinois Bulletin No. 74 developed a resistance formula
for level tangent operation which, when combined with the foregoing equation, provides
the following for total car resistance on a level curve at uniform speed, expressed in
pounds per ton:
R = 4 + 0.222 S + QQQ^^^ AS* ^ Q Qgg ^ ^
W
where, A = cross sectional area of car in square feet
W =1 weight in tons
and other units are expressed as above.
76 Economics of Railway Location and Operation
4. Temperature (Reported in University of Illinois Bulletin No. 59, May, 1912)
The temperature of a cold journal is gradually increased as the vehicle which it is
supporting is moved until, after a certain distance has been traversed, it has reached its
maximum or equilibrium temperature for the speed operated. This equilibrium temper-
ature is higher in value and is reached in a shorter distance as atmospheric temperature
increases. The tests indicated that in cold weather and at the speeds operated, 12, IS, 17,
and 21 miles per hour, the maximum temperatures and minimum resistance values were
reached 35 miles distant from the starting point of the test, constant speed being main-
tained throughout the run.
Train Resistance — Pounds per Ton
(Average Car Weight = 17.2 Tons)
Temp.: 64° to
Speed 80°, Start to Temperature : 30° to 42°, Start to End of Test
m.p.h. End of Test 35 Miles From Start 5 Miles From Start
12 8.0 10.0 13.7
14 8.25 10.4 13.9
16 8.S 10.9 14.3
18 8.75 11. S 15.0
20 9.0 12.1 15.9
21 9.1 12.4 16.4
Train Resistance — Pounds per Ton
(Average Car Weight = 17.2 Tons — Temperature:
Miles 30° to 42° Start to End of Test Runs)
From Start 12.0m.p.h. IS.O m.p.h. 17.25 m.p.h. 21.3m.p.h.
4 14.1
8 12.5
12 11.3
16 10.7
20 10.4
24 10.2
28 10.1
32 10.05
36 10.0
5. Track Condition (AAR Passenger Locomotive Tests — October, 1938)
The results of AAR passenger train resistance tests presented in the following table
were obtained with a 16-car test train consisting of 14 coaches, one baggage and one
dynamometer car, all carried on four-wheel trucks with conventional friction bearings,
average car weight, 62.82 tons for a total trailing weight of 1,005 tons. The identical
train was operated in moderately warm weather, 50 to 88 deg., and in wind whose
velocity varied from 2 to 19 miles per hour, over the tracks of the three railways indi-
cated. The rail weight on the Pennsylvania was 131 lb. per yd., and on the other rail-
ways was, in general, 100 lb. per yd. A short stretch of the Union Pacific was laid with
110-lb. rail. Results obtained from applying the Davis formula,
/?= 1.3 + —+ 0.03 V -f-5:51iZ! (see page 85)
W Wn ^ ^ ^ >
are included for comparative purposes. In fact, the AAR report recommends its use as
representative of the results obtained during the road trials.
14.7
13.0
13.5
14.5
11.8
12.4
13.6
11.2
11.8
13.1
11.0
11.5
12.8
10.8
11.4
12.7
10.75
11.35
12.6
10.65
11.3
12.5
10.6
11.25
12.5
lin Car Resistance — Pounds per Ton
C.&N.W.
U.P.
Davis
5.9
6.3
7.2S
7.9
7.35
8.6
8.8
8.4
10.0
9.7
9.7
11.35
10.6
11.15
11.5
12.7
Economics of Railway Location and Operation 77
Speed Passenger I
tn.p.h. Pennsylvania
50 5.55
60 6.3
70 7.35
80 8.6
90 9.95
100
It is interesting to note the graphical representation of these data. Whereas some
components of train resistance are confidently expected to vary with the square of vehicle
speed, curves of the North Western and Union Pacific resistance values, as plotted in the
committee report, are straight Unes of different slope, intersecting at 74 miles per hour.
The Union Pacific values are lower for speeds above that figure. The shape of the Penn-
sylvania curve closely follows that obtained by use of the Davis formula but presents
values approximately one pound per ton less than those calculated. The known difference
in rail weight, and a possible difference in roadway construction, could very well explain
the difference in absolute values at given speeds, but it is difficult to explain the straight
line characteristics and widely varying slopes of the curves obtained by tests on the
Union Pacific and North Western. The slope in each case represents the analyst's judg-
ment in the averaging of points.
6. Equipment Weight (Reported in University of Illinois Bulletin No. 43, May, 1910)
The purpose of the road tests reported in this bulletin was the determination of
train resistance values as they vary with average car weight and train speed. The results,
empirical in nature, should be used only within the following limits:
Tangent level track
Air temperature above 30 deg.
Wind velocity not over 20 m.p.h.
Train in motion sufficiently long to warm journals
Train speed between 5 and 40 miles per hour
The following equation is presented as approximating the values of the tests:
R
_ 5-f 39.6 — 0.031 ty
4.08 -f 0.152 TT
\
where, R = train resistance in pounds per ton
S = train speed in miles per hour
W = average car weight in tons
This equation has been spot checked against the test results from which it was
derived, with the following results:
S W R Measured R
5 20 6.18 6.8
10 30 5.65 5.8
IS 40 5.25 5.1
20 SO 4.98 4.6
25 60 4.75 4.4
30 70 4.57 4.5
35 60 S.S 5.4
40 50 6.7 6.8
25 30 7.38 7.4
K IS SO 4.55 4.2
^L S 70 2.88 3.1
I
Error in R
Percent Error in R
—0.62
—9.0
—0.15
—2.6
+0.15
+ 2.9
-f-0.38
+8.3
+0.35
+8.0
+0.07
+ 1.6
+0.10
+ 1.9
—0.10
—1.5
—0.02
—0.27
+0.35
+8.3
—0.22
—7.1
78
Economics of Railway Location and Operation
For more accurate results, the following equations are given for the several car
weights listed:
Car Weight,
Tons Resistance Values, R, in Lb. per Ton
IS 7.15 + 0.08S S + 0.00175 5'
20 6.30 + 0.087 S -f 0.00126 5'
25 5.60 + 0.077 S + 0.00116 5'
30 5.02 + 0.066 S + 0.00116 5*
35 4.49 + 0.060 S + 0.00108 5'
40 4.15 + 0.041 S + 0.00134 5'
45 3.82 + 0.0315+0.00140 5'
50 3.56 + 0.024 5 + 0.00140 5^
55 3.38 + 0.016 5 + 0.00142 5^
60 3.19 + 0.016 5 + 0.00132 5'
65 3.06 + 0.014 5 + 0.00130 5'
70 2.92 + 0.021 5+ 0.00111 5'
75 2.87 + 0.019 5 + 0.00113 5'
Using these equations for the same resistance calculations as above:
W
R
5
20
30
40
50
60
70
60
50
30
SO
70
6.77
68
in
5.8
58
t;
5.07
S.l
?n
4.6
46
?5
4.42
4.4
sn
4.55
45
SS
5.37
5.4
40
6.76
. . . . 68
?5
7.4
7.4
t;
4.24
4 2
5
3.05
3.1
Percent
Error in R
Percent
Based Upon
rror in R Error in R
General Equa.
—0.03
—0.44
—9.0
0
0
—2.6
—0.03
—0.59
+2.9
0
0
+8.3
+0.02
+0.45
+8.0
+0.05
+ 1.11
+ 1.6
—0.03
—0.56
'+1.9
—0.04
—0.59
— 1.S
0
0
—0.27
+0.04
—0.95
+8.3
— O.OS
—1.61
—7.1
Average
0.57
4.68
Maximum
—1.61
—9.0
Minimum
0
—0.27
7. Locomotive Contour (Reported by J. J. Green, junior research physicist. National
Research Laboratories of Canada, under the title, "The Wind Tunnel De\'elopment of
a Proposed External Form for Steam Locomotives")
In 1931, at the request of the Canadian National Railways, the National Research
Laboratories initiated an investigation of air flow around a steam locomotive with several
objectives in view. Contemporary design was such that smoke from the stack swept back
over the boiler and downward in front of the cab windows, seriously impairing vision,
and it was the purpose of the study to evolve a contour which would correct this con-
dition to the greatest practicable degree and at the same time offer the least resistance to
air flow compatible with economical design and operating requirements. A model of the
then current locomotive design was tested in a wind tunnel along with various modified
forms to determine which would provide the nearest approach to the objectives desired.
The following results, valuable for comparative purposes only, were obtained during the
tests; R being defined as drag of the model in pounds as measured in the wind tunnel,
while V, is the speed expressed in miles per hour.
Economics of Railway Location and Operation 79
Relationship
Modification R/V'XIOO
Original unmodified model 0.1089
1. Shrouding fitted below running boards and extending down to level of
the bottom of pilot and from pilot to rear of cab. Solid pilot added along
with sloping sheet from top of pilot to bottom of smoke box 0.1088
2. Same as (1) plus shroud extended along tender from runways to same
lower level, front to rear of tender 0.1036
3. Same as (2) except feedwater heater, head lamp, and side staircases re-
moved, with an approximately hemispherical front to smoke box 0.0763
4. Same as (3) with whistle and bell removed, and metal cowling, flush with
the center of the cab roof and having the same roof contour but vertical
sides, was fitted over the turrets, valves and dome extending from the cen-
ter of the sand dome 0.0710
5. The front of the metal cowling added in (4) was sloped down in a gentle
curve to the top of the boiler just behind the stack and a streamlined tail
was added to the stack 0.0698
6. Same as (5) with cowling conforming to the cab roof fitted over the entire
tender 0.0666
7. Same as (6) with space between cab and tender closed by cowling flush
with the sides and roof of cab 0.C656
8. Same as (7) except that the front of the cab was modified to slope back-
ward from the running board, and the overhang of the cab roof was elim-
inated. Various fillets and curves were employed to eliminate corners and
sharp edges 0.0620
9. Cowling on top of boiler extended two inches past front of boiler and its
sides dropped down to the rounded nose. The two sides of the cowling
were opened out to give a flared entrance, and a slot was cut where it
butted on to the old cowling in order to allow exit for air caught in front
of the stack. Side plates were fitted to the cab so that they protruded for-
ward a short distance from the cab front. All this was done in an effort
to prevent smoke from interfering with vision 0.0727
10. Two-inch extension added in (9) removed 0.068S
11. Leaving the sides of the extended cowling untouched on either side of the
stack, the forward portion of the roof was removed 0.066S
12. Front ends of running boards were rounded off to remove sharp corners
and gap, stack to curved surface to cowling, reduced 0.06S4
13. Cylindrical surface added between rounded nose of the boiler and the
sloping front 0.0647
14. Because of operating restrictions, cowling was removed from over water
tank and runways at the sides of coal bunker 0.0633
15. For the same reason, modification of full shrouding was necessary and, as
a measure of the contribution of shrouding, several modifications were
examined:
(a) Full shrouding 0.0633
(b) Shrouding removed below the level of driving wheel centers and from
behind cylinders to the center of the rear driving wheel 0.0650
(c) Shrouding removed below the level of driving wheel centers from the
rear of the cylinders to the rear of the cab 0.0656
(d) Shrouding completely removed from the rear of the cylinders to the
rear of the cab 0.0695
(e) Shrouding removed below the level of the top of the driving wheels
from rear of cylinders to rear of cab 0.0702
(f ) Tender shrouding removed below level of frame 0.0715
(g) Shrouding completely removed from locomotive 0.0846
(h) Shrouding completely removed from locomotive and tender 0.0865
These results show how very vital shrouding is when the rest of the model
is streamlined, yet the addition of shrouding to the original otherwise un-
modified model had practically no effect on resistance. Model 15(f) was
selected as the most practical, considering operating restrictions.
80 Economics of Railway Location and Operation
Relationship
Modification R/V^ X 100
16. To simplify the front end, a sloping solid pilot running in one plane from
as near the rail level as possible up to the running boards was substituted
for the original arrangement. Otherwise same as lS(f) above 0.0700
17. Bell was placed in front of stack with its supporting frame parallel to the
longitudinal axis of the locomotive 0.0706
It will be noted that the value of R/V^ X 100, a reasonable measure of the com-
parative resistance characteristics of various full scale locomotive designs, was reduced
from 0.1089 to 0.0706, or 35 percent. This was accomplished with no interference to oper-
ating requirements. Had it not been necessary to respect such considerations, a reduc-
tion of 43 percent to 0.0620 could have been effected. It is important that recognition
be given the fact that a single modification may be of little value when applied by itself
but, when applied to a locomotive otherwise streamlined, the saving may be considerable.
The shrouding of the running gear of the test model is a case in point. Also of interest
is the fact that no effect was discernible from closing the gap between cab and tender
with its implication of the questionable advantage of closing the gap between the coupled
cars comprising the trailing load.
8. Passenger Train Contour (New York University Wind Tunnel Test Results)
In 1934, a comprehensive series of wind tunnel tests was jointly sponsored by The
American Locomotive Company, the American Car and Foundry Company, and the
Brill Company. These experiments were conducted in the laboratories of New York
University under the direction of Professor Alexander Klemin and data have been re-
leased by the sponsors. Models of standard railway motive power and rolling stock were
examined along with models of streamhned equipment with various nose, tail fairing
and enclosure shroud forms. These variations are noted below in connection with the
presentation of equations applicable to the several test models.
Air Resistance Formulas for Trains Operating in Still Air
Power Car Trains
Open skirts (18 in. from skirt to top of rail):
Air drag = 0.00224 pJJ^V' V'-^-^KV^
\ 100 /
Closed skirts (completely under car) :
Air drag = 0.0020 pJ-L^V' V'+'^KV
V 100 /
Where:
P = Perimeter of car, in feet, from plane of top of rails over car to plane of
top of rails
L = Overall length of train in feet
V = Speed of train in m.p.h.
Sir = Summation of factors (Ki -\- K2 + etc.) of the various items whose drag
depends on other dimensions than perimeter and length
^1= Factor for power car nose shape:
For nose bluntly streamlined, Ki = -f 0.000036 X cross-sectional area of
nose at full section, including trucks, in square feet
For nose well streamlined, Ki = 0
K2= Factor for tail shape:
For tail bluntly streamlined, /iTz = ^-0.000061 X cross-sectional area of
tail at full section, including trucks, in square feet
For tail well streamlined, ^^^2 = 0
Economics of Railway Location and Operation 81
iC«= Factor for power car trucks:
For two faired trucks, A'3 = 0
For two unfaired trucks, Kz = +0.0099 (This factor is large because,
as tested, the truck fairings formed part of the nose and slart fairing,
and when the truck fairings were removed the nose and skirt shape was
damaged. On designs in which the truck fairings do not interfere with
the nose or skirt contours, K3 = +0.00026)
Ki= Factor for fairing trailing car trucks on streamhned trains (as tested,
neither the trucks nor the fairings interfered with the continuity of the
open skirts) :
For faired trucks, Kt = — 0.00013 X number of traiUng car trucks
For unfaired trucks, Kt z= 0
Ks'= Factor for diaphragm shape:
For smooth diaphragms, Ks ^ 0
For cowled diaphragms, Ks = +0.000037 X ^c X number of dia-
phragms
Ke= Factor for bulge of power car:
For no bulge (as tested), Ka =^ 0
For a bulge of good streamline shape, Ke = +0.00032 X cross-sectional
area of bulge in square feet (in order for this coefficient to apply, the
bulge must be of such a character that it has a streamline shape as good
as, or better than, the power car itself) . Under this heading may be
classed bulges that are merely expansions of the general power car con-
tours, as well as local bulges having well streamhned noses and tails.
For a bulge of relatively poor streamline shape, Ka = +0.00051 X
cross-sectional area of bulge in square feet (this coefficient applies where
the bulge has relatively poor shape, such as sharp edges or corners, blunt
tail, a blunt nose, etc.)
Streamline Locomotive Trains
With open skirts on cars (18 in. from skirt to top of rail)
Air drag = r 0.023 Li. i+2/i:L+0.00l73Sp/j^y-''+2ii:c1 F"
With closed skirts on cars (completely under cars)
Air drag = I" 0.023 U i + S/Tl + 0.001535 ^c(— ) "'' + ^K^ F'
Where:
F = Train speed in miles per hour
Z,L = Length of locomotive and tender in feet
Lc = Length of car consist, in feet, rear of tender to rear of train
Pc = Perimeter of cars, in feet, from plane of top of rails over car to plane of
top of rails
2/Cl = Summation of factors of the various items affecting the locomotive and
tender, whose drag depends on other dimensions than those given above:
K-,=: Factor for wheel shrouds on streamline locomotives:
For closed shrouds (all wheels completely enclosed), Kt = 0
For open shrouds (2-ft. by 2-ft. 6-in. inspection openings over the driv-
ing wheel journals), K^ z= +0.0005 X total number of openings
For short shrouds (driving wheels and tender trucks completely ex-
posed), Ki = +0.0182
Ka^ Factor for nose shape on streamline locomotive:
For helmet nose, Ks ^ 0
For straight nose, /iTs^i +0.0021
For round nose, A'g z= +0.0026
Kt=z Factor for boiler shape on streamline locomotive:
For round top, As = 0
For cowled top (domes and fittings enclosed in longitudinal cowl above
boiler shroud), Ks = +0.0035
82
Economics of Railway Location and Operation
'^K^ = Summation of factors of the various items affecting the cars, whose drag
depends on other dimensions than those given above. These factors are
K2, the factor for tail shape; Ki, the factor for fairing trailing car trucks
on streamlined trains; and Kg, the factor for diaphragm shape. Their
values are the same as given under the formulas for power car trains
The first two terms in the brackets of the drag equations for streamUned locomo-
tive trains are functions of the locomotive and tender only, while the last two terms are
functions of the car consist only.
Standard Locomotive Trains — New York Central 4-6-4 Type
Air drag = fcOSS Lj + 0.0031 i>„ /' A-VO p
Where:
V = Train speed in miles per hour
Ll = Length of locomotive and tender in feet
Z,„ = Length of car consist, in feet, rear of tender to rear of train
P^ r= Perimeter of cars, in feet, from plane of top of rails over car to plane of
top of rails
The first term in the brackets of this formula is a function of the locomotive and
tender only, while the second term is a function of the car consist only.
<ui
Kin
OTCL
A
\
\
\
/^
^
-^
^
^
K
^C
^
^
\
0
.^
"^
.3 .4 .5 .6 7
VELOCITY OF GROUND WIND
VELOCITY OF TRAIN
CURVE a; streamlined LOCOMOTIVE AND TAIL CAR
USE FOR STREAMLINE LOCO. TRAINS
CURVE 8 POWER CAR TRAIN CLOSED SKIRTS
CURVE C ; » .. .. OPEN SKIRTS
CURVE D STANDARD LOCOMOTIVE TRAIN
Increase in Drag Due to Ground Wind at Constant Train Speed
Economics of Railway Location and Operation 83
Range of application:
Trains of 100 to 800 ft. in length — no appreciable error
Trains of SO to 1,500 ft. in length — small error
(Test range: StreamUned trains — 143 to 411 ft. — two to six cars
Standard trains— 96 to 330 ft.)
The above equations apply, as indicated, only in stiU air. In actual operation, ground
or natural winds are always encountered and it is necessary in practical usage to modify
the values obtained by application of the foregoing equations to include this effect. This
is accompHshed by multiplying the air drag in still air by a multipUcation factor, Rt>,
which is read from the accompanying chart. The abscissa, r, is the ratio of ground wind
velocity, Vg, to train speed, V, so that
V
and air drag with a ground wind = Rb "X. Do
where Do = air drag in still air at speed V
Ground winds are constantly varying in intensity and in direction, precluding an
exact prediction of air drag to be overcome in traversing a given division with a given
train. It is recommended that the year-round average ground wind velocity be employed
as Vg.
9. Air Conditioning
An additional power demand of considerable proportions was introduced coincident
with the air conditioning of passenger cars. Also to be satisfied, but of less magnitude,
is the power required for car lighting. To obtain an accurate value of the drawbar pull
required to haul a given train of air conditioned passenger cars, it is necessary to give
cognizance to these power demands, the most direct method being to transpose them
into terms of train resistance bv the use of the basic formula,
R =
315 hp
WnV
where, R ^ train resistance in pounds per ton
hp = horsepower
W = weight per axle
n = number of axles
V = speed in miles per hour
Totten states that the average maximum requirements for mechanical or electro-
mechanical air conditioning may be taken as 25 hp. per car and for electric hghting,
battery charging, etc., 5 hp. per car, or a total of 30 hp. per car, at speeds of 30 miles
per hour or above. The formula then becomes,
11.250
R
WnV
As a result of an extensive investigation, the Division of Equipment Research, AAR.
released its "Summary Report on Air Conditioning of Railroad Cars", dated November
24, 1936, in which were outhned, in part, its findings. The accompanying table is derived
from the power demand and efficiency values published therein. It will be noted that,
upon a basis of 6-tons refrigeration, the horsepower required at the axles varies from
18.5 to 41.0 and, if one design is excluded, this range is reduced to a maximum limit of
30 hp., substantiating the value of 25 hp. per car recommended by Totten.
84
Economics of Railway Location and Operation
POWER REQUIREMENTS OF NINE MECHANICAL COMPRESSION AIR CONDITIONING
SySTEMS AT AIR RESISTANCE PRESSURES OF ZERO AND 0.55 INCHES OF WATBt
Conditions: 6-Ton Refrigeration
60-Ton Car Weight
Ov^erall Efficiency of Drives,
Generators, and Compressor Motors:
30 m.p.h. = 58.5
50 m.p.h. = 58.8
70 m.p.h. = 56.9
90 m.p.h. = 54.6
SYSTEM
Alrtemp-York
(5-ton)
30. m.p.h.
50 "
70 "
90 "
Carrier-Safety
30 m.p.h.
50 "
70 "
90 "
Trans
30 "
50 "
70 "
90 "
Alrtemp-York
(6-ton)
30 m.p.h.
50 "
70 "
90 "
Alrtemp-York
(7-ton)
30 m.p.h.
50 "
70 "
90 »
&, O.-York'
30 m.p.h.
50 "
70 "
90 "
General Electric
30 m.p.h.
50 "
70 "
90 "
Prlgldalre
30 m.p.h.
50 "
70 "
90 "
Baldwin-Sou thwark
30 m.p.h.
50 "
70 "
90 "
^H.P. per Ton of
Refrigeration
Zero 0.35
Horsepower Train Reslstanco
At Axle In Pounds per Ton
Zero 0.35 Zero 0.35
B
1.81 1.92
1.98 2.10
1.^3 2.00
2.13^ 2.21
2.17 2.23
2-.28 2.35
2.45 2.55
2.63 2.72
3.32 3.73
18.6
19.7
3.88
4.10
18.45
19.6
2.31
2.45
19.1
20.25
1.71
1.81
19.9
21.1
1.38
1.47
20.3
21.55
4.25
4.49
20.2
21.4
2.52
2.68
20.9
22.15
1.87
1.98
21.75
23.05
1.51
1.60
19.8
20.5
4.13
4.27
19.7
20.4
2.46
2.55
20.35
21.1
1.82
1.885
21.2
22.0
1.47
1.53
21.9
22.7
4.56
4.73
21.7
22.5
2.71
2.81
22.45
23.3
2.00
2.08
23.4
24.3
1.625
1.69
22.3
22.9
4.64
4.77
22.1
22.7
2.76
2.84
22.9
23.5
2.05
2.10
23.8
24.5
1.65
1.70
23.4
24.1
4.86
5.02
23.25
24.0
2.91
3.00
24.0
24.8
2.14
2.22
25.0
25.8
1.74
1.785
25.1
26.2
5.23
5.45
25.0
26.0
3.12
3.25
25.8
26.9
2.30
2.40
26.9
28.0
1.87
1.945
27.0
27.9
5.63
5.81
26.8
27.7
3.35
3.46
27.7
28.7
2.47
2.56
28.9
29.9
2.01
2.08
34.0
38.3
7.06
7.98
33.8
38.0
4.23
4.75
35.0
39.3
3.12
3.51
36.5
41.0
2.53
2.85
Economics of Railway Location and Operation 85
10. General Formulas (Davis Formulas)
The Davis formulas, generally accepted as reasonably reliable in predicting resistance
values of a given vehicle or combination of vehicles at the time they were written, were
the result of a thorough correlation of existing test data. More recent experiments on
current design types have indicated to some authorities the need for minor revision of
the constants employed by Davis, but the basic form of these equations has not been
disputed and it is unlikely that future experiments will substantially alter that form.
According to Davis, total resistance is comprised of three primary components; journal,
flange, and air resistances. The first is independent of speed, varying indirectly with
average axle loading; the second varies directly with speed; while the third, air resist-
ance, varies directly with vehicle cross-sectional area and the square of the speed.
Inasmuch as the combined resistance value, R, is expressed in pounds per ton, total axle
loading is introduced into the denominator of the air resistance term. Then,
R = 1.3 +^ + kV + -^^^^
W Wn
where R =: resistance in pounds per ton
W = average weight per axle in tons
k = constant depending upon equipment
V = speed in miles per hour
C = constant depending upon equipment
A = effective cross-sectional area in square feet
n = total number of axles
Values of k and C recommended by Mr. Davis follow:
Equipment k C
Locomotives 0.03 0.0024
Freight cars 0.045 0.0005
Passenger cars — vestibuled 0.03 0.00034
Multiple unit — leading car — vestibuled 0.045 0.0024
Multiple unit— trailing cars 0.045 0.00034
Motor cars 0.09 0.0024
Values of A:
Locomotives — SO tons 105 sq. ft.
Locomotives — 70 tons 110
Locomotives — 100 tons and over 120
Freight cars 85- 90
Passenger cars 120
Multiple-unit cars 100-1 10
Motor cars — two trucks 80-100
Motor cars — one truck 70- 75
ToTTEN Formulas for Lightweight Passenger Trains
Due to developments in design subsequent to the writing of the Davis formulas, such
as evidenced in the hghtweight, streamlined, articulated trains, Totten recommends sub-
stituting the various air resistance values developed by the New York University test
results for the final term of the Davis locomotive or passenger car formula. Therefore,
for locomotives and power units in combination with lightweight, four-axle, or artic-
ulated cars, the resistance formula would read,
29
i? = 1.3 -|- — -|- 0.03 V plus the appropriate air resistance term selected from Section
8 preceding.
86 Economics of Railway Location and Operation
Conclusions
The Davis equation, with Totten recommended modifications applied when stream-
lining refinement introduces marked resistance changes, remains the most reliable and
widely accepted method for calculation of train resistance. This committee proposes to
continue its search for road test data, particularly as they have been developed for freight
service application — to weigh all factors — to modernize equations of merit which no longer
accurately represent present operating conditions — and, if possible, to submit a preferred
general method for calculating train resistance for guidance in such matters as the
establishment of locomotive tonnage ratings.
It is recommended that this report be received as information and the committee be
authorized to continue its work.
Report of Committee 25 — Waterways and Harbors
G. P. Palmer, Chairman, R. W. Marye E. H. Roth, Vice-Chairman,
D. J. Brumley R. J. MiDDLETON C. U. Smith
Benjamin Elkind F. E. Morrow J. L. Starkie
W. D. Faucette V. B. W. Poulsen A. B. Stone
R. P. FORSBERG W. G. NUSZ W. R. SWATOSH
I. W. Geer a. N. Reece E. F. Wendt
G. F. Hand P. T. Simons S. L. Wonson
N. D. Hyde G. R. Smiley Committee
To the American Railway Engineering Association:
Your committee reports on the following subjects:
1. Revision of Manual.
No report.
2. Breakwaters, bulkheads and jetties.
Final report — giving definitions of "breakwater", "bulkhead" and "jetty" for inclu-
sion in the Manual page 88
3. Recommended practices to prevent damage by navigation to:
(a) Bridges — movable and stationary;
(b)' Piers, wharves and docks.
No report.
4. Study of metal and other protective casings for pier structures under water.
Progress report — submitted as information page 88
5. Economic principles involved in clearance over navigable waterways.
No report.
6. Seawalls and ocean shore protection, including effect of wave action and ice.
Final report — submitted as information and adding definition of "groin" for inclusion
in the Manual page 88
7. Reasonable life of steel casings immersed in sea water.
Progress report — submitted as information page 90
8. Lands subject to servitude of navigation as affecting protection of roadbeds built
or to be built on proposed dam pool areas.
No report.
The Committee on Waterways and Harbors,
G. P. Palmer, Chairman.
Bulletin 420. November, 1940.
87
Waterways and Harbors
Report on Assignment 2
Breakwaters, Bulkheads and Jetties
G. P. Palmer (chairman, subcommittee), E. H. Roth, R. P. Forsberg, W. G. Nusz,
C. U. Smith.
The following definitions have been revised to conform to discussion of them at the
March, 1940, Convention and are now submitted for inclusion in the Manual:
Breakwater. — A structure to afford shelter from wave action. 25
Bulkhead. — A structure to prevent sliding of natural ground or fill material into the
water; the hmiting wall or structure along a waterfront. 25
Jetty. — A structure in the mouth of a river, at the entrance of a harbor, or elsewhere,
to control the waterflow and currents, to maintain depth of channel, to protect
harbor or beach. 25
Report on Assignment 4
Study of Metal and Other Protective Casings for Pier
Structures Under Water
N. D. Hyde (chairman, subcommittee), G. F. Hand, R. W. Marye, V. B. W. Poulsen,
P. T. Simons, G. R. Smiley, W. R. Swatosh.
The purpose of this study is to assemble data relative to the use of protective casings
for combatting the effects of marine borers upon timber structures submerged in sea
water.
Considerable experimental work has already been done and several shield installa-
tions are under observation. The principle of the use of shields is based upon the fact
that marine borers cannot live below the mud line. If the mud line is raised above the
attack line the timber is protected against the borers. Experiments have been under way
about nine years with encouraging results. A variety of shields are commercially available.
The committee reports progress in the assembling of data on the subject.
Report on Assignment 6
Seawalls and Ocean Shore Protection, Including Effect
of Wave Action and Ice
C. U. Smith (chairman, subcommittee), Benjamin Elkind, W. D. Faucette, G. F. Hand,
R. W. Marye, J. L. Starkie, A. B. Stone.
Definitions
The committee has carefully considered a definition for the word "groin" and sub-
mits the following with a recommendation that it be approved for insertion in the
Manual.
Groin. — A barrier extending into the water from a beach to arrest traveling sand and
shingle and to give protection against wave-wash or current. A small jetty. 25
WaterwaysandHarbors 89
History
An effort has been made, merely as a matter of information, to obtain some history
of seawalls and ocean shore protection. Reference to this type of protection is found in
connection with the early ports of Alexandria, Pireu, Rhodes and Antium, but detailed
references have not been located. It must suffice to say that seawalls and ocean shore
protection have existed since the days of those ocean ports, and in recent years, by
reason of the greater economic value of waterfronts, more consideration has been given
to this type of protection.
Analysis
From a careful study of authorities on shore protection, it may be said that such
protection consists of four types, namely:
1. Artificial constructions which break the force of the waves before they reach the
shore.
2. Those which consolidate and elevate the shore itself, so as to enable it to resist
the action of the waves.
3. Those which make or assist the accumulation of sand or shingle upon the shore.
4. Permanent breakwaters, which act as islands in the offing and exclude the waves.
To determine the proper usage of any of these four or a combination of them,
requires a careful investigation into the various forces which produce the conditions
causing shore erosion. In every instance, such diagnosis or study should be completed
before any protective structures are placed. In this connection, the following are gener-
ally considered as the four forces which tend to cause disintegration of the shore:
1. Sub-aerial agencies
2. Waves
3. Wind currents
4. Tidal currents
These forces may be further explained by the following brief comments:
Sub-aerial. — The chief sub-aerial forces in this connection are wind, rain, frost and
running water.
Waves. — Waves may be classified as forced and free. Forced waves consist of those
during the continuance of the wind causing them, and free waves run for some time
after the wind has subsided.
Wind currents. — ^These may be on-shore, off-shore, or along-shore or at various
angles between these. Attention is directed to the fact that wind currents along-shore
are most effective in causing traveling of sand and shingle. The use of groins should be
thoroughly investigated where this situation exists.
Tidal currents. — The tidal currents to be investigated are those which run parallel,
or approximately so, to the coast line. In places where the shore hne is irregular and
small bays exist, revolving tidal currents are generated. These are the principal causes
of shore erosion and should be carefully studied in connection with any proposed pro-
tection.
By reason of the innumerable conditions which may exist, and by reason of single
or combined forces, all of which tend to cause erosion of the shore, it is difficult in a
report of this character, to make any recommendation with reference to procedure,
either in general, or at any given point.
Specific reference is made to Paper No. 2 of the Beach Erosion Board, office of the
Chief of Engineers, Washington, D.C., dated December 1, 1938, entitled "Manual of
90 Waterways and Harbors
Procedure in Beach Erosion Studies." In Part 7 of this publication, entitled: "Plan of
Improvement — Beach and Shore Protection" extending from pages 65 to 72 inclusive,
with appended diagrams, there seems to be a complete answer to the assignment of this
subcommittee. This entire publication and Part 7 of it in particular, are recommended to
all those who have definite problems of erosion to cope with.
Bibliography
Your subcommittee, in preparing this report, has referred to the official journal of
the American Shore and Beach Preservation Association known as Shore and Beach,
which contains many items of interest in connection with the subject matter of this
subcommittee.
In addition to the publication Shore and Beach, specific reference has been made to
the following:
Manual of Procedure in Beach Erosion Studies, Office of the Chief of Engineers,
U.S. Army, Washington, D.C.
Port Dictionary of Technical Terms, The American Association of Port Authorities
Knight's American Mechanical Dictionary, pubUshed 1877 by Hurd & Houghton of
New York
The Sea Coast, W. H. Wheeler, published by Longmans, Green & Co., London, 1902
The Protection of Seashores from Erosion, Alfred Edw. Carey, published by Green-
ing & Co., Ltd., London, 1907
Coast Erosion and Foreshore Protection, John S. Owen and Gerald O. Case, St.
Brides Bros., Ltd., London, 1908
Coast Erosion and Protection, Ernest R. Matthews, publisher — Charles Griffen Co.,
Ltd., London, 1918
Conclusions
Seawalls of various design and groins may be properly used in protecting shores
and beaches after careful studies of all conditions have been concluded to enable the
selection of an adequate design of seawall or groin or a combination of both.
No recommendations are made with reference to any effective type of structure by
reason of the great variance in conditions.
It is recommended that: (1) The definition in this report be included in the Manual;
(2) the balance of the report be received as information and (3) the subject be dis-
continued.
Report on Assignment 7
Reasonable Life of Steel Casings Immersed in Sea Water
W. D. Faucette (chairman, subcommittee), W. G. Nusz, V. B. W. Poulsen, A. N. Reece,
J. L. Starkie, A. B. Stone, S. L. Wonson.
This subject was assigned to Committee 25 five years ago, and after your subcom-
mittee chairman had considered the question of approach to the subject, it was learned
that the War Department, through the office of the Chief of Engineers (Major General
Julian L. Schley), and more particularly through the Beach Erosion Board at Wash-
ington, was investigating at some length a report on steel sheet piling in various parts
of the country and was carrying this work on in considerable detail and thoroughness.
Waterways and Harbors 91
In view of the time and care that was being devoted to this investigation by the War
Department, it was the opinion of the committee that its study could be pursued to
greater advantage, if it were deferred until the War Department's report was more
nearly complete.
The problem of "material corrosion" has been the subject of an investigation under
the direction of the district engineer, U.S. Corps of Engineers at Boston, Mass., whose
latest report, designated Fourth Interim Report, appeared under date of April 1, 1939.
The purpose of this investigation was to determine the proper metals for mechanical
equipment near, or immersed in, sea water on the Passamaquoddy Tidal Power Project.
This interim report was authorized by the Chief of Engineers of the U.S. Army, and
the last report was submitted by Col. A. K. B. Lyman, district engineer, Boston, Mass.
This report contains the following figures for loss of weight of steel subjected to
"simple exposure" during the years 1937 and 1938.
Weight Losses in Milligrams Per Square Inch Per Year
In Air Mean Tide Submerged
Class Classification Max. Min. Avg. Max. Min. Avg. Max. Min. Avg.
12 Steel 86.1 37.6 66.9 689.8 546.8 603.3 966.0 691.7 812.7
Quotations from the above reports hereinbefore referred to must be considered only
as information currently available, not as conclusive data. Reports prepared in the future
on the basis of more complete information may embody data that deviate markedly
from the facts now available, and lead to different conclusions.
In view of the many variables that influence the amount of corrosion, such as
salinity, abrasion, metallic content, degree of immersion (whether partial or complete),
humidity, etc., the committee has deemed it only proper, in its consideration of this
subject, to defer the preparation of a conclusive report on this assignment until some
of the investigations now under way have reached the stage that warrants the publica-
tion of specific conclusions.
The attention of the committee was directed to a pamphlet issued by the Depart-
ment of Scientific and Industrial Research under the title "Deterioration of Structures in
Sea Water" which is designated as the Seventeenth Interim Report of the Committee of
the Institute of Civil Engineers, London, England, printed in 1938, which committee has
been investigating the deterioration of structures in sea water since 1916. A study of this
report, from which the following has been abstracted, is recommended to those who have
occasion to undertake an investigation of this general subject.
Summary of Conclusions on the Five- Year Tests of the Committee's Iron and
Steel Specimens, by Dr. Carl Benedicks
(from page 32 of the report)
(1) Very approximately, the depth of pitting, in total-immersion as well as in
aerial tests, increased roughly in proportion to the air temperature.
(2) The half-tide tests showed that on that influence of temperature on the
rate of pitting, there was superimposed an opposite effect, which was weak at high,
and strong at low, temperatures. That effect, no doubt, was the easy condensation
of water at low temperatures, which was naturally the primary cause of corrosion.
On account of the presence of salt, the occurrence of much water, at low tempera-
tures, caused a very strong pitting in half-tide tests.
(3) The most striking fact regarding general wastage under conditions of total
immersion was that it did not increase with increasing temperature, as might be
92 Waterways and Harbors
expected. The cause was doubtless that a protecting coating would rapidly be
formed on iron or steel surfaces in sea water, the formation of the coating being
comparable with what was known regarding certain protecting coatings in industry.
(4) The effect of humidity in accelerating corrosion might under certain cir-
cumstances be the opposite to that stated in (2) above. The large amount of rain
and fog during a great part of the year was bound to have the effect of cleaning
the surface of the specimens, so counteracting corrosion; that was especially true
in the tests at Halifax. That cleaning action, however, scarcely appeared to remove
the salt existing in the pittings formed.
(5) The fact that the aerial and half -tide wastage at Plymouth was more
intense than that at Auckland might be due to the higher relative humidity at
Plymouth, but also might possibly be due to a less pure atmosphere there.
(6)' Carbon steel was generally more corroded than iron, which was to be
expected.
(7) From the foregoing the essential character of the results observed on iron
and carbon steel seemed to be fairly well explained by considering the known
meteriological factors, on the theory of local elements. The only special assumption
made was the formation of a protecting coating in sea water (Conclusion 3), and
eventually of a less pure atmosphere in Plymouth (Conclusion 5). No individual
differences in the action of the sea water, nor any other unknown factors, were
necessary.
(8) An explanation was put forward for the reason why paint adhered better
to iron than to iron oxide.
(9) It was pointed out that "corrosion-fatigue" was merely a special case of a
general effect, implying that the strength of a material was effectively lowered by
the presence of a wetting liquid medium surrounding the material.
In our own country. Dr. William F. Clapp, of Duxbury, Mass., in his laboratory
investigation, issued "Laboratory Bulletin No. 2" which dealt with steel corrosion in
salt water. His observation, based on various research data which he had collected and
selected from published papers, is that it appeared to be a well established fact that
under immersed conditions, variations in manufacture, composition and structure do not
materially influence the amount or distribution of corrosion, which is controlled by
factors external to the metal. Following this line of thought, he emphasized the possi-
biUty of metal disease due to extraneous conditions, and thought it well to attempt some
research along the angles set forth in his bulletin. The committee believes that a reading
of Bulletin No. 2 will be of advantage to any interested student of this subject.
Through the continued cooperation of Major Albert C. Lieber, Jr., of the War
Department, resident member and recorder of the Beach Erosion Board at Washington,
your committee has been favored with the opportunity to examine certain reports, espe-
cially the partial report made on the Investigation of Steel Sheet Piling, covering local-
ities on the east and west coasts of Florida. As aforementioned, this is only a progress
report, but the committee feels that it is of value to the profession, even though the
conclusions must be considered as tentative. One interesting observation was stated as
follows: "It appears from the above that where piles are subjected to frequent wetting
from salt water and spray, there is little difference in the rate of deterioration of plain
steel and copper steel. In brackish water, the copper steel appears to have a rate of
deterioration slightly less than that of plain steel". The tabulation, on page 93, which was
included in the report and which impresses the committee as being of importance, lists
the average annual losses of metal thickness, in inches, in bulkhead piles for the following
conditions:
Waterways and Harbors 93
A. Plain steel, uncoated, exposed on one side to salt water waves and spray
B. Plain steel, coated, exposed on one side to salt water waves and spray
C. Copper steel, uncoated, exposed on one side in harbor waters
D. Copper steel, coated, exposed on one side in harbor waters
E. Copper steel, uncoated, exposed to atmospheric corrosion only
Annual Loss of Metal Thickness in Inches
Elevation
Specimens +7 to +14 +3 to +6 0 to +2
A 0.013 0.006 0.004
B 0.003 0.002
C 0.009 0.002
D 0.005 0.003
E 0.002
This report is submitted as information with the recommendation that the subject
be continued.
Report of Committee 13 — Water Service, Fire Protection
and Sanitation
B. W. DeGeer, Chairman, C. K. Holden E. M. Grime, Vice-
R. C. Bardwell R. L. Holmes Chairman,
W. M. Barr a. W. Johnson W. G. Powrie
W. E. BicKEL H. F. King S. E. Printz
C. W. Brown Jr. C. R. Knowles W. A. Radspinner
C. B. Bryant H. M. Laudemann O. T. Rees
R. W. Chorley J. J. Laudig H. E. Silcox
R. E. Coughlan O. E. Mace D. A. Steel
W. L. CuRTiss Ray McBrian R. M. Stlmmel
J. H. Davidson W. A. McGee J. E. Tiedt
G. E. Durham H. L. McMullin C. P. Van Gundy
P. W. Elmore G. F. Metzdorf H. W. Van Hovenberg
F. A. Feikert R. H. Miller R. E. Wachter
R. N. Foster E. R. Morris K. J. Weir
J. S. Hancock M. F. Neuzil J. B. Wesley
J. P. Hanley a. B. Pierce Committee
To the American Railway Engineering Association:
Your committee reports on the following subjects:
1. Revision of Manual.
Progress report — recommended for adoption as an addition to material now in the
Manual page 96
2. Cause of and remedy for pitting and corrosion of locomotive boiler tubes and
sheets, with special reference to status of embrittlement investigations.
Progress report — submitted as information page 96
3. Value of water treatment.
No report.
4. Progress being made by federal or state authorities on regulations pertaining to
railway sanitation, collaborating with Joint Committee on Railway Sanitation, AAR.
No report.
5. Cathodic protection for prevention of corrosion of steel tanks, collaborating with
the Electrical Section, Engineering Division, AAR.
Final report — submitted as information , page 97
6. Effect of lubricating oil in boilers and methods for correction.
Final report — submitted as information page 101 (a)
7. Removal of silica from boiler feedwater.
Final report — submitted as information page 101 (b)
8. The principal current activities of the Fire Protection and Insurance Section, AAR.
Progress report — submitted as information page 106
9. Use of anti-foam compounds to reduce road blowing.
No report.
10. Specifications for welded steel tanks for water service, collaborating with Com-
mittee IS — Iron and Steel Structures.
No report.
The Committee on Water Service, Fire Protection
AND Sanitation,
B. W. DeGeer, Chairman.
Bulletin 421, December, 1940.
95
A
96 Water Service, Fire Protection and Sanitation
Report on Assignment 1
Revision of Manual
E. M. Grime (chairman, subcommittee), C. B. Bryant, G. E. Durham, J. J. Laudig,
G. F. Metzdorf, R. H. Miller, O. T. Rees, J. A. Russell, H. W. Van Hovenberg.
Under Specifications for Steel Water and Oil Tanks, Manual page 13-38, the first
two sentences of paragraph 11 now read as follows:
"For plates not more than % inch thick, 5^-inch rivets shall be used. For thicker
plates %-inch rivets shall be used."
To make this specification more definite and complete, the committee recommends
that the following be added as a third sentence:
"For thin plates used in roof construction, ^, i\ and %. inch thick, use respectively
%, T^ and J/2-inch rivets."
Report on Assignment 2
Cause of and Remedy for Pitting and Corrosion of Locomotive
Boiler Tubes and Sheets, with Special Reference to Status
of Embrittlement Investigation
R. E. Coughlan (chairman, subcommittee), R. C. Bardwell, W. M. Barr, W. L. Curtiss,
J. H. Davidson, G. E. Durham, E. M. Grime, H. M. Laudemann, O. E. Mace, Ray
McBrian, E. R. Morris, R. M. Stimmel, J. B. Wesley.
During the past year your committee has continued its cooperation in the study of
embrittlement being conducted by the Bureau of Mines, at College Park, Md., under the
sponsorship of the AAR with the National Feed Water Studies Committee. The com-
mittee offers the following abstract of a report on this subject as presented by Dr.
W. C. Schroeder of the Bureau of Mines, to the Association of American Railroads,
Mechanical Division, in June, 1940.
This report, while reviewing material on which your committee has previously
reported, summarizes the present status of this investigation in a definite conclusion
that embrittlement, or as it is now being called, intercrystalline corrosion, is not
produced in a boiler by direct action of the water, but by a concentrated solution
formed from it in capillary spaces in rivet seams in a stressed area.
This concentration, and subsequent cracking, results from minute leakage into
a stressed area of the seam. The resulting cracking, independent of the water con-
ditions, depends upon localized stress brought about by cold work or other practices
beyond the control of water service engineers. It has been definitely proved that
sodium sulphate offers little, if any, protection from this type of cracking in loco-
motive boilers.
Embrittlement detectors have been developed and applied to locomotives, which
will indicate the action of concentrated boiler feed waters on stressed specimens of
boiler steel while the locomotive is in actual service.
Sulphite liquors and some tannin compounds have been found to protect boiler
steel from intercrystalline corrosion during the past IS years. The work this year
has indicated that the protection by these organic materials is sometimes minimized
Water Service, Fire Protection and Sanitation 97
where sodium sulphate and sodium chloride are present in any appreciable amount
in the boiler feed waters. In the use of these sulphite liquors and other organic mate-
rial for this purpose, it is necessary that chemical control of the concentration of the
organic inhibitors as well as the dissolved soUds be maintained in order to provide
adequate treatment necessary for the protection of the boiler steel.
There is no doubt, from the results of the studies up to the present time, that
a boiler constructed to resist embrittlement will need no other protection throughout
the life of such a boiler. Welding of the seams would be one means of accomplishing
this purpose, but such construction is not permitted in locomotive boilers at this
time. Various types of alloy steel, resistant to intercrystalline corrosion, offer another
possibility. In this connection, however, it has been definitely estabUshed that some
of the low carbon boiler steels containing nickel or sihcon-manganese are not as
resistant to this type of failure as is standard carbon boiler steel.
While there is no question but that a great deal can be done by the use of
organic inhibitors to prevent intercrystalline corrosion in locomotive boilers already
built, the importance of careful design, construction, and shop practice cannot be
over-emphasized. Every care should be exercised to make the boiler seams tight and
to prevent the excessive cold distortion of the metal which produces stressed areas.
The evidence obtained to date from actual railroad operation indicates that a
combination of good construction and shop practice greatly reduces the possibility
of costly failures from intercrystalline corrosion, or cracking.
This report is submitted as information.
Report on Assignment 5
Cathodic Protection for Prevention of Corrosion of Steel Tanks
Collaborating with Electrical Section, Engineering Division, AAR
H. E. Silcox (chairman, subcommittee), C. W. Brown, Jr., C. B. Bryant, P. W. Elmore,
F. A. Feikert, J. P. Hanley, A. W. Johnson, H. F. King, H. M. Laudemann, A. B.
Pierce, J. A. Russell, J. E. Tiedt, R. E. Wachter, K. J. Weir.
In the past few years the subject of corrosion has been widely discussed and various
methods have been tried by American railroads to reduce the deterioration of steel water
tanks. Many methods of preventing corrosion have been found efficient in their applica-
tion to the exterior surfaces, but they arc not proving entirely satisfactory when applied
to the interior surface of the tank shell which is subjected to corrosive action of water.
Heavy Losses From Underwater Corrosion
Approximately 6,000 steel water tanks are now in railroad service representing a
capital investment of $30,000,000. The expected life of these faciUties should be about 60
years. However, due to underwater corrosion this is being materially reduced by the
loss of steel. Based on actual tests, the coating of the interior surface of steel tanks with
paints of various types affords protection for a period ranging from 1 to 4 years. The
labor cost involved in scraping and cleaning the interior of steel tanks averages 2.4 cents
per square foot, appHcation of paint 1.9 cents, and painting material for two coats 0.7
cents, or a total of 5 cents. At this rate, the painting cost for the interior of a S0,000-gal.
steel tank will be approximately $95 and larger tanks of 40-ft. diameter by 74-ft. high,
98 Water Service, Fire Protection and Sanitation
$790, together with removal of tank from service for a period of 4 to IS days, which is
the more important item.
The different water qualities in the various sections of the country have a very
marked effect on the rates of corrosion of the steel. In mining territories the acid mine
drainage waters create a higher rate of corrosion, while the rate with alkaline waters is
lower.
Underwater corrosion, as appHed to the interior surface in steel water tanks, is based
on the generally accepted electro -chemical theory that the metal dissolves and goes into
solution by first forming ferrous hydroxide and, with further oxidation from dissolved
oxygen in the water, builds up a wall of iron rust around the pitted area. In this reaction,
the steel tank shell is the anode or positive pole and rust is the cathode or negative pole
[- FERRIC HYDROXIDE
(RUST)
' -CATHODE
•—FERROUS HYDROXIDE
FORMATION OF RUST
CONES AND PITS
FIG. I
as illustrated in Fig. 1. The fundamental reactions and factors of corrosion are similar to
those of a primary electric cell, as in its function one metal or electrode must dissolve
and go into solution.
Cathodic Protection
Cathodic protection is a recent development in the control of corrosion on the interior
of steel water tanks. This process is based on the principle of an electric cell in which the
current flows in one direction from the positive electrode through the water in the tank
which acts as an electrolyte to the cathode or negative electrode. In its operation, the
steel tank shell becomes the cathode which is protected by a hydrogen film plated on
its surface.
In the application of cathodic protection to steel tanks, direct electric current is
required to provide a continuous current flow. As direct current is not always available
the supply is usually secured from regular lOS-120-volt, 60-cycle, alternating-current
electric lighting circuit which is connected to a transformer to reduce voltage to the
requirements and then to a dry disc rectifier unit which changes the power to direct
current. From the rectifier the positive wire or lead is connected to one or more electrodes
of carbon, graphite, stainless steel or other metals which are suspended inside the tank
at a depth where they will be submerged in water at all times. These electrodes form
the anodes (positive pole). The negative wire of the rectifier is connected to the bottom
of the tank shell which becomes the cathode. In operation, the current flows from the
anode to the cathode, dissociating hydrogen ions by electrolysis of the water. Due to
the tank shell being in an electro-negative state, the positive hydrogen ions are attracted,
depositing an insulating film on its interior below the water line, thus excluding oxygen
which is a requisite of corrosion.
Water Service, Fire Protection and Sanitation
99
"' o
X X
.< fi
S
z
o
o
UJ
CJ
H
Z
»
(T
o
C
_l
3
ll.
U
o
^ S2
o ^
o
o
X
o
^
^
\
c
100 Water Service, Fire Protection and Sanitation
Typical installations of cathodic protection in steel elevated and standpipe type
water tanks are outlined in Fig. 2.
Equipment Required
The cathodic unit consisting of transformer, rectifier, switches, voltmeter, and fuses
is assembled in a steel cabinet with a hinged door for protection. The cabinet for in-
stallation on tanks where shelter is not available is of a moistureproof type. In event a
location inside a building is possible, an ordinary steel cabinet is used.
The number and size of the electrodes depend on the square feet of area under water
to be protected and pH of the water in storage. Installations now in operation are pro-
vided with one or more electrodes.
In the alternating-current rectification, three types of dry plate rectifiers are avail-
able for changing a.c. to d.c, namely, magnesium-copper sulphide, selenium or copper
oxide. The safe maximum operating temperature of these units ranges from 55 deg. C.
(131 deg. F.) to 85 deg. C. (185 deg. F.). Due to the limited period of service of these
units, it still remains to be determined which type has the longer life in continuous
hours of service.
The most commonly used electrodes (anodes)' are graphite and stainless steel.
Graphite anodes now in service range from 2 in. to 3 in. in diameter by 80 in. in length,
while the stainless steel runs from % in. to 1 in. in diameter of varying lengths. As
eventually both types are consumed by electrolysis, the ratio of actual consumption and
life in cathodic tank protection remains to be determined by their actual performance.
In operation, the d.c. voltage at the positive electrode ranges from 8 to 27 volts and
0.5 to 6 amperes, depending on the condition of the tank and resistance of water to
passage of current. Sufficient voltage should be applied to assure complete polarization of
the steel surface to be protected, as the operation is based on Faraday's law of elec-
trolysis:
"The mass of an electrolyte decomposed by an electric current is directly pro-
portional to the quantity of electricity passing through it."
In observation of tank interiors that have had this type of protection, it is noted
that the old scale and rust is gradually sloughing off, the metal becoming coated with
a gray deposit. This indicates that the equipment is functioning; however, the protec-
tion is due to the microscopic hydrogen film instead of the gray deposit.
In order to check the operation of the unit without draining the tank, test specimens
are often hung in the tank; one connected to the tank shell by means of wire which
affords it the same protection as the tank, and the other by a cord or rope. The wire-
connected specimen in time becomes covered with the characteristic gray protective coat-
ing, indicating that action is taking place. The second specimen in a short time becomes
coated with rust, and pitting develops. This method is being used by the manufacturers
to demonstrate the results obtained.
Extent of Use
At the present time about 25 installations of this type are in service on American
railroads, the oldest unit having been installed in March 1939.
The cost of the units installed depends on the area to be protected. A unit, with one
or two electrodes, for a 50,000-gal. elevated steel tank with an inside area of approxi-
mately 1,800 sq. ft. will cost approximately $250 plus the expense of running power to
the tank. Units for larger installations, such as a standpipe-type treating tank 40 ft. in
diameter by S3 ft. high, with a downtake tube and 13,600 sq. ft. to be protected, re-
Water Service, Fire Protection and Sanitation 101
quiring S electrodes, cost approximately $475. The power cost for operating the cathodic
protection unit ranges from SO cents per month up, depending on capacity of installation.
With cathodic installations, it is still necessary to paint the underside of the roof
and the tank shell above the water line, as protection does not extend to the surface area
of tank above the water level. This type of installation has an advantage, in that it is not
necessary to remove the steel water tank from service for application of the protective
coating, as is required in the cleaning and painting operation.
In the event that installations are contemplated in old steel tanks which are badly
corroded and pitted, the condition of the plates and rivets should first be investigated,
as the cathodic protection through removal of the scale may develop leaks together with
loss of rivets.
When contemplating installations in cold regions, consideration should also be given
to the possibility that ice forming in the top of tanks might strip the cables and electrodes
from their supports.
Periodic inspections should be carried out to determine whether the equipment is
functioning, and for recording voltage and ampere readings; also testing switches to
detect defective or blown fuses. The interior of the tank shell should also be inspected
to observe the extent of the deposit of protective film in order to maintain the correct
voltage adjustment to meet the requirements of the respective installations.
Conclusions
Cathodic protection of steel water tanks against the corrosive action of water is
still in the experimental stages; however, the indications are that some benefits are
being obtained.
Because of the limited period of operation in railroad water service, more time will
be required to demonstrate whether cathodic protection is the satisfactory method to
prevent corrosion in steel water tanks.
This report is presented as information.
101(a) Water Service, Fire Protection and Sanitation
Report on Assignment 6
Effect of Lubricating Oil in Boilers and Methods for Correction
G. E. Durham (chairman, subcommittee), W. M. Barr, C. W. Brown, Jr., R. W. Chorley,
E. M. Grime, J. S. Hancock, J. P. Hanley, R. L. Holmes, C. R. Knowles, J. J.
Laudig, W. A. McGee, R. H. Miller, E. R. Morris, S. E. Printz, R. M. Stimmel,
R. E. Wachter, J. B. Wesley.
The steam cylinder or valve lubricating oils, with which this report is primarily
concerned, usually consist of heavy mineral oils containing a small amount (about four
percent) of "compounding" such as acidless tallow oil, degras, etc. Steam exhausted from
an engine may carry with it under some conditions a quantity of these lubricants; and
when such steam is condensed the resulting water will contain oil. Consequently, any
condensate returned to a boiler from a condensing system, or from a feedwater heater
or exhaust steam injector, is liable to introduce oil into the boiler water.
Circumstances other than the return of condensate may cause the presence of oil
in boiler water. For example, improper maintenance of feedwater pumps may permit the
oil used for lubricating the pumps to leak by the packing and into the feedwater. Again,
the feedwater supply may be originally contaminated by oily industrial wastes.
If oil, which may be derived from sources such as those suggested, is permitted to
enter a boiler, the effects may be detrimental or negligible; the nature of the effects
actually realized depends to a large extent upon the alkalinity, dissolved solids content,
and degree of floe in the boiler water.
In a boiler water of low alkalinity the oil present may be deposited on heating
surfaces and thus, because of its low heat conductivity, very materially reduce the rate
of heat transfer to the water. Overheating and cracking of firebox sheets, leaking of
staybolts and burning out of arch tubes and flues may easily be caused by severe cases
of oil deposit. An oil coating on the water side of a heating surface may become hot
enough to char, decompose, and suddenly break away from the hot steel, permitting
water to come in contact with the overheated area. The resultant sudden contraction of
the steel may be sufficient to cause serious damage.
Even a slight oily deposit on boiler heating surfaces produces an insulating effect
which reduces boiler efficiency. A discontinuous oil coating may cause pitting in various
parts of the boiler if the boiler water is of a nature to support electrolytic corrosion.
Oil carried over with water in foaming boilers may cause incrustation of throttle valves
and clogging of superheater units.
In boiler waters whose alkalinities are maintained at a minimum of 20 percent of
the dissolved solids content, the effect of the oil content ordinarily encountered appears
to be slight. Several of the roads reporting in this connection state that they have ex-
perienced no trouble caused by oil in boilers, and attribute the absence of trouble to the
maintenance in the boiler waters of suitable alkalinity and good coagulation of sludge.
Apparently the alkalinity tends to emulsify the oil and the coagulated sludge tends to
absorb it, thus preventing any actual oil deposits which might produce the detrimental
■effects discussed above.
When a boiler develops symptoms which indicate that lubricating oil is present in the
water, it may be desirable to analyze both the feedwater and the boiler water for oil
content. This may be done as follows: Acidify a 500 c.c. sample with dilute nitric or
hydrochloric acid in a separatory funnel. Extract three times with carbon tetrachloride.
Draw off the extractions, combine them in a flask, and dehydrate with fused calcium
Water Service, Fire Protection and Sanitation 101(b)
chloride. Filter into a weighed flask and carefully evaporate off the carbon tetrachloride
on a steam table at 105 deg. C. Cool in a dessicator and weigh. Reheat the flask on the
steam table to constant weight. The weight of the residue in milligrams times two equals
parts per million of oil. In taking the original sample, care and judgment must be exer-
cised to insure that the oil content is uniformly mixed in the water at the time of sampling.
Where lubricating oil in a boiler is causing harmful effects, several methods of cor-
rection are available. If the oil is introduced with condensate from the engine or from
the stoker, the best corrective measure is that of adjusting the lubricator feeds. This
adjustment should be such as to reduce to a practicable minimum that excess of oil
which is carried out with the exhausts. If oil becomes mixed with the water in the
feedwater pump, careful inspection and maintenance of the pump packing and proper
feeding of oil to the pumps should be effective remedies.
Various designs of oil strainers or oil traps may be used in the feedwater supply
line between the point of condensate introduction and the boiler. These strainers are
reported to be effective if they are properly maintained. They are sometimes supplied as
standard equipment with appliances such as exhaust steam injectors.
Oil present in locomotive tender water, whether from original contamination or from
exhaust of boiler auxiliaries, tends to accumulate on the sides and tops of tenders rather
than to become emulsified with the water. Periodical cleaning of the tanks, with special
attention to the removal of the oil scum, should prevent oil in the tender water from
getting into the boiler.
As has been previously indicated, a boiler water of suitable characteristics can
largely emulsify or sludge away any oil introduced into it. Consequently, treatment of
feedwater with suitable alkalies and coagulants may be considered as an effective means
of correcting boiler troubles caused by oil. The experience of most railroads proves that
proper maintenance of boiler auxiliaries, avoidance of excessive lubricator feeds, and
proper chemical treatment of feedwater will generally prevent any harmful effects of
lubricating oil in boilers.
This report is submitted as information.
Report on Assignment 7
Removal of Silica From Boiler Feed Water
Ray McBrian (chairman, subcommittee), W. M. Barr, C. B. Bryant, R. E. Coughlan,
G. E. Durham, R. N. Foster, E. M. Grime, R. L. Holmes, H. M. Laudemann,
J. J. Laudig, O. E. Mace, H. L. McMulhn, W. G. Powrie, O. T. Rees, R. M. Stimmcl,
J. B. Wesley.
The presence of siUca in boiler feed waters is particularly undesirable since it may
react with the calcium present to form a hard dense scale deposit of calcium silicate.
Sihca scale has become a problem of increasing importance with the trend in the rail-
road industry towards higher boiler pressures and to the use of Diesel equipment having
heating surfaces that are especially sensitive to scale formation. If the silica content of
the boiler feed water is kept below five parts per million, the possibility of its concentra-
tion and subsequent precipitation as silicate scale is greatly reduced.
Silica scale, of all the mineral boiler scales, possesses the lowest thermal conductivity
coefficient, as is shown in the table given by Stumper, which is as follows:
102 Water Service, Fire Protection and Sanitation
Heat Transfer
Character of Scale Coefficient, K
Siliceous 0.2 to 0.5
Calcium sulphate 0.5 to 0.7
Calcium carbonate, amorphous 0.2 to 1.0
Calcium carbonate, crystaUine 0.5 to 5.0
The constants are in the metric system of units and are consequently expressed as
kilograms per meter per degree centigrade per hour of time. It appears that the ability
of the siliceous scale to conduct heat is roughly one-half to one-tenth that of scales in
which the chief constituents are calcium carbonate and calcium sulphate. A siliceous scale
film of only a fraction of the thickness of a usual scale deposit might exceed other types
of scale formation in insulating value, and the danger of these thin deposits on heating
surfaces is especially great in the modern boiler wherein the metal temperature is nor-
mally at the safe maximum, and it is the elevation of temperature gradient through
the boiler metal that is to be most feared from silica scale deposits, especially with the
trend in locomotive and power plant practice to increasing pressures.
The nature and formation of silica scales depend upon the composition of the boiler
feed water and the conditions of operation. The composition of such scales may range
from practically pure silica through simple calcium and magnesium silicates to much more
complex compounds such as analcite (sodium aluminum silicate) to other mixtures in
which the siliceous components seem to function as cementious agents.
Two fundamental methods have been used to prevent silica scale:
1. The internal treatment type, through a suitable physical chemical treatment
of the boiler feed water.
2. The external treatment type, which retaoves the silica from the feed water
before it enters the boiler.
Internal Treatment
This type of physical-chemical treatment has been found to limit certain types of
silica deposits satisfactorily. The typical chemicals used are sodium phosphates, iron com-
pounds, sodium aluminate, and organic compounds such as starches, tannins, lignins,
tannic acid, and the glucosides. The action of these compounds alone or in combination
has been either to maintain the silica in solution or to precipitate it as a non-adherent
scale which must then be removed by blowing or washing. The results depend upon the
boiler pressure and the condition in which silica and other constituents are present in the
boiler salines. In railroad operation, this type of treatment has been satisfactory for
particular operating conditions and territories.
External Treatment
It is becoming necessary to improve the methods of conditioning silica containing
waters, due to increasing boiler pressures and other operating factors. It is these factors
which have placed emphasis on removing silica from the water before it enters the
boiler. As a result, many efforts have been made to work out effective methods of silica
removal.
Several of these methods have attempted to combine siHca removal with some
degree of water softening, as neither the standard clarification or lime and soda softening
will remove more than a small percentage of the silica present in most water supplies.
Where recirculation of sludge has been employed some further silica removal has been
observed. The zeolite method of softening waters by either a natural or synthetic silicate
base exchange type of product may add siHca to the water rather than diminish the
Water Service, Fire Protection and Sanitation 103
amount of silica present, while the carbonaceous exchangers apparently do not alter the
sihca content of a water passed through them.
In general, methods which have been used or proposed specifically for silica removal
have been for the most part unsuccessful except in certain isolated cases. The one general
exception to this statement comprises the metallic oxides and hydroxides, particularly
those of iron and aluminum.
Iron
This method of sihca removal treats the water with ferric sulphate; optimum silica
removal by the precipitated hydrous ferric oxide is attained at a pH 9, and the treatment
must be held closely to this pH. The ferric sulphate treatment, while effective in some
cases, has several Umitations, which seem to prevent it from being considered as the
ultimate solution of the siUca removal problem. In the first place, the necessity of main-
taining a pH of 9 usually precludes the possibihty of securing silica removal and com-
plete hme and soda softening in one precipitation. While it is possible to precipitate the
calcium of raw water rather completely as calcium carbonate at pH 9, precipitation of
magnesium as magnesium hydroxide does not begin until a pH of about 10.2 is attained.
Consequently it will be found necessary to accomphsh the desired softening and sihca
removal in a two-stage process which increases the cost and complexity of the treating
equipment.
Since the removal of sihca by the precipitated ferric oxide is apparently an absorp-
tion or quasi-absorption phenomenon, it follows that while an appreciable part of an
initially high silica content of a water may be removed with moderate dosages of ferric
sulphate, disproportionately large doses will be required to reduce the remainder to a
desired minimum. Another consideration from the standpoint of boiler operation is the
large amount of dissolved sohds added to the boiler feed water by large dosages of ferric
sulphate. Every grain per gallon of anhydrous ferric sulphate employed in the treatment
adds to the water in its finally softened condition 1.06S grains per gallon of sodium
sulphate.
Magnesium
The use of magnesium compounds added where apphcable, seems to have several
advantages over the use of ferrous sulphate, as sihca removal is combined with hme and
soda softening at as high a pH as may be desired. The use of magnesium sulphate is
more economical than ferric sulphate, not so much because of the cost of the reagents
themselves, but because of the cost of the alkah necessary to combine with them.
One hundred parts per million of anhydrous ferric sulphate will require theoretically
for reaction in hme and soda softening 62 p.p.m. of hydrated hme (90 percent available
calcium hydrate) and 81 p.p.m. of soda ash (98 percent sodium carbonate), whereas
100 p.p.m. of magnesium sulphate (Epsom salts) will require only 33 p.p.m. of hydrated
Hme and 44 p.p.m. of soda ash. On the basis of present market prices, this unit difference
in chemical requirements amounts to about 0.567, or one-half cent, per thousand gallons.
.Also, the use of 100 p.p.m. of ferric sulphate under these conditions will add to the water
100 p.p.m. of sodium sulphate, as against 58 p.p.m. of magnesium sulphate.
Magnesium carbonate (or bicarbonate) has been suggested as an effective source for
magnesium. The chief advantage of either of these compounds is that there is no increase
in the amount of sodium salts as a result of the treatment. Another advantage is that
hme only, without soda ash, is required for precipitation.
Dolomitic lime has been suggested in place of high calcium lime, but it has not been
found as successful as magnesium hydroxide, which to be effective in silica removal,
must be formed in the water being treated.
L
104 W
TTTTlTTVTT^Fire Projection and S a n i t a Uon_
Exterior View of the Silica
Removal Plant of the Atlantic Coast Line at Savannah, Ga.
A Corner of the Silica Removal Plant at Savannah, Ga.
Water Service, Fire Protection and Sanitation 105
Aluminum
Anhydrous aluminum oxide is an effective material for the removal of sihca from
water and it can be prepared from sodium aluminate or other aluminum salts. With the
use of sodium aluminate as a source for anhydrous aluminum oxide, a controlled pH of
about 8.5 is required. This control of the pH is essential as is also the build up and the
recirculation of the precipitate formed. The completeness of the removal is dependent
upon the amount of sodium aluminate used in the auxiliary treatment.
A complete softener has been installed on a railroad at Savannah, Ga., for silica
removal. The treating tank consists of a 100,000-gal. wood tank, 30 ft. in diameter and
20 ft. high, inside of which is built another complete tank 15 ft. in diameter and of equal
height to the larger tank. The raw water is derived from a deep well and is pumped at
the rate of 350 gal. per min., discharging through a pipe entering through the bottom
of the two tanks and extending 18 in. above the floor of the smaller tank. The water is
discharged through a 2 3^2 -in. orifice in a horizontal plane, in order to set up a circular
movement of the water in the inside 15 ft. diameter tank. At the point where the raw
water is discharged in the tank, a solution of lime slurry and sodium aluminate is added
at the rate of 0.9 lb. of Ume and 1.2S lb. liquid aluminate per 1,000 gal. of raw water.
This produces a precipitate in the water which is fine and light. The lime and aluminate
continue to react, moving in an upward direction, and at a height of 12 ft. an alum
solution is injected for coagulation. The alum is added at the rate of 0.8 to 0.9 lb. per
1,000 gal. of raw water. The circular and upward movement of the raw water continues
to a point 24 in. below the top of the tank, where it passes downward through a 12-in.
diameter steel pipe, located in the center of tank, and discharges into the bottom of the
larger tank in such a way as to create a circular movement in the outer, larger tank.
Coagulation and settling continue in the larger tank; clear water is taken off from the
top of the larger tank and goes to a storage tank. Tannin is added to the water when
the water passes through the equalizing chamber.
The large treating tank is equipped with the conventional sludge removal system.
No sludge accumulates in the center, or smaller, tank. The entire plant is automatically
controlled. Laboratory tests have shown that the optimum pH for the water reaching
the top of the small, or inner, tank is 8.5. It has been difficult to control or hold the
pH to 8.5 in actual operation.
The following is a typical analysis of the raw and treated water:
Raw Treated
Grains per Grains per
Gallon Gallon
Silica 3.80 Silica 0.60
Hardness 6.90 Hardness 3.72
Alkalinity 7.08 AlkaUnity 5.14
Chlorides 1.00 Chlorides 1.00
The cost per 1,000 gal. for chemicals has been: lime ,$0.0059, aluminate .$0.0462,
alum $0.0109, tannin $0.0104, total $0.0734.
The results have been very gratifying in the prevention of silica scale formation.
This report is submitted as information.
106 Water Service, Fire Protection and Sanitation
Report on Assignment 8
Principal Current Activities of the Fire Protection and
Insurance Section, AAR
G. F. Metzdorf (chairman, subcommittee), H. F. King, W. A. Radspinner.
Fire protection and prevention and the allied item of insurance, are important
subjects for every railroad.
The organization of a new Fire Protection and Insurance Section in the Operating-
Transportation Division of the Association of American Railroads became effective
April 1, 1939. The creation of this new section was brought about by absorbing the
Railway Fire Protection Association, which had functioned since 1913 as an independent
organization of railway employees engaged in fire protection and prevention activities,
with an associate membership of interested industrial and insurance representatives. The
amalgamation was proposed by the Fire Protection Association, and became effective
following approval by the General Committee of the Operating-Transportation Division.
The objectives of this new section are the improvement in methods of fire pro-
tection and prevention, the circularization of information on these subjects, the estab-
lishment of safeguards against loss of property and life by fire, and the standardization
of practices through the interchange of ideas and experiences.
The list of standing committees in the Fire Protection and Insurance section is as
follows:
Committee 1 — Insurance
Committee 2 — Buildings, Bridges, Piers and Other Structures
Committee 3 — Engine Houses, Shops and Appurtenant Operations
Committee 4 — Flammable Liquids, Compressed and Liquefied Gases and Hazardous
Articles
Committee S — Special Hazards
Committee 6 — Statistics and Records
Committee 7 — Rolling Equipment
Committee 8 — Hand Book
Committee 9 — Electrical
The committee work thus far has been devoted to a revision of the Railway Fire
Protection Association Hand Book which will now become the Hand Book of the Fire
Protection and Insurance Section of the Association of American Railroads. Up to the
present time the sections as revised have not been acted upon for publication, but it is
anticipated that the Hand Book will be ready for printing before the section's next
annual meeting in October 1941.
This Hand Book is a valuable collection of information of approved and recom-
mended practices and as such, proves very useful to the fire prevention inspectors as well
as to the managements, and the engineering and other various departments of the
railroads.
This report is submitted as information.
Report of Committee 14 — Yards and Terminals
C. H. MoTTiER, Chairman,
J. R. W. Ambrose
C. E. Armstrong
J. E. Armstrong
c. j. astrue
Hadley Baldwin
H. G. Basquin
A. L. Becker
V. J. Bedell
W. O. BOESSNECK
W. J. Brennen
N. C. L. Brown
H. F. BuRCH
H. G. D ALTON
F. T. Darrow
R. B. Els WORTH
W. H. Giles
E. D. Gordon
R. J. Hammond
G. F. Hand
M. J. J. Harrison
E. M. Hastings
W. J. Hedley
H. O. Hem
W. H. HoBBS
J. M. Hood
E. T. Johnston
E. K. Lawrence
H. C. LORENZ
L. L. Lyford
J. M. Metcalf
W. F. CuMMiNGS, Vice-
chairman,
C. A. Mitchell
H. C. Propst
C. L. Richard
H. L. Ripley
H. M. ROESER
W. B. RUDD
W. C. Sadler
C. U. Smith
D. J. Strauch
J. N. Todd
E. E. R. Tratman
E. P. Vroome
R. W. Willis
Committee
To the American Railway Engineering Association:
Your committee reports on the following subjects:
1. Revision of Manual.
Recommended additions to and revisions of the Manual page 108
2. General requirements in terminal facilities for various later types of equipment.
Final report — submitted as information page 110
3. Terminal facilities required for servicing electrical and air conditioning equipment
in passenger cars, collaborating with Committee 1, Electrical Section, Engineering Division.
Progress report — submitted as information page 112
4. Scales used in railway service.
Progress report — submitted as information page 114
5. Terminal facilities required for the care of Diesel locomotive equipment.
Final report — submitted as information page 128
6. Classification yards, collaborating with Committee 16 — Economics of Railway
Location and Operation.
Progress report — submitted as information page 133
7. Terminal facilities required for the washing of passenger cars mechanically.
Final report — submitted as information page 134
8. Terminal facihties required for the handling of highway trucks and trailers on
and off railroad cars.
Final report — submitted as information page 136
9. Bibliography on subjects pertaining to yards and terminals appearing in current
periodicals.
Progress report — submitted as information page 140
The Committee on Yards and Terminals,
C. H. MoTTiER, Chairman.
Bulletin 421, December, 1940.
107
108 Yards and Terminals
Report on Assigfnment 1
Revision of Manual
L. L. Lyford (chairman, subcommittee), J. E. Armstrong, Hadley Baldwin, W. F. Cum-
mings, F. T. Darrow, W. H. Giles, G. F. Hand, M. J. J. Harrison, E. M. Hastings,
W. J. Hedley, H. C. Lorenz, J. M. Metcalf, C. H. Mottier, H. L. Ripley, E. E. R.
Tratman.
Your committee recommends the following changes and additions for publication in
the Manual:
Glossary
Page 42: insert the following:
Siding. — A track auxiliary to the main track for meeting or passing trains. 14
Page SO: delete the following under the heading Track:
— Passing. — ^A track auxiliary to the main track for meeting or passing trains, limited
to the distance between two adjacent telegraph stations. 14
Insert, in lieu of the deleted definition, the following:
— Passing. — A track auxiliary to the main track for meeting or passing trains. Same as
a Siding. 14
Freight Terminals
322. Hump Yards — General
Delete paragraph 322 (e), page 14-21, reading as follows:
(e) // the classification tracks are also used as departure tracks, it is desirable to
provide additional classification tracks for overflow classification space during the inspec-
tion and preparation time of a departing train. Lead tracks of sufficient lengths should
be provided at the outgoing end so that any doubling may be done without fouling the
entering end of the classification tracks and thus interfering with hump operations.
Insert in its place the following paragraph:
(e) It is desirable to make up and dispatch trains from the classification tracks if
local conditions permit, and such a method of operation usually expedites movements
through the yard and reduces the expense. This requires that a sufficient number of clas-
sification tracks be long enough for each to accommodate a full length outgoing train,
or that lead tracks be provided at the outgoing end such that the combined length of a
classification track and a lead track be sufficient for a full length train, thus avoiding
unnecessary doubling over or interference with hump operation. This may involve a
temporary reassignment of classifications during the inspection and preparatory time of
a departing train.
Add new paragraph (f) as follows:
(f) Departure tracks may be required for making up and dispatching trains, depend-
ing on local conditions. See paragraph 333 (a).
Reletter present paragraphs (f), (g) and (h), as (g), (h) and (i).
332. Classification Tracks
Delete paragraph 332 (c), page 14-23, reading as follows:
(c) Where cars of single classifications accumulate rapidly enough to permit of for-
warding them in whole trains, the classification tracks may be used as departure tracks
for such business, with their lengths determined accordingly.
Yards and Terminals 109
Insert in its place the following paragraph:
(c) Where cars of single classifications accumulate rapidly enough to permit for-
warding them in whole trains or under conditions outlined in paragraph 322 (e) it is
desirable to make up and dispatch trains from the classification tracks.
333. Departure Tracks
Insert new paragraph as follows:
(a) When conditions specified in paragraph 332 (c) do not apply, separate departure
tracks if required should be provided. Limited length and number of classification tracks,
volume and character of traffic to be handled in limited periods of time, or operating
requirements which make it impractical to use classification tracks as departure tracks,
may also compel provision of separate departure tracks.
Reletter present paragraphs (a), (b), (c) and (d) as (b), (c), (d) and (e).
Specifications for the Manufacture and Installation of Four-Section,
Knife-Edge Railway Track Scales
52-X Weighbeams and Accessories
1101. Design
Delete paragraphs 1101 (d)' and (e), page 14-55, reading as follows:
(d) Notches. — On main bars the notches shall not be spaced closer than 6 to the inch.
Each notch shall be so made that when the pawl rests in it a line projected from the
center of the side of the notch nearer the zero graduation to the axis about which the
pawl stem rotates will be perpendicular to that side of the notch.
(e) Pawl or Latch. — The tip of the point of the pawl or latch shall be of the same
width as the notches of the beam, and shall be rounded off so that a small amount of
dust or dirt in the bottom of the notch will not prevent the poise from assuming the
correct position.
Insert in their place the following paragraphs:
(d) Notches. — On main bars the notches shall not be spaced closer than 6 to the inch.
Notches shall be so formed and positioned that accurate positioning of a poise will auto-
matically result at any graduation at which the poise may be placed.
(e) Pawl or Latch. — For a poise on a notched weighbeam, the design and construc-
tion of the pawl or latch and its appurtenances shall be such that accurate positioning
of the poise will automatically result at any graduation at which the poise may be placed.
Specifications for the Manufacture and Installation of Two-Section,
Knife-Edge Railway Track Scales
53-Xl Weighbeams and Accessories
1101. Design
Delete paragraphs 1101 (d) and (c), page 14-74, reading as follows:
(d) Notches. — On m.ain bars the notches shall he spaced not closer than 6 to the inch.
Each notch shall be so made that when the pawl rests in it a line projected from the
center of the side of the notch nearer the zero graduation to the axis about which the
pawl rotates will be perpendicular to that side of the notch.
(e)' Pawl or Latch. — The tip of the pawl or latch shall be of the same width as the
notches of the weighbeam, and shall be rounded off so that a small amount of dust or
dirt in the bottom of the notch will not prevent the poise from assuming the correct
position.
110 Yards and Terminals
Insert in their place the following paragraphs:
(d) Notches. — On main bars the notches shall not be spaced closer than 6 to the inch.
Notches shall be so formed and positioned that accurate positioning of a poise will auto-
matically result at any graduation at which the poise may be placed.
(e) Pawl or Latch.— For a poise on a notched weighbeam, the design and construc-
tion of the pawl or latch and its appurtenances shall be such that accurate positioning
of the poise will automatically result at any graduation at which the poise may be placed.
Specifications for the Manufacture and Installation of Motor Truck, Built-in,
Self-Contained and Portable Scales for Railway Service
S4-XIII Weighbeams and Accessories
1306. Notches
Delete the first paragraph of section 1306, page 14-97, reading as follows:
On main bars the notches shall not be spaced closer than 6 to the inch. Each notch
shall be so made that when the pawl rests in it, a line projected from the center of the
side of the notch nearer the zero graduation to the axis about which the pawl stem
rotates will be perpendicular to that side of the notch.
Insert in its place the following paragraph:
On main bars the notches shall not be spaced closer than 6 to the inch. Notches
shall be so formed and positioned that accurate positioning of a poise will automatically
result at any graduation at which the poise may be placed.
1307. Pawl or Latch
Delete the paragraph of section 1307 reading as follows:
The tip of the pawl or latch shall be of the same width as the notches of the weigh-
beam and shall be rounded so that a small amount of foreign material in the bottom of
the notch will not prevent the poise from assuming its correct position when the paivl is
dropped in the notch.
Insert in its place the following paragraph:
For a poise on a notched weighbeam, the design and construction of the pawl or
latch and its appurtenances shall be such that accurate positioning of the poise will auto-
matically result at any graduation at which the poise may be placed.
Report on Assignment 2
General Requirements in Terminal Facilities for Various Later
Types of Equipment
W. H. Giles (chairman, subcommittee), C. J. Astrue, W. 0. Boessneck, W. F. Cummings,
H. G. Dalton, W. J. Hedley, W. H. Hobbs, H. C. Lorenz, J. M. Metcalf, C. A.
Mitchell, C. H. Mottier.
For the purpose of this report later types of equipment are considered to be the
so-called streamline passenger cars or power units developed by the railways of this
country within the last decade. Servicing facilities for such power units are to be dis-
cussed in a report on another assignment of Committee 14, limiting the assignment of
subcommittee 2 to the servicing of streamline units of equipment other than power units.
Yards and Terminals 111
The first streamline equipment was introduced by western railways during 1934.
During 1940, more than 90 such trains were in operation in this country and additional
trains were being constructed. In about SO train units the motive power is Diesel-electric,
the remainder being either steam or electric. The Diesel-electric trains are usually built to
order from plans incorporating special designs, including the streamhne features. Some of
the steam trains have been converted from standard equipment by adding skirting and
other special features. In general, the streamline appearance of the equipment in the
trains has been accomplished by the addition of skirting below the under side of the
car body.
Application of air conditioning to railway passenger equipment within recent years
has added to the number of mechanical apphances attached to the underframe of cars
and, therefore, to the amount of inspection, adjustments and repairs to be performed
below the floor. The addition of skirting obscures from view a large part of the running
gear and mechanical apphances, and detailed inspection of those parts of a streamhne car
is difficult. In most cases, complete inspection can be accomphshed best by means of an
inspection pit. With the exception of a pit track of required capacity for inspection, the
general requirements in terminal facilities for streamhne cars are usually included in the
servicing facihties of a modern coach yard. Consideration should be given to the location
of the inspection pit track at a coach yard to permit handling the train into the facihties
without delays and to reduce the switching operations to a minimum.
The car unit capacity or length of the inspection pit and the necessity for appurte-
nant servicing facihties at the pit track, such as are usually maintained in passenger car
servicing yards, depend upon the requirements of the inchvidual railway. The number of
trains requiring terminal inspection, repairs and servicing; the length of trains; and the
schedules or layover time are factors to be considered.
Typical Facilities
Many railways operating streamhne trains are servicing the car units at existing
terminal passenger car facihties. In some cases the existing inspection pit has been ex-
tended as requirements demand, or an inspection pit of desired capacity has been pro-
vided.
One western railway operating a large number of streamline trains from one ter-
minal has supplemented its passenger car servicing facihties by providing an inspection
pit of sufficient length to accommodate the train. The pit is used exclusively for inspec-
tion and all equipment is moved to the coach yard for servicing and repairs after inspec-
tion has been completed. The coach yard is modern and includes repair pits as well as
other appurtenant servicing facihties.
Another western railway that has pioneered in the development of streamhne trains
has provided a separate car servicing unit for handhng such equipment at one of its
terminals. This includes a combination inspection and repair pit of train length capacity,
with appurtenant coach servicing facihties. Upon arrival, trains are placed on the pit
track where inspection, repairs and servicing are completed.
Conclusion
It is the observation of your committee that one or more pit tracks are necessary
for the complete inspection of streamline passenger car equipment. The number and length
of the pits will depend upon individual requirements, considering the number of trains
requiring terminal inspection, the length of trains, and the schedules or layover time as
112 Yards and Terminals
factors. The servicing facilities required for streamline cars are usually included in a
modern coach servicing yard. If the pit track is to be used for inspection, servicing and
repairs, appurtenant facilities should be provided.
This report is submitted as information.
Report on Assignment 3
Terminal Facilities Required for Servicing Electrical and Air
Conditioning Equipment in Passenger Cars, Collaborating with
Committee 1, Electrical Section, Engineering Division
W. J. Hedley (chairman, subcommittee), J. R. W. Ambrose, C. J. Astrue, A. L. Becker,
H. G. Dalton, W. H. Giles, W. H. Hobbs, J. M. Metcalf, C. A. Mitchell, C. H.
Mottier, H. L. Ripley.
Terminal facihties required for servicing electrical and air conditioning equipment
in passenger cars must be available at coach yards and along station tracks at terminals
or other stations where cars are to be serviced or held for considerable periods of time.
Electrical Equipment
Practically all passenger cars use 32-volt direct current for Hghting and other inci-
dental purposes. A few cars use 64-volt, and at least one railroad uses 110- volt direct
current. Certain types of air conditioning equipment require electric current for standby
use; hence, in many installations the facilities required are similar for servicing electrical
equipment and for air conditioning equipment.
The general requirement for servicing this equipment at terminals is that a source
of direct current power be available for the purpose of charging batteries or for floating
batteries at times when cars remain in use in the terminal for an extended period. This
source of power may be provided from a direct current line with convenient receptacles,
or it may be furnished from portable battery charging sets, sometimes called "buggies,"
which convert 220-volt alternating current to direct current of varying voltages above
32 volts. Generally in coach yards, where most of the battery charging is done, it is
necessary to use a controlled-current method, which provides the variable voltages
required by batteries while they are being brought up from a run-down condition to that
of having a satisfactory charge. Required voltages vary from 32 to 75, and obviously in
a terminal of any size various voltages are needed simultaneously. If charging is to be
done while cars are on station tracks, current of variable voltage should be available
alongside. However, if operations are such that batteries need to be floated only during
time cars are standing in station, a constant potential method may be employed, with
outlets along the station tracks all providing current of the same voltage. An installation
of this type is much less expensive than one which permits separate voltage control on a
large number of circuits.
The first cost of installation is generally less for the 220-volt lines and portable
charging sets than for a controlled-current installation. However, portable charging sets
have relatively higher maintenance cost, and they occupy platform space and may inter-
fere considerably with the other uses of the platform; consequently, in many installa-
tions the necessary additional expenditures have been made to provide low voltage direct
current lines.
Yards and Terminals 113
Because battery charging requires variable voltage, the circuit must be under con-
stant supervision during the process of charging. If direct current lines are placed along
the tracks for the purpose of battery charging, they not only require the use of relatively
heavy copper in order to avoid heavy loss in transmission, but it is also necessary that
numerous separate circuits be provided in order that the voltage may be controlled.
Voltage control of this system must be handled from the generator house, thus requiring
the presence there of an attendant who must be kept informed of the progress of the
charging on the various circuits. If portable charging sets are used, each set is controlled
individually, and control is handled by someone working along the platform who is in a
position to observe the progress of the charging operation.
Location of Electrical Outlets
If direct current is to be used, either for charging or floating batteries while cars
are on station tracks, receptacles may be located along edge of platform or between
tracks. When the location of the electrical outlets is being determined, consideration
should be given to construction problems, relative accessibihty of receptacles, possible
passenger injury from cables carelessly left on platform, and employee hazard from use
of outlets located between tracks. If outlets are located between tracks it may be neces-
sary to provide wider track spacing. If direct current is used in coach yard, similar con-
siderations are involved. If batteries are to be charged from "buggies" operating from
220-volt, 3-phase line, receptacles for "buggy" connections should be available both along
station tracks and in coach yards. These connections would be to lines also used for air
conditioning operation, where such stand-by service is required. Receptacles should be so
designed and located that they will suffer no damage from water or snow.
Air Conditioning
Air conditioning systems now in use are of five types:
1— Ice activated
2 — Steam ejector
3 — Mechanical gas-engine driven
4 — Direct-mechanical
S — Electro-mechanical
The following tabulation shows the number of cars which have been equipped with
each of the various systems during each of the past few years:
Mechanical
Steam Gas-Engine Direct- Electro-
Ice Ejector Driven Mechanical Mechanical Total
Prior to 1935 1,036 229 0 1,200 171 2,636
Year 1935 962 545 5 1,014 70S 3,231
Year 1936 1,131 322 61 643 394 2,551
Year 1937 482 515 184 861 507 2,549
Year 1938 253 285 41 189 68 836
Total 3,864 1,896 291 3,907 1,845 11,803
This tabulation, taken from a compilation published in Railway Electrical Engineer,
shows the number of cars equipped with each of the various systems during each cal-
endar year. Similar figures for the year 1939 have not been compiled.
Ice activated systems are popular in northern areas, and steam ejector systems are
used considerably in the South and Southwest. A proper determination of the facilities
required at any particular terminal can be made only after investigation has been made
114 Yards and Terminals
to determine which and to what extent the various systems are employed on cars
entering it.
1. Terminal Facilities Required for Ice Activated Cars
For cars of this type, both train shed and coach yard should be equipped with ice
storage faciUties and platform trucks for handling and distributing ice to the bunkers.
Low platform trucks may be used to advantage for hauling ice along platforms to the
bunkers under car floors. Attention should be given to reducing as far as possible the
accumulation of water on platforms in the vicinity of ice storage. For complete servicing
of cars equipped with the ice activated system, it is necessary that platforms be available
on both sides of the track on which the car is located.
2. Facilities Required for Steam Ejector System
Cars equipped with this system require a steam connection for stand-by use. Pressure
in the steam line should be sufficient to maintain a minimum of SO lb. per sq. in. at the
car located farthest from the point of connection. This frequently requires a Une pressure
of 125 lb., dependent upon the number of cars connected in line and the amount of drop
in pressure experienced per car. Provision must be made to furnish dry steam, as steam
ejector equipment will not function on steam carrying excessive water or condensate.
3. Facilities Required for Mechanical System — Gas-Engine Driven
No special terminal faciUties are required for servicing cars using this system, other
than that a sufficient supply of the proper fuel and lubrication be available for periodic
refueling and lubrication of the engines.
4. Facilities Required for Direct-Mechanical and Electro-Mechanical Systems
Most cars recently equipped with these systems require 220-volt alternating current
supply for stand-by use.
It is the intention of the committee to make further investigation and submit definite
recommendation next year for the location and spacing of outlets both for direct and for
220-volt alternating current.
Progress report, offered as information.
Report on Assignment 4
Scales Used in Railway Service
M. J. J. Harrison (chairman, subcommittee), J. E. Armstrong, Hadley Baldwin, H. G.
Basquin, W. J. Brennen, E. D. Gordon, E. M. Hastings, H. O. Hem, E. K. Lawrence,
C. H. Mottier, H. C. Propst, C. L. Richard, H. M. Roeser, C. U. Smith, D. J.
Strauch, J. N. Todd, E. P. Vroome.
On December 1, 1921, effective January 1, 1922, the American Railway Association
issued its "Grain Circular No. 1". This document was issued pursuant to recommendation
of the Interstate Commerce Commission, as set forth in the commission's Supplementary
Report, Claims for Loss and Damage of Grain, decided January 13, 1920, Docket 9009
(56 ICC 347) . It contained various rules applicable to the handhng of grain in bulk, and
of claims arising from its transportation. It also contained specifications and tolerances
for various types of scales used in weighing grain.
Section II-B of Appendix 1 of Grain Circular No. 1 applied to hopper scales. This
section was further considered after the issuance of Grain Circular No. 1, and certain
Yards and Terminals 115
emendments were agreed to by the principal parties at interest, and informally approved
by the Interstate Commerce Commission. The emended material was promulgated by the
National Bureau of Standards on March 7, 1925, as its Circular No. 199. There was no
reissue of ARA Grain Circular No. 1.
By recent direction of the Association of American Railroads, your committee has
reviewed critically the material identified as Section II-B, Appendix 1, ARA Grain Cir-
cular No. 1. The requirements of that section have been considered in the light of
(1) corresponding requirements of NBS Circular No. 199, (2) corresponding require-
ments of currently effective AREA specifications applying to other types of scales,
(3) current manufacturing practices, and (4) practical requirements. As a result, there is
now submitted, as information and for discussion, a tentatively proposed specification for
the manufacture and installation of hand-operated, grain-hopper scales.
For obvious reasons, your committee has solicited the collaboration of other parties
at interest, and man}' constructive and helpful suggestions have been received from such
parties. It is the sincere wish of your committee that the material herewith proposed may
be further studied and criticized, to the end that the ultimate form may be acceptable
to all interested parties.
56. PROPOSED SPECIFICATIONS FOR THE MANUFACTURE AND
INSTALLATION OF HAND-OPERATED GRAIN-HOPPER SCALES
INTRODUCTION
(In course of preparation)
56— I CAPACITY
101. Scale Capacity Defined
The capacity of a hand-operated, grain-hopper scale is the weight of the greatest
load which may be equally distributed on the knife-edges of the main load pivots without
producing stresses in any member or part of the structure in excess of those specified in
Section 56 — III hereof.
102. Nominal Capacity Defined and Limited
The nominal capacity of a scale is the largest weight indication which can be ob-
tained by the use of all the reading elements in combination, including the amount repre-
sented by any removable weights furnished with the scale, fractional bars totaling 2 J/2
percent or less of the remaining elements being neglected. The nominal capacity of a
hand-operated, grain-hopper scale shall not exceed the scale capacity as defined in
Paragraph 101 hereof.
103. Nominal Capacities Standardized
For purposes of design, a hand-operated, grain-hopper scale shall be assumed to be
one of the following nominal capacities: 18,000 pounds, 30,000 pounds, 48,000 pounds,
72,000 pounds, 120,000 pounds, or 150,000 pounds.
56—11 PLANS
201. Plans to Be Furnished
Assembly plans shall be furnished by the scale manufacturer to the purchaser, show-
ing the location of field connections and all information necessary for the purchaser to
design and construct all elements of the assembly not furnished by the scale manufac-
turer. On request, the scale manufacturer shall submit to the purchaser plans showing
materials, stresses and detailed dimensions for all scale parts.
116
Yards and Terminals
56— III WORKING STRESSES AND FORMULAS
301. General Working Stresses
The maximal permissible unit stresses referred to in Section 56 — I hereof are given
below.
Table 1417
Allowable Unit Stresses in Pounds Per Square Inch For Iron and Steel
Transverse Bending Direct Stress Shear and
Material Tension Compression Tension Compression Torsion
Cast Iron (gray)
Thickness of section
Inches
0.25 5,000 8,500 3,500 10,000 5,000
0.3 4,780 8,130 3,350 9,560 4,780
0.35 4,600 7,820 3,220 9,200 4,600
0.4 4,450 7,560 3,110 8,900 4,450
0.45 4,320 7,340 3,020 8,640 4,320
0.5 4,200 7.140 2,940 8,400 4,200
0.6 4,020 6,830 2,810 8,040 4,020
0.7 3,870 6,580 2,710 7,740 3,870
0.8 3,740 6,360 2,620 7,480 3,740
0.9 3,630 6,170 2,540 7,260 3,630
1.0 3,540 6,020 2,480 7,080 3,540
1.1 3,450 5,860 2,410 6,900 3,450
1.2 3,380 5,750 2,370 6,760 3,380
1.3 3,310 5,620 2,320 6,620 3,310
1.4 3,250 5,520 2,270 6,500 3.250
1.5 3,190 5.420 2,230 6,380 3,190
1.6 3,140 5,340 2,200 6,280 3,140
1.8 3,050 5,180 2,130 6,100 3,050
2.0 2,970 5,050 2,080 5,940 2,970
2.5 2,810 4.780 1,970 5,620 2.810
3.0 2,690 4.570 1,880 5,380 2,690
3.5 2,580 4,390 1,810 5,160 2,580
4.0 2,500 4,250 1,750 5,000 2,500
Steel
Structural (SAE 1010
to 1020) 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 7,000
Castings (SAE 1020
to 1030) 10,000 12,000 10,000 12,000 8,000
Pivots and Bearings
SAE 1095, hard-
ened 24,000 24,000 24.000 24.000
SAE 6195 or
52100, hardened 30,000 30,000 30,000 30,000
In designing cast iron members to sustain stress of any character, the maximal
allowable unit stress shall be determined by the greatest thickness, exclusive of fillets, of
the portion of the section carrying the stress being considered. In the main portion of a
beam, the thickness of the web or flange shall be used, whichever is the greater. The
thickness of the flange shall be considered either as the average depth of the outstanding
portion, or the breadth of flange, outside to outside, whichever is less.
The bearing stress on steel pins shall not exceed 15,000 pounds per square inch on any
diametral cross section.
In proportioning rivets, nominal diameters shall be used.
The effective bearing area of a pin, bolt or rivet is the diameter of the member
multiplied by the thickness of the member upon which the member bears. In metal %
Yards and Terminals 117
inch thick and over, half the depth of countersink shall be omitted in calculating bearing
area. In metal less than % inch thick, countersunk rivets shall not be assumed to carr>-
bearing stress.
302. High-Strength Alloys
For materials intended or represented to be "high-strength"' alloys, unit working
stresses other than those given in Table 1 may be used, pro\"ided these do not exceed
one-third the imit stresses at the jield point established according to the test routine
followed or prescribed by the .\merican Society for Testing Materials for parts of the
same analysis, heat treatment and size, and pro\ided further that the unit working
stresses for any combination of gray iron and carbon steel exclusive!}- shall not exceed
those given in Table 1 for steel castings. The purchaser, if he requests, shall be furnished
with sufficient data or test ^)ecimens to enable him to determine the physical properties
of the particular "Tiigh-strength" material proposed to be used.
303. Knife-Edge Bearing Stresses
TTie load per inch of knife-edge shall not exceed 5,000 poimds for high carbon steel
(S-\E 1095), or 6,000 pounds for special alloy pivot steel (SAE 6195 or 52100), when
the fulcrum distance of the lever is not less than 8 inches. For each inch or fraction
thereof that the fulcnun distance is decreased from 8 inches, the permissible load per
inch of knife-edge for that lever shall be decreased from the value above given by 11
per cent.
304. Concrete Bearing Stresses
Bearing stresses on concrete shall not exceed 300 pounds per square inch under scale
lever stands.
305. Projecting Pivots, Formula for Stresses
Where practicable, pivots shall be supported their full length by integral parts of the
containing lever.
When impracticable so to support the pivots, external bending moments shall be
determined as follows:
Let JLf = the required bending moment in inch-poimds
L = the length in inches of the moment arm
T = the distance in inches between the friction faces of the loop
IF= the total load in poimds on both ends of the pivot
D = the length in inches of bearing in the loop
B := the width in inches of the boss or sustaining member enveloping the pivot
Theni: = D 2-^ (P — B)-f- ^ inch
.\nd jr= ni 2
306. Levers, Formula for Loading
For design purposes, each comer of the scale shall be assumed to cany 30 percent of
the nominal capacity which is contemplated for the scale ; the weighbeam and shelf lever,
and their appurtenances, shall be assumed to carr>- 150 percent of the load due to such
assumed nominal capacity.
5^R" SC.\LE LE\-ERS
401. Limitation of Type
Truss rods shall not be used in parts of the lever system except to stiffen levers
lateralh-. Truss rods designed as parts of a lever structure to support vertically applied
loads wiU not be permitted.
118 Yards and Terminals
402. Qualities of Castings
Castings used for levers shall not be warped. They shall be clean, smooth, uniform,
and free from blisters, blowholes and shrinkage holes and cracks. Steel castings shall be
annealed.
403. Machined Ways for Nose Irons
Levers that are to be equipped with nose irons shall have those portions of the
lever ends receiving them machined for the full distance over which the nose irons may
be moved.
404. Leveling Lugs
In scales of other than the torsion lever type, each lever shall be provided with
leveUng lugs for longitudinal alinement. In scales of the torsion lever type, leveling lugs
shall be provided on the pipe or torsion member for transverse alinement, and on the
extension arm for longitudinal ahnement. Each pair of lugs shall be spaced 11 inches
apart. The leveling surfaces of each pair of lugs shall be finished to a common plane,
which shall be parallel to the plane through the knife-edges of the end pivots.
405. Marking of Levers
Figures denoting the nominal ratio of each lever shall be cast or otherwise perma-
nently marked on the lever.
406. Permanency of Adjustment
The design, workmanship and factory adjustment of all levers shall be such that the
proper ratio of the lever arms will be maintained.
56— V PIVOTS AND BEARINGS
501. Material
The material used for pivots and bearings shall be either:
(a) Special alloy pivot steel (SAE 6195 or 52100), hardened to not less than 58 on
the Rockwell C scale, or
(b)' High carbon steel (SAE 1095), hardened to not less than 60 on the Rockwell C
scale.
502. Design
Pivots shall be so formed that the included angle of the sides joining to form the
knife-edge will not exceed 90 degrees, and the offset of the knife-edge from the center
line of the pivot will not exceed 10 percent of the width of the pivot. Pivots intended
to be held in place in their respective levers exclusively by friction shall be tapered not
more than % inch per foot.
503. Mounting
(a) Fastening. — Pivots shall be firmly fastened in position without swaging or
calking.
(b) Machined-In Pivots. — Pivots shall be machine-finished and fitted into machined
ways.
(c) Continuous Contact Required. — Pivots shall be so mounted that continuous
contact of the knife-edges with their respective bearings for the full length of the parts
designed to be in contact will be obtained. In loop bearings, the knife-edges shall project
slightly beyond the bearings in the loops.
Yards and Terminals 119
504. Position
In any lever the pivots shall be so mounted that:
(a) Each knife-edge will be maintained in a horizontal plane under any load within
the capacity of the scale.
(b) A plane bisecting the angle of a knife-edge will be perpendicular to the plane
through the knife-edges of the end pivots.
(c) The actual distance between the end knife-edges of any lever will not differ
from the nominal distance by more than 1/100 inch per foot of length of lever.
(d) The knife-edges in any lever will be parallel.
505. Support for Projecting Pivots
The reinforcing on the levers to support projecting pivots shall be tapered off to
prevent accumulation of dirt next to the pivots and to provide proper clearances.
506. Design of Bearings
Bearing steels and the parts supporting or containing them shall be so applied to
the mechanism that permissible movement of the weighbridge will not displace the line of
contact between any bearing and the opposing pivot.
507. Interchangeability of Bearing Steels
All bearing steels of the same nominal dimensions or parts identification shall be
interchangeable or mounted in interchangeable bearing blocks. The interchangeable part
shall be securely mounted in the part containing it.
508. Finish of Bearing Steels
The bearing surfaces shall be brought to a smooth, true and accurate finish to insure
continuity of contact with opposing pivots.
56— VI NOSE IRONS
601. Design
Nose irons shall be so constructed that:
(a) They will be positioned by means of adjusting screws of standard size and
thread.
(b) They will be retained in position by screws or bolts of standard size and thread.
(c) The surfaces of nose irons intended to be in slidable contact with the levers will
be machined true, so as to obtain an accurate fit in or on the levers.
(d) When adjustments are made, the knife-edge will be held parallel to its normal
position.
602. Screws and Bolts
Adjusting and retaining screws and bolts shall be made of a corrosion-resistant
material.
603. Retaining Device
Provision for retaining each nose iron in position shall be provided, and shall be so
designed and constructed that:
(a) It will be independent of the means provided for adjustment of the nose iron.
(b) It will not cause indentations in the lever.
(c) Loads applied to the scale will not cause tension in the retaining bolts or screws.
(d) The nose iron will remain in position when the bolts or screws are loosened.
120 Yards and Terminals
604. Marking of Position.
The position of each nose iron as determined by factory adjustment shall be accu-
rately, clearly and permanently indicated by well defined marks on the lever and nose
iron, which meet in a common line.
56— VII LEVER FULCRUM STANDS
701. Qualities of Castings
Castings for lever stands shall be clean, smooth, uniform, and free from blisters,
blowholes and shrinkage holes and cracks.
702. Proportions
Each lever stand shall be so designed, constructed and installed that, under any
practical condition of loading, the resultant force through the bearing will fall within
the middle third of the length and width of the base.
703. Finish of Bases
The base of any lever stand shall be machined true within a tolerance of ^ inch
to a plane perpendicular to a vertical line through the center of the knife-edge bearing
carried by the upright portion of the stand.
704. Finish of Tops
The top of any lever stand receiving a bearing steel, cap or block shall be finished
smooth and shall be parallel to the base within 3*2 inch.
705. Anchor Bolt Holes
Two or more anchor bolt holes, not less than IJ^ inches in diameter, shall be pro-
vided in proper places in the base of every lever fulcrum stand, unless other equally
effective means for anchorage is provided.
706. Height Adjustment
For scales of 120,000 pounds and 150,000 pounds capacity, the main lever stands
shall be adjustable in height.
56— VIII LOOPS AND CONNECTIONS
801. Material
The requirements for material and hardness of bearing surfaces in loop connections
shall be the same as those prescribed in Paragraph 501 hereof for pivots and bearings.
802. Design
All connections and their elements shall be so constructed and installed as to result
in the maximal practicable flexibility. Bearings shall be self-alining. In loop bearings, the
internal radius of the eye of the loop shall in no case be less than the diagonal of the
cross section of the square pivot, or the short axis of the chestnut pivot, to be used in
the loop.
803. Length and Adjustment
Loops in like connections, except when adjustable, shall be of the same length. The
length of the steelyard rod shall be adjustable. The means for adjustment provided in
any connection shall be of such design and construction that accidental change in the
length of the connection cannot occur under practical service conditions.
Yards and Terminals 121
56— IX CHECKS
901. Arrangement
When check rods are used, they shall be adjustable. All checks shall be so designed,
constructed and installed as to impose no restraint upon the weighbridge or hopper under
any practical condition of loading, and insofar as practicable shall, for any scale, be
positioned in the same horizontal plane.
56— X WEIGHBEAMS AND ACCESSORIES
1001. Limits for Nominal Capacity
See Paragraphs 101 and 102 hereof.
1002. Capacity to Be Marked
The nominal capacity shall be explicitly and conspicuously marked on or near the
weighbeam.
1003. Type of Weighbeam
At the option of the purchaser, two types of weighbeam are permitted under these
specifications:
(a) A weighbeam comprising a single bar, with its poise, and a counterpoise hanger,
on which all or a major portion of the applied load is intended to be counterpoised with
counterpoise weights applied on such hanger; or
(b) A weighbeam of the full-capacity type.
When specified, registering means may be furnished for either type of weighbeam
named above.
1004. Multiple
For all scales covered by these specifications, the designed multiples at the load and
tip knife-edges of the weighbeam shall be:
(a) When equipped with a weighbeam utilizing counterpoise weights, 100:1 to the
load knife-edge and 1000:1 at the tip knife-edge of the weighbeam.
(b) When equipped with a full-capacity weighbeam, 200:1 to the load knife-edge
and 3500:1 at the tip knife-edge of the weighbeam.
1005. Graduations
(a) Readability. — A weighbeam shall be so marked and graduated, and the poise
shall be so constructed, that the weight corresponding to any poise position can be easily
and correctly read without moving the poise; this requirement shall be met regardless
of whether the weighbeam is or is not a registering weighbeam.
(b) Value. — For a full-capacity weighbeam, the notches and graduations on the
main bar shall be made at 1000-pound intervals. For weighbeams using counterpoise
weights, the capacity of the weighbeam bar shall be 1,000 pounds. For either type of
weighbeam, the value of the minimal graduation shall be:
Nominal capacity of scale, not over 30,000 pounds 5 pounds
" " " " more than 30,000 pounds 10 "
1006. Poise Stops
Each weighbeam shall be provided with stops to prevent any poise with which it
may be equipped from traveling and remaining back of the zero graduation.
122 Yards and Terminals
1007. Notches
On all notched weighbeams, the notches shall face either horizontally or downward.
Notches shall be so formed and positioned that accurate positioning of a poise will auto-
matically result at any graduation at which the poise may be placed. Notches on the
main bar of a full-capacity weighbeam shall be spaced not closer than four to the inch.
1008. Poises
(a) Readability. — See Paragraph 1005- (a) hereof.
(b) Projections and Recesses. — Poises shall be so designed and constructed as lo
reduce to a minimum the number and size of projections and recesses that will retain
foreign material, and shall be as nearly dust-tight as practicable. On a full-capacity
weighbeam, the ends of the main poise shall be completely closed.
(c) Poise Bearings. — Each poise shall be constructed to move along its bar without
side play. On a full-capacity weighbeam, the main poise shall be equipped with dust-
tight ball bearings.
(d) Material. — The exterior shell of a poise shall be made of a corrosion-resistant
alloy, steel, iron, brass, or any other metal or alloy of metals not softer than brass.
Poises shall have no metal softer than brass making contact with the weighbeam.
(e) Movable Parts. — All movable elements forming parts of a poise shall be so con-
structed as not to be detachable without manifest mutilation of the poise. Set screws, if
designed to secure a poise at any point on a weighbeam, shall not be readily removable.
(f) Adjusting Material. — Any material inserted in a poise for adjusting its mass shall
be securely fixed in position and shall not be accessible without at least partial dis-
assembly of the poise.
(g) Pawl or Latch. — For a poise on a notched weighbeam, the design and construc-
tion of the pawl or latch and its appurtenances shall be such that accurate positioning
of the poise will automatically result at any graduation at which the poise may be placed.
(h) Poises on Type-Registering Weighbeam. — The poise or poises on a type-
registering weighbeam shall be constructed to stop positively at each graduation, and lo
prevent movement beyond the last graduation. A substantial type of hand grip shall be
provided to facilitate the registration of the weight. The natural operation of the regis-
tering mechanism shall not cause lateral displacement of the weighbeam.
1009. Registering Weighbeam
When a registering weighbeam is furnished, the receptacle or receptacles for the
weight ticket shall be so positioned and formed that accurate registration of the indicated
weight will result when an appropriate ticket is used.
Type figures, if used, shall be of a material sufficiently hard that, under the designed
conditions of use, the figures will not become battered or defaced. The figures shall be
plain and of such design as to insure clear impressions, and shall be so attached that they
cannot become loosened or detached without a positive indication that the weighbeam
is out of order.
If pin registration is to be used, the dimensions and disposition of the printing on
the ticket for which the device is designed shall be definitely specified by the manufac-
turer, and the pins shall be accurately located to result in correct registration when
such ticket is used.
1010. Balance Ball
A balance ball shall be provided, and its movement shall be controlled by means of
a hand-operated screw or other device which will not require that the ball be rotated
in making any adjustments. The balance ball shall be provided with means for vertical
adjustment.
Yards and Terminals 123
1011. Weighbeam Fulcrum Stand
(a) Design. — The weighbeam shall be supported on a stand fitted with self-alining
bearings. Weighbeam fulcrum stands shall be so designed, constructed and installed that
the resultant force through the bearing will fall within the middle third of the length
and width of the base.
(b) Height. — The height of the stand, measured from the bottom surface of the
base to the knife-edge hne, shall not exceed 20 inches.
(c) Finish. — ^The bearing surface of the base of the stand shall be finished to a plane
perpendicular to the axis of the upright portion of the stand, and the knife-edge line of
the bearing shall be parallel to the base.
1012. Trig Loop
(a) Weighbeam Travel. — ^The permissible travel of the weighbeam in the trig loop
shall be not less than:
Length of Weighbeam — Minimal
Fulcrum Knife-Edge to Trig Loop Travel
Under 12 inches 0.4 inch
Over 12 inches, including 20 inches O.S inch
Over 20 inches, including 40 inches 0.7 inch
Over 40 inches 0.9 inch
(b) Indicator. — The weighbeam shall be fitted with an indicator to cooperate with
a graduated target or other device on the trig loop, or vice versa, to indicate a central
position in the trig loop when the weighbeam is horizontal.
(c) Material. — The contact parts of the trig loop shall be made of a non-magnetic
material.
1013. Support for Weighbeam Outfit
The weighbeam fulcrum stand and trig loop stand shall be supported on a metal
shelf mounted on metal pillars, or equivalent in strength and durability. The shelf shall
be sufficiently rigid that, within the capacity of the scale, deflection can not occur to such
an extent as will affect the weighing performance. The height of the shelf shall be such,
in conjunction with the height of the weighbeam fulcrum stand, that the knife-edge line
of the weighbeam will be not more than 5 feet, 6 inches above the floor surface at the
weigher's normal position. The shelf pillars shall be supported by the structure which
supports the scale.
1014. Counterpoise Weights
(a) Design and Material. — Counterpoise weights shall be made of corrosion-resistant
alloys, steel, iron, brass, or any other metal or alloy of metals not softer than brass.
They shall be smooth, without sharp edges or corners, and of such form that the mini-
mum of surface consistent with convenience of use will be exposed to wear and corrosion.
When counterpoise weights are to be used with a registering device, the effective thick-
ness of each weight shall conform to the designed thickness within such limits that, at
no point within the range of the registering device, will any measurable error in regis-
tration be caused by variation in weight thickness.
(b) Corrosion Protection. — Counterpoise weights made of corrodible material, such
as cast iron or steel, shall be protected from corrosion by the application of a durable
chemical coating.
(c) Marking.— Each counterpoise weight shall be clearly marked with its nominal
value, i.e., 1 pound, 2 pounds, etc., and also with the value of the load which it is
intended to counterpoise, i.e., 1,000 pounds, 2,000 pounds, etc.
124 Yards and Terminals
(d) Adjustment Cavity. — Each counterpoise weight shall be provided exclusively in
its side with one or more adjustment cavities of adequate size to receive sufficient adjust-
ing material to compensate for normal wear of the weight's surface. Each such cavity
shaU be securely closed by a screw plug of brass or similar material, covered by a soft
cap. No part of any such plug or cap shall project above the surface of the weight.
(e) Sealing. — ^After each counterpoise weight is adjusted to its proper value, all plugs
or caps closing adjustment cavities shall receive the impression of a seal or stamp,
appropriate in character and design to attest the authenticity of the sealing.
1015. Weight Lifting Device
For scales of more than 30,000 pounds capacity, designed for the use of counter-
poise weights, there shall be provided a device, designed and constructed for manual
operation, which may be used to elevate and hold clear of the weighbeam and the coun-
terpoise hanger the entire appUed counterpoise-weight load. The construction and opera-
tion of the device shall permit normal oscillation of the weighbeam, both under zero-load
balance and under any condition of loading in which a load in the hopper is counter-
poised by one or more counterpoise weights applied on their hanger. The cup or holder
at the bottom of the counterpoise hanger shall be securely attached to the stem, and
any balancing material contained in such cup or holder shall be fixed in position.
1016. Weight Racks
For each weighbeam equipped with counterpoise weights, a weight rack shall be
provided. The surfaces of any weight rack which contact or support the counterpoise
weights shall be formed of a relatively soft material, such as rawhide, fiber, etc.
1017. Counterbalance Weights
The design and construction of the weighbeam shall, insofar as practicable, be such
as not to necessitate the use of counterbalance weights. When counterbalance weights
are to be used, the lower end of the counterbalance hanger stem shall be threaded, a cup
for the loose balancing material shall be screwed to the lower end of the stem, and
each additional weight shall be provided with an elongated hole in the center, through
which the hanger stem may pass. No slotted counterbalance weights are to be used.
When no counterbalance weights are necessary on top of the counterbalance cup, the
cavity shall be closed by a cover secured in a positive manner. No counterbalance weights
shall be used in any place in the scale except at the weighbeam.
56— XI ANTI-FRICTION POINTS AND PLATES
1101. Material and Design
Hardened steel anti-friction contacts shall be used to limit longitudinal displacement
between knife-edges and bearings. They shall be smooth and so designed and applied as
to provide contacts on the knife-edge line.
1102. Clearances
The total clearance between anti-friction plates and points shall not exceed tt inch
on the weighbeam, 3^ inch on the shelf lever, and J4 inch on all other levers. The
minimal clearances shall be not less than one-half these respective amounts.
56— XII CLEARANCES
1201. General
The clearance around and between the live parts of the lever system shall be at
least Yz inch except at points where other clearances are specified. (See also Paragraphs
1102, 1503 and 1605 hereof.).
Yards and Terminals 125
56— XIII INTERCHANGEABILITY
1301. Identification Required
Units or parts of units intended to be interchangeable with like units or parts of the
same design or manufacture, shall be identified on the scale plans or in the subject matter
of the proposal in such a manner as will clearly indicate the interchangeable parts, the
manner of replacement, and the adjustments required, if any, after replacement.
56— XIV HOPPER AND GARNER
1401. General
The hopper and garner shall be of substantial construction, preferably of steel, and
shall be braced as necessary to prevent distortion under load. They shall be grain-tight
and self-clearing of any kind of grain that it is expected will be handled through them.
1402. Capacity
The net capacity of the hopper shall be at least 23.05 cubic feet per thousand pounds
of nominal capacity of the scale.
The capacity of the garner shall be as large as practicable, and preferably shall
exceed the volume of the largest carload of grain which it is expected will be handled.
1403. Valleys
The bottoms of hoppers and garners shall be so formed, or the valleys so filled that
sharp V-valleys will be avoided. Valleys of wooden hoppers and garners shall be metal-
sheathed. The pitch of valleys shall be not less than 36 degrees in the hopper and 40
degrees in the garner.
1404. Gates
Hopper and garner gates shall be grain-tight and shall operate freely. Devices for
operating the gates shall be located on the weighbeam side of the hopper, within con-
venient reach of the weigher, and shall be provided with means to indicate the closed
position of the gates and to prevent accidental opening of them. All gate levers shall be
moved in the same direction to perform similar functions. No operating device shall
impose any lateral or vertical restraint on a hopper except at the time of operation.
The garner gate shall be so located as to discharge grain centrally into the hopper.
1405. Canvas Dust Guards
When canvas or similar material is used to enclose the opening between the garner
and the hopper, it shall be attached only to the garner, and provision shall be made for
the free escape of air.
56— XV FOUNDATION
1501. General
The supporting structure for a hopper scale shall extend up from the main founda-
tion of the elevator and shall, insofar as practicable, be rigid, integral, and free from all
secondary vibration under normal conditions of elevator operation. The immediate sup-
port for the scale shall be the scale floor, which shall preferably be of reinforced con-
crete and shall be constructed with a minimum of openings through which air currents
may flow to disturb the balance condition of the scale. A hopper scale shall not be in-
stalled in a bin, over an open bin or open pit, or on bin cribbing. Suitable provision for
anchoring the lever fulcrum stands and shelf pillars shall be provided. The design shall
permit reasonably convenient removal of the scale parts for reconditioning.
126 Yards and Terminals
1502. Weighbeam Location
Unless impracticable, the weighbeam shall be so located that it will be "right-
handed", and that no levers other than the shelf lever are necessary between it and the
main levers.
1503. Hopper Clearances
The design and construction of the building shall provide a clearance of not less
than 6 inches around each hopper.
56— XVI INSTALLATION
1601. Stands
The lever fulcrum stands shall be set level and plumb, without shims or grouting,
and securely anchored in proper alinement and position.
1602. Alinement
All levers shall be level and connections plumb.
1603. Weighbridge and Hopper Supports
The weighbridge shall be constructed of steel, and shall be so designed and con-
structed that the tops of the main load bearing assembhes may be bolted to it in
proper ahnement. Insofar as practicable, the hopper supports shall transmit the load to
the weighbridge vertically over the main load knife-edges of the scale. The design and
assembly of the hopper and weighbridge on the lever system shall produce, as nearly as
may be, equal distribution of load to the main bearings of the scale, without measurable
tendency to alter the horizontal alinement as a result of normal filling or emptying of
the hopper or application or removal of test weights.
1604. Test Weight Hangers
Means shall be provided for applying test load. The arrangement shall permit test-
load apphcation substantially at the vertical center lines through the main load bearings.
Detachable rods are recommended, and the arrangement should permit movement to
proper position of wheeled cradles carrying test weights, and their ready hooking to and
unhooking from the lower ends of the hanger rods.
1605. Safety Piers or Hangers
Suitable piers, posts or hangers shall be provided to prevent excessive drop of the
hopper or scale levers should failure of the scale parts occur. A clearance of not to exceed
one inch shall be provided between the pier, post or hanger and the part which it is
intended to protect.
1606. Vents and Signal Lines
Vent or other pipes connected to any fixed part of the elevator shall not be attached
to scale hoppers. No signal wires or cords or other similarly objectionable devices shall
pass through a scale hopper or be attached to it or to the scale parts.
1607. Accessibility
The scale parts shall be reasonably accessible, under normal elevator operating con-
ditions, for cleaning, painting, adjustment, etc.
Yards and Terminals 127
1608. Protection from Corrosion
The finish and treatment of all surfaces shall be such as to insure good appearance
and satisfactory resistance to corrosion. The surface treatment shall be durable and
appropriate to the intended uses.
56— XVII PERFORMANCE REQUIREMENTS
1701. Scale Tolerances
The tolerance on ratio, in excess or deficiency, for a new hand-operated grain-
hopper scale, after installation corrections, shall be 0.05 percent of the test-weight load
symmetrically appUed to the main load bearings.
(Tolerances on scales equipped with full-capacity weighbeams are under consid-
eration.)
1702. Testing Equipment
The equipment used to test a hand-operated grain-hopper scale shall comprise:
(a) A complement of test weights adjusted to National Bureau of Standards toler-
ances for class C weights, and
(b) A complement of slotted counterpoise weights, adjusted to National Bureau of
Standards tolerances for class B weights.
1703. Method of Test
The tolerance stated in Paragraph 1701 hereof comprehends that the scale is tested
to its capacity by applying test weights exclusively. When circumstances do not permit
this, the minimal test-weight load to be used shall be 8 percent of the nominal capacity
of the scale, increased as necessary to equal a simple multiple of 1,000 pounds. The
cradles referred to in Paragraph 1604 hereof shall be considered a part of the test-weight
load if their masses are individually known to be adjusted to within class C tolerances.
The test-weight hangers shall be applied to the weighbridge or to the bearing
assemblies, and a complement of "error weights" shall be placed on some convenient
shelf or other surface of the hopper or weighbridge. With the hopper empty, the scale
shall then be brought to accurate zero-load balance. The available test-weight load shall
be applied, distributed equally among the four corners of the scale, and a corresponding
amount of standard counterpoise weights shall be placed on the counterpoise hanger.
The weighbeam shall then be brought to an accurate balance condition by adding or
removing "error weights", and the indicated error shall be taken as the value of the
"error weights" so added or removed.
This procedure shall be followed, in addition to the foregoing, with the hopper
approximately one-half full, and again with the hopper loaded to the scale capacity less
at least the value of the test load being used. In the case of all observations made with
grain in the hopper, sufficient time shall elapse before the test-weight load is added or
removed, as the case may be, to establish that there is no leakage of grain through the
hopper or garner gates.
1704. Counterpoise-Weight Tolerances
Counterpoise weights furnished with or belonging to a grain-hopper scale shall be
separately tested by comparing them on a sensitive, equal-arm balance with the standard
counterpoise weights required by Paragraph 1702 hereof. The tolerances to be allowed in
excess or deficiency on new counterpoise weights for a grain-hopper scale shall be:
128 Yards and Terminals
Nominal Value
of Weight Tolerance
(pounds) (grains)
10 10
8 9
S 6.S
4 6
3 5
2 4
1 2.5
1705. Sensibility Reciprocal
The sensibility reciprocal (SR) is the change in load required to turn the weigh-
beam from a position of equilibrium in the center of the trig loop to a position of
equilibrium at either limit of its travel. The value of the SR shall preferably be deter-
mined by adding or removing "error weights".
At any load within its capacity, the weighbeam of a new hand-operated grain-
hopper scale shall be in stable equilibrium, and the SR shall not exceed:
Nominal Capacity
of Scale Permissible SR
(pounds) (pounds)
18,000 S
30,000 S
48,000 10
72,000 10
120,000 10
150,000 10
Report on Assignment 5
Terminal Facilities Required for the Care of Diesel
Locomotive Equipment
H. C. Lorenz (chairman, subcommittee), C. J. Astrue, A. L. Becker, V. J. Bedell, W. O.
Boessneck, H. G. Dalton, F. T. Darrow, W. H. Giles, W. J. Hedley, W. H. Hobbs,
L. L. Lyford, C. H. Mottier, J. M. Metcalf, J. N. Todd.
General
Many Class I railroads employ some Diesel-electric switchers and contemplate
extending their use, and at least 17 railroads are using Diesel-powered trains for passenger
service. The use of Diesel-electric locomotives is becoming so general that it is desirable
to assemble information regarding the facilities that have been provided by the railroads
for their proper care and maintenance. Insofar as possible they are using existing facil-
ities but as these are not always adequate or suitable, it is necessary in many cases to
construct new facilities to take care of the immediate requirements.
General Requirements
For the ordinary servicing of a Diesel-electric locomotive, fuel, sand, radiator water
and crank-case oil must be replenished from time to time and the locomotive thoroughly
inspected. The ideal situation would be to locate fuel tanks or the fuel supply lines,
inspection pit and sand houses so that all of this work could be done with one spotting
Yards and Terminals 129
of the locomotive. The inspection pit should be in such a location that the motors,
journals, etc., can be inspected while the locomotive is being serviced.
Dependent upon local restrictions, the fuel tanks may be either above ground or
underground. With a tank set above ground so that its bottom is about eight feet above
top of rail, gravity fueling is possible. In that case, however, fuel will have to be pumped
from the tank car to the storage tank. For this purpose an electric pump with a capacity
for handling at least 100 gal. per min. should be provided, and so arranged that in case
of emergency the fuel can be pumped directly from tank car to locomotive. In some
instances fueling must be done by a pressure system, as gravity fueling is too slow. Both
the pump and the track should be thoroughly insulated to prevent any sparking. Strainers
should be provided for both the inlet and outlet hnes and should be so installed that
they may be readily removed for cleaning, as it is essential that fuel be entirely free
from foreign matter. A meter should be placed on the supply Une for the determination
of fuel consumed per unit of work performed, and to measure the quantity of fuel
received.
At points where fuel oil is readily available, a tank with a capacity of from 15,000
to 20,000 gal. will generally be sufficient. If it is advisable to purchase oil in more than
single carload lots, the storage capacity must be increased accordingly.
A sand house should be provided with at least two flexible pipes of sufficient length
so that when the locomotive is properly spotted they will reach all of its sand boxes.
The most common repairs necessary to a Diesel locomotive, in addition to tho.^e
which can be made at the inspection pit, are the replacement of rings and cylinder hners,
adjustment of bearings, and turning of wheels. Shop equipment must be provided to the
end that all of these repairs can be made quickly and easily.
Experience with the care of these locomotives indicates that for economic main-
tenance operations, faciUties somewhat different from those for steam locomotives are
required. Operations should be separated. FaciUties are required, first, for running repairs
at outlying points and at major terminals, to avoid interference with regular shop routine;
and, second, for repair shops where heavy or classified repairs are handled. It seems
desirable that facilities for servicing Diesel-electric power units should be kept apart from
the coach yard facilities and be properly housed. As to track layout, turntable, etc., the
normal equipment used in the steam locomotive terminal will also serve the Diesel
locomotives.
Facilities for Running Repairs
Truck removal is occasionally required, but there is frequent need for the removal
of wheels, as wheel and journal troubles develop. The motors also must be removed
occasionally. It seems, therefore, that the minimum requirement is for a two-screw
drop-pit table, equipped with a drop-pit machine of sufficient capacity for the power
handled, using detachable table tops, 6 ft. 6 in. across the pit and 9 ft. 6 in. parallel
with the pit, having a drop of 4 ft., with a floored depression of at least 12 in. between
the rails of the table top. The adjacent floor should be level with the base of rail to
obtain all working space possible. A checkered plate floor is desirable. The pit should be
so located that any wheel of the Diesel locomotive may be removed without moving the
locomotive beyond the doors or without fouling adjacent tracks.
Service tracks should have inspection pits, and some roads recommend a small pit
in the release track large enough to accommodate workmen when removing such parts
as motors, gears, etc. The inspection and drop pits should be adequately lighted and the
drop pits should be equipped with steps and effectively drained.
130 Yards and Terminals
As parts being handled have considerable weight, it is recommended that a light
traveling crane be provided. It should be of the one, two or three-motor type, afford
an adequate lift, and be operated from the floor if it is to serve only the release track
If made to serve two or more tracks, it should clear the tops of the locomotives, so that
it can handle the interior parts. The crane bridge should be parallel with the length of
the drop pit, and should pass over the drop pit and its release track.
A western railroad has installed a two-screw drop-pit table with a detachable top.
6 ft. 6 in. across the pit by 9 ft. 6 in. parallel with the pit, of 3S-ton capacity, 4-ft. drop
and a speed of 3 ft. per min. A 10-ton overhead traveling crane serves the release track
only, to handle parts removed.
Diesel-Electric Shops for Heavy Repairs
The width of the building will be determined by the number of tracks, usually two
or three at 24-ft. centers, with ample space each side. The length will depend upon the
number of locomotives being handled, with an adequate space between and at the ends
of locomotives. Approximately opposite the center of the building a machine shop bay
should be provided, including space for an electric shop, air brake room, tool room, paint
shop, wash room, toilets, offices, etc., with a broad walkway extending transversely across
the main building and the tracks, for convenient access to the machine shop bay. There
should be an overhead traveling crane of ample capacity, cab operated, with a runway
the full length of the building at a sufficient height to handle parts from within the
locomotive as well as locomotive trucks, etc.
Inspection pits should be of sufficient depth, with steps at each end, and adequately
lighted and drained. The floor may be level with the top of rail. Some railroads prefer
to have the top of rail about one foot above the floor to facilitate truck repairs, in which
case the cross walk should be level with top of rail, with ramps to the lower level on
each side. Provision should be made for jacking at any point on both sides of the tracks.
Truck and Wheel Removing Equipment
Various types of equipment are now being used to remove trucks and wheels. The
four principal types are enumerated below, together with a few examples indicating
variations and combinations of the several types.
1. Electric high-lift portable jacks for the removal of trucks seem to be preferred
at this time, as a pit is not required and it is not necessary to spot the locomotive
accurately. However, head room should be considered and the necessity for disengaging
connections for both trucks where only one is to be removed. Jacks of 2S-ton capacity
are obtainable for switchers, and of 3S-ton capacity for passenger units, with 4-ft. lift,
but higher lift may be obtained if necessary. When raising the locomotive body, the load
is carried on a base casting instead of the wheels of the jack. The column with side
lifting bracket and large base gives greater stability and safety than the conventional
pedestal jack. Each jack is equipped with a motor, and push-button control. Through
proper plug-ins of the control cable, each jack can be operated from its own push-button
station or one pair or two pairs can be operated simultaneously from a single push-
button station.
An eastern railroad handles its locomotives at Cleveland with four of these jacks.
A steel corporation at Cleveland uses four of the 2S-ton jacks for handling its switchers,
and a southwestern railroad uses four 35-ton jacks for its streamlined passenger units.
2. Two traveling cranes of ample capacity may be used, one at each end of the
locomotive, for raising the locomotive body for truck release. For large scale operations,
where numerous units are handled, the idea is not objectionable; however, for most shops
it is generally believed that the cost would be too high.
Yards and Terminals 131
3. A drop-pit table of 100-ton capacity with detachable table tops, 22 ft. long across
the pit, by 12 ft. wide parallel with the pit, provides an economical arrangement. The
tops should be of the plain type, with a depression of approximately two feet between
the rails of the top, and checkered plate flooring outside the rails, either at the level of
the base or top of the rail as required. Such a machine should have a hoisting speed of
two feet per minute, should be motor racked with a speed of 25 ft. per min., and should
be equipped with a spring-operated cable take-up reel. The truck drop should be not
less than four feet.
Two of these machines are in service on a western railroad, one at Denver and the
other at Los Angeles. Still another is in service on an eastern railroad at Boston, for
handling trucks of a streamlined passenger train. This type of machine is a satisfactory
facility for railroads with a limited number of locomotives, and experience has demon-
strated that it can serve three service tracks economically.
In 1934, a western railroad installed a drop pit and table and a crane for handling
trucks from power units, coaches and sleepers, adjacent to its passenger yard at Chicago.
For inspection under the cars, a short inspection pit was installed, together with fuel
oil faciUties, condensate lines for furnishing water to heating system boilers, aircondi-
tioning outlets, etc., and special connections for water, steam and air. Since that time
the railroad has installed longer inspection pits, larger capacity drop tables, car pullers,
etc., and has provided similar facilities at MinneapoHs, St. Louis, Denver and Lincoln,
Nebr.
4. A southwestern railroad employs a transfer table for the handling of Diesel loco-
motive trucks at its engine terminal in Chicago, where an entire section is used for
locomotive repairs. The procedure is to run the power truck on the transfer table, and
jack up one end of the locomotive about eight inches by means of power-operated jacks.
The transfer table is then racked sidewise to a releasing track where the removed power
truck is rolled off to an overhead 10-ton crane for dismantling.
The objection to this low cost installation is that there is a tendency to center plate
clamping action on short wheel base switchers, when only one end of the locomotive is
raised eight inches (or higher on some locomotives because of skirting) . The open pit is
also objectionable.
A belt railroad, operating in a large Gulf city, has adapted its steam locomotive
terminal shop for the servicing and repair of Diesel-electric switching locomotives.
For turnaround points where heavy repairs are not made, some railway officers
recommend the two-screw drop table, previously described. This machine would be
accessible for quick work on running repairs without interfering with regular shop
equipment. It seems to be the ideal equipment for removing single pairs of wheels with
or without motors.
Horse-Shoe or Sectional Drop Table for Shops
Some roads prefer a drop table of approximately 100-ton capacity, serving two
service tracks, because it requires less head room and less power and is faster in oper-
ation than jacks. Each track is equipped with a main top, having within the top either
one or two auxiliary tops, and a release track is provided between the two service tracks.
With this arrangement, four and six-wheel trucks can be dropped on the main and
auxiliary tops, and individual pairs of wheels on one of the auxiliary tops. The length
of the main top is 22 ft. across the pit, while the length of the auxiliary top is 6 ft. 6 in.
to 7 ft. 6 in.
A northwestern railroad has a table of this type at its Chicago shops; another rail-
road has one in Minneapolis, both being used to handle streamline Diesel locomotives.
An eastern railroad also uses a table of this type.
132 Yards and Terminals
Other Equipment Necessary
Equipment usually required by the mechanical department and which should be
considered in connection with the design of faciUties, includes the following:
An hydraulic press of sufficient capacity (approximately 300 tons) to remove
and apply rolled steel wheels on axles equipped with gears.
A wheel lathe of a size sufficient to turn locomotive wheels.
Portable grinding machines to be used in conjunction with lathes; a boring
mill and a planer for grinding valves, valve seats, rollers, and for miscellaneous
operations requiring extremely accurate reconditioning.
Engine lathes which may be used for turning commutators and contact segments
on reversers, boring mills, planers and shapers similar to those now used in the
maintenance of steam locomotives.
Most repair parts when purchased are finished by the manufacturers, and the
greater part of repair work consists in assembling and accurate adjustment of such parts.
Platforms for Working at Locomotive Deck Level
The Diesel-electric locomotive is different from the steam locomotive in that it has
most of its mechanism above the deck, and there is a considerable loss of time if the
workers must frequently move to the floor and return. For this reason, fixed or movable
platforms as high as the locomotive deck, and with steps or risers, should be provided.
The platforms should contain lockers, benches, bench tools and small repair parts.
Requirements Desirable in Diesel-
Electric Locomotive Details to Facilitate Repairs
To faciUtate making repairs on Diesel-electric locomotives conventional jacking
pads should be located at the ends of the body bolsters at the middle of the truck.
Many roads lack crane facilities and must depend on electric high-lift jacks or drop
tables for removing wheels and trucks. For electric high-lift jacks, the jacking pads at
the ends of the body bolsters may be used. Unfortunately, some manufacturers of Diesel-
electric locomotives have placed cab ladders at this point with the result that they must
be removed before the jacks can be placed in position. Furthermore, these ladders foul
the locomotive truck if the truck transfer table is used, and they must be removed before
the trucks can be moved sidewise. Ladders should be located on the side sills beyond
the ends of the trucks. If jacks are to be used in the removal of trucks, the bodies of
Diesel-electric locomotives should have a width of at least one foot in excess of the
widest part of the truck so as to provide necessary clearance between the jacks to permit
the rolling of the trucks from beneath the locomotive.
When drop-pit tables are used, it is highly important to place additional jacking
pads on the side sills immediately behind the trucks, thus making it possible to support
the locomotive body at the side walls of the pit while the truck is being lowered. In
doing work of this kind on a drop-pit table, the jacking pads at the bolsters are over
the pit and are therefore of no value.
Where possible, Diesel-electric switchers should have a set of jacking pads at the
extreme end of the locomotive near or at the end sill. All types of Diesel-electric loco-
motives should be designed so that the ends may rest on shop trucks for movement to a
new location after the regular trucks have been removed.
It is recommended that the pedestals on the trucks of switch engines be so placed
that a thick shoe can be inserted, making it possible after this shoe is removed to
advance a pair of wheels, either with or without the motor, far enough for easy removal.
This report is offered as information.
Yards and Terminals 133
Report on Assignment 6
Classification Yards, Collaborating with Committee 16 — Economics
of Railway Location and Operation
G. F. Hand (chairman, subcommittee), C. E. Armstrong, J. E. Armstrong, C. J. Astrue,
Hadley Baldwin, W. O. Boessneck, N. C. L. Brown, H. F. Burch, W. F. Cummings,
R. B. Elsworth, W. H. Giles, R. J. Hammond, M. J. J. Harrison, E. M. Hastings,
W. H. Hobbs, E. T. Johnston, E. K. Lawrence, L. L. Lyford, C. A. Mitchell, C. H.
Mottier, H. C. Propst, W. B. Rudd, W. C. Sadler, C. U. Smith, J. N. Todd, R. W.
Willis.
This year the subcommittee has selected, under its general assignment, the "Study
of the Departure End of the Classification Yard", for the purpose of discussing and
setting down certain factors of design bearing on the track arrangement and operation
of this portion of hump classification yards that should receive careful consideration so
as to permit prompt and economical handling of cars.
During the last ten years there have been radical changes in the method of oper-
ation of the railroads as a whole, which have materially affected the makeup of trains
and, hence, the method of handling cars in yards. The decrease in total time for freight
from consignor to consignee occasions not only higher road speeds and more expeditious
handling through yards, but also the almost universal makeup of trains of more than one
classification or commodity. Whereas formerly it was often the practice to hold cars of
a particular classification until a trainload of that classification was available, this is not
now the practice except with a very few commodities. This factor materially alters the
operation of building up trains for dispatching from a hump classification yard as com-
pared with the method that was probably in effect when the yard was built.
Proper coordination of the layout of a particular yard and the method of making
up and dispatching trains from the departure end of the yard, requires investigation of
the following possibilities:
1. A sufficient number of the classification tracks each long enough to hold a
full length outgoing train, so that trains can be dispatched direct from these long
classification tracks.
2. Classification tracks with lead tracks, such that the combined length of a
longer classification track and a lead track will be sufficient for a full length out-
going train and permit dispatching therefrom without interfering with other yard
operations.
3. Comparatively short classification tracks and separate departure tracks, the
trains to be made up in and dispatched from the departure tracks.
By means of a questionnaire and discussions with operating men, information was
obtained regarding the design and operation of representative hump classification yards,
particularly as to whether trains are made up in and dispatched from the classification
tracks or whether separate departure tracks are used for making up and dispatching
trains, and the advantages and disadvantages of both methods in relation to the effect
on economical handling and prompt dispatch of trains.
The following information in respect to existing hump classification yards was
developed:
1. Quick handhng in the classification yard and quick dispatch of outgoing
trains are of prime importance.
134 Yards and Terminals
2. The factors which govern the necessity for departure tracks in addition to
the classification tracks, are the number of cars to be handled in given periods of
time, the number of classifications to be made, and the length of the classification
tracks.
3. It is economical in time and cost to make up and dispatch trains from the
classification tracks where there are a sufficient number of such tracks each long
enough for a full length outgoing train, or where there are lead tracks at the out-
going end, so that a train can be made up on a classification track and a lead track
without interfering with other yard operations.
4. With the combination of short classification tracks and a large number of
cars to be handled in a given period of time, it becomes desirable to make up trains
on separate departure tracks.
5. The desirability of separate departure tracks becomes more pronounced as
the number of classifications exceeds the number of classification tracks.
6. Making up trains for divergent routes may make separate departure tracks
necessary, even though some trains are made up and dispatched directly from
classification tracks.
7. In some cases departure tracks have been discontinued because they are no
longer needed, due to a reduction in the number of cars passing through the yard
and changes in the methods of operation. The operation of so-called "mainliners"
has, in itself, reduced the number of cars passing through certain yards.
In considering the information obtained from this study, as presented above, it
should be kept in mind that numerous existing hump classification yards have been
designed and built for a considerably larger volume of traffic than is now being handled
through them, and which are generally being used as built to avoid the expenditure
which might be necessary to permit changes in the method of operation.
Conclusions
Proper design and operation in respect to the making up and dispatching of out-
going trains from a hump classification yard demand a study of all the factors involved
in the above seven points, which, under existing conditions, represent good practice.
This report is presented as information, with the recommendation that the general
subject of classification yards be continued.
Report on Assignment 7
Terminal Facilities Required for the Washing of Passenger
Cars Mechanically
J. M. Metcalf (chairman, subcommittee), C. E. Armstrong, A. L. Becker, W. O. Boess-
neck, H. F. Burch, W. H. Giles, W. J. Hedley, H. C. Lorenz, C. H. Mottier,
E. E. R. Tratman.
Mechanical washing of passenger equipment is quite extensively practised on buses
and trolley cars by urban and interurban transportation companies. Comparatively few
steam railroads have installed machines for that purpose. Two which have done so report
a substantial saving in cost compared with hand washing where there is a sufficient
number of cars to be washed and where the layout is such as to facilitate the operation
Yards and Terminals 135
during the movement of cars between passenger station and coach yard without delay
and extra switching expense. The saving in labor of the washing crew must be balanced
against the switching service handhng cars through the washer. With increasing labor
costs, and the desirabiUty, for advertising purposes, of keeping passenger equipment clean
and attractive, it seems likely that other roads may be interested in such installations at
terminals where large numbers of passenger cars are to be cleaned.
The usual installation for the mechanical washing of railroad passenger cars, as well
as hghter passenger equipment, consists of cylindrical revolving brushes kept wet by
sprays, each operated by an independent motor, supported in a vertical position by rigid
frames on each side of the track on which the cars move for washing. Springs force the
brushes against the car sides during the washing operation, and they may be so arranged
as to tip, within Umits, out of the vertical, so as to keep the brushes with full bearing
against the sides of the car when tilted. One brush on each side usually extends the full
height of the car side, and a shorter brush, usually revolving in the opposite direction,
is designed for washing the windows. Additional inclined brushes may be added for
washing car roofs if required. No provision is made for washing the ends of cars. This
must be done by hand work as a supplemental operation. Outside mechanical washing is
usually discontinued in freezing weather.
In addition to the brush sprays, at a short distance beyond the brushes, in each
direction along the track, are sets of vertical pipes equipped with water sprays, one set
to wet the car sides before they reach the brushes and the other to rinse them as they
leave the washer. With such an arrangement cars can be washed, as they move in either
direction past the washing machine, at speeds up to about one car a minute.
The installation generally includes a floor of concrete, provided with drains, to keep
the water, as it drops from the car sides, from saturating the track structure. Some of
the bus and street car washers are controlled automatically by an electric eye or by a
low voltage rail control, but hand-operated switch control is more generally used in the
steam railroad installations.
One railroad operating such a washing machine has installed, in addition, a short
distance ahead of it, what is known as a "scrubbing machine", for loosening the dirt,
when required, in advance of washing. This machine is equipped with horizontal brushes
which move up and down the car sides in conjunction with a spray of cleaning fluid.
Among the advantages claimed for mechanical washing are the following:
1. Reduction of labor costs
2. Saving of time
3. Concentration of most of the car washing in one place, with suitable drainage,
thus helping to keep the remainder of the coach yard dry and clean
4. Improved appearance and reduced deterioration of car finish, due to more efficient
washing
The following are suggested as desirable features to be incorporated in installations
for mechanical washing of passenger equipment:
1. Location on tangent on a track connected at both ends, so arranged as to facilitate
washing of cars while moving between station and coach yard, without extra
switching movement and without interfering with other yard and switching
operations
2. Designed for washing with equal efficiency while cars are moving by the machine
in either direction
3. Brushes on each side of track wet by sprays and arranged to maintain the re-
quired pressure against the car sides, and to accommodate probable variations in
widths of cars and tilting of cars out of the vertical
136 Yards and Terminals
4. Separate brushes for car sides and windows, arranged to reach effectively all parts
to be washed
5. Water sprays in each direction along the track beyond the brushes, designed to
wet the sides of cars thoroughly before and after washing
6. Concrete or other floor on the track at the washing machine, with adequate
drainage facilities
7. Brushes of conventional design to facilitate ready replacement, and with only
enough bristles to provide fluffiness.
This report is offered as information.
Report on Assignment 8
Terminal Facilities Required for the Handling o£ Highway Trucks
and Trailers on and off Railroad Cars
H. L. Ripley (chairman, subcommittee), J. R. W. Ambrose, J. E. Armstrong, C. J.
Astrue, A. L. Becker, H. F. Burch, W. F. Cummings, F. T. Darrow, R. B. Elsworth,
R. J. Hammond, G. F. Hand, W. J. Hedley, L. L. Lyford, C. H. Mottier, H. M.
Roeser, W. B. Rudd, W. C. Sadler, E. E. R. Tratman.
This is a new assignment to the Yards and Terminals committee and, relatively,
is a new venture by the railroads in an endeavor to recover some of the freight transport
tonnage that has been lost to the over-the-road trucks and trailers. It shows promise
of success, and this report describes facilities that are in use on some of the railroads.
Accessibility and Appointments
The terminal must be conveniently located and readily accessible from the industrial
centers; must be provided with proper driveways and parking space, special lighting,
and with a ramp and loading platform located at the end of one or more stub-end
tracks where specially equipped flat cars may be set up in tandem, all as more
particularly described below.
Loading Platform and Ramp
Opinions of operating men handling the movement differ as to the best gradient for
the loading ramp and best length for the level platform between the top of the ramp and
the first of the flat cars set up in tandem. A western road uses 40 ft. and says that is
not too much. An eastern road uses IS ft. and the crew at one of its terminals says it is
enough. However, at two other terminals the crews think that the distance is short
for easy maneuvering, although the difficulty is encountered only in loading the last
trailer.
Curbs or timber guides properly located are used to prevent spills and are helpful
in centering the vehicles, especially the last one nearest the platform. These guide timber
curbs are set along the edge of the ramp and platform and on the cars, using the regular
stake pockets to hold them in place.
Ramp Gradient
The gradient recommended by a western road which is performing this kind of
service in the Chicago district is the one they are accustomed to use, namely, 7.5 percent.
On the other hand an eastern road, where the service has been in operation over two
Yards and Terminals 137
years, uses a 12 percent gradient successfully and without difficulty. A plan illustrating
this construction and showing further data is filed with the secretary of the American
Railway Engineering Association. Such a ramp and platform for a single-track set-up,
built of timber, would cost from $2,000 to $3,000, depending upon location and local
conditions.
Bridge Aprons
Aprons are used to bridge the gap between the platform and the first car and tin-
gaps between the cars themselves. These aprons are hinged to one end of each car.
Handling and Loading
A truck or trailer is backed up the ramp and over the cars by and ahead of the
tractor and moved to the end of the string or to' the last empty space. Care must be
exercised in handling the vehicles to insure that they are not "bumped", as that may
cause air connections, markers, tail lights and the like to be knocked off or damaged.
Sand boxes should be provided for use in case the ramp or platform becomes slippery
from ice or other causes.
Blocking and Fastening
Blocks, chocks and wedges are usually provided in ample quantities. Sets of soft
wood blocks about 5J^ in. by 12 in. by 2 ft., hardwood blocks 2 in. by 8 in. by 17 in.,
hardwood wedges 4 in. by 4 in. by 17 in., some boards 1 in. by 8 in. by 17 in., and a
quantity of wheel chocks of hardwood cut 8 in. by 12 in. by 17 in., shaped on a radius
to fit the contour of the tires and fastened to the car floor, have proved convenient
for regular and emergency service.
Two or three wooden horses three feet four inches high are usually provided to
be placed under the front end of semi-trailers when the landing gear fails to work
when detached from the road tractor or when the trailer becomes detached in handling
and the front end drops down.
Anchor and sway chains equipped with turnbuckles (with check nuts, as provided
in water ferry service) are frequently used, but are not relied upon alone to hold the
unit in position, as the construction of the vehicle is too frail to take the eccentric stresses.
Moreover, a flat tire enroute might loosen the chains, allow the vehicle to shift position
and cant over enough to collide with fixed structures along the right-of-way, so the
wheels are securely blocked and the weight supported on the jacks, horses or blocking;
usually on the three jacks as described below.
The small wheels on the landing gear have, in a few instances, broken the car floor
and it is desirable that a steel plate be so placed to receive them as to take the shock,
spread the load and protect the floor.
On the flat car itself is placed a steel channel, bored for dowel pins at about 4-in.
centers, and hardwood blocks dowelled to fit the channel borings are placed therein to
take the foot of the front screw jack, faced at a slight angle towards the back of the
unit; the channel assembly itself being so placed that it laps past the center of the car,
forward about 18 in. and back about 8 ft.
Another similar slot plate or channel assembly about six feet long is set at the front
of the flat car. These assemblies allow for spotting vehicles of differing lengths. The
hook brackets attached to the frame of the vehicle itself are spotted in locations specified
by the railroad, for the same reason.
At the rear of the vehicle two screw jacks are used, set against a wooden beam span-
ning across their tops and bearing against the underframe of the vehicle; thus forming a
138 Yards and Terminals
yoke and preventing side-sway, independent of the chains. At the front, the screw jack
set against the center block bears against a plate attached to the frame of the vehicle
located just behind the center pin.
In some cases close clearances may make it necessary to provide flat cars of special
construction in order to permit the handling of vehicles with higher loads than could
be transported on a standard flat car. Additional clearance can be gained by providing
channels in the floor of the car to take the wheels of the vehicle. About six inches can
be gained thereby, but the opportunity for gain is limited because of the low housings
on the vehicles themselves.
A plan illustrating this construction and showing further details is filed with the
secretary of the American Railway Engineering Association.
Emergency Equipment
Portable jacks are supplied to the loading crew. A convenient set used at some
terminal loading points includes two 2S-ton ratchet jacks, one 3S-ton ratchet jack and
one low journal jack.
Inspection
Each unit is inspected carefully before acceptance for loading and any defects or
evidence of a damaged condition of a vehicle or its lading noted and recorded. The in-
spection determines whether any part of the vehicle or its load projects outside of the
proper clearance limit, whether the canvas tarpaulin on open-tops is tight and securely
fastened down, whether the brackets attached to the unit for hitching the hold-down
chains are in good condition, and whether the anchors and sway chains themselves are
also in good condition and properly fastened.
In no case should any of the lading of the trailer project onto the tailboard and all
tailboards should be raised and fastened securely before loading the trailer on the
flat car.
Vehicle Attachments
Thrust plates and brackets attached to the vehicle are made by, and their location
specified by, the railroad; and the truck operators have them attached to the unit as
directed.
Working Force
The loading and unloading of the trailers on and off the cars is usually done by a
tractor operator regularly assigned to this work, either by the railroad or by the truck-
ing contractor, as the operation of backing the trailers up the ramp and spotting them
accurately on the cars is a "tricky" job and is difficult for an operator who is not
experienced in such work.
Experience shows that a gang consisting of an inspector foreman in charge and
three helpers will, together with the tractor operator, pick up, deliver and spot a unit,
centered in position on the flat car, in about eight to fifteen minutes in good weather,
as an average. The tractor is then detached, run off and is ready for the next unit to
be placed, while the gang is blocking, jacking and chaining the first unit solidly in place
on the flat car. This blocking, jacking and chaining takes from seven to ten minutes and
the gang is then ready for the next unit.
Lighting
The lighting is highly important and should have careful attention. It has been
found by experience that flood lighting is needed for general illumination and that a
spot light attached to the undercarriage of the loading tractor, near the left rear wheel
Yards and Terminals 139
and pointing to the rear, is very helpful, and it is helpful also if the timber curbs on the
ramp, platform and cars, be painted yellow or white, at least on the side of the driver.
All members of the loading gang should be provided with carbide lanterns for night work.
Communication
Access to a telephone conveniently located is highly desirable, especially for com-
munication with shippers and particularly in the event of late or unexpected shipments,
or to advise them about faulty equipment or faulty loading and the like.
Volume Handled
The eastern road referred to above, reports 2,646 vehicles handled at two of its
stations in five months (December 1939 to April 1940) or an average of 264 units per
month per station, and a third station reports an average of about 11 units per day or
about 300 per month. The average haul is about 200 miles on this eastern road.
Tariff Rates
Tariffs are promulgated to cover this service and are subject to approval by the
ICC, as in the case of other freight service. On the eastern road indicated the present
schedule is numbered ICC No. F-3631— Effective January 17, 1939.
Certain special provisions are incorporated in the schedule relating to commodities
accepted or barred, perishables, over-weight, etc., and minimum charges are named,
this minimum being the tariff rate for a full fiat car load of loaded vehicles, or one-half
the full load rate if vehicles are empty. The weight limit is set at 32,500 lb. (gross)'
for a single vehicle moved at the above rates, and an over-weight charge of IS cents
per cwt., for all weight above that limit, except, if two trailers are offered by the same
shipper, one heavy and one light, then the over-weight charge does not apply unless
the combined weights of the two units exceed 65,000 lb. (gross) when the over- weight
charge is appHed to the excess.
The scheme was first developed by the Chicago, North Shore & Milwaukee Railroad
during or previous to 1934 and it obtained U. S. letters Patent No. 1,611,882 on this
means for transporting goods, having particular reference to the railway car upon which
highway trucks or trailers are loaded and carried and the means of attaching the latter
to the floor of the car, also U. S. letters Patent Nos. 1,675,512; 1,990,562; 2,001,935;
2,023,971 and 2,023,972 in connection with the same form of transportation, and has
leased the right to use it to various railroads.
This report is offered as information.
140 Yards and Terminals
Report on Assignment 9
Bibliography on Subjects Pertaining to Yards and Terminals
Appearing in Current Periodicals
E. E. R. Tratman (chairman, subcommittee), W. C. Sadler.
General
Agreements — Forms for air-right developments, industry tracks, trackage rights and joint
use of stations and freight terminals — AREA, Proceedings, 1940, pp. 28, 43.
Books — Economics of Transportation; by Prof. Kent Healy — Review in Railway Age,
1940, August 17, p. 250.
Books — Freight Loss and Damage; pamphlet by Freight Claim Division of AAR — Rail-
way Age, 1940, August 3, p. 187.
Books — Illinois Central; Organization and Traffic — Prepared by Research and Develop-
ment Bureau, Illinois Central, and dealing with the traffic, operating, engineering, law,
accounting, purchasing, supply and public relations departments. 526 pp., price, $3.
Books — Motor Freight Traffic; by H. C. Williams — Freight Traffic Research Institute,
Hartford, Conn.
Books — Transportation; Economic Principles and Practices; by Emory R. Johnson —
Published bv Appleton-Century Co. — Review in Railway Age, 1940, August 3,
p. 187.
Buildings — Fire extinguishers; types and uses — AREA, Proceedings, 1940, p. 239.
Buildings — Plywood in construction and repair work on Southern Pacific — Railway Engi-
neering and Maintenance, 1940, October, p. 643.
Buildings — Specifications for buildings for railway purposes — AREA, Proceedings, 1940,
pp. 26, 184, 821.
Buildings — Treated wood economical for sash in enginehouses, etc. — Railway Engineering
and Maintenance, 1940, July, p. 436.
Buildings — Termites in railway structures — American Railway Bridge and Building Asso-
ciation, Proceedings, 1940 — Railway Engineering and Maintenance, 1940, November.
Buildings — Waterproofing and damp-proofing specifications — ^AREA, Proceedings, 1940,
pp. 445, 853.
Clearances — Diagrams for bridges, doorways, tunnels, turntables, platforms, etc. — AREA,
Proceedings, 1940, pp. 28, 319.
Clearances — Diagrams for third-rail and overhead-wire electrical conductors — Electrical
Section, Engineering Division, AAR, Proceedings, 1939 — Railway Age, 1939, Novem-
ber 11, p. 745.
Coordination of Transport — Railway and road traffic; paper by H. C. Murphy — Journal
of Western Society of Engineers, 1939, October, p. 241.
Coordination of Transport — Alabama & Florida; motor passenger and freight car runs
on track and road — Railway Age, 1939, November 11, p. 757.
Coordination of Transport — Baltimore & Ohio (West Virginia Transportation Co.) ; bus
service supplements train service — Railway Age, 1939, December 23, p. 972.
Coordination of Transport- — Canadian National; bus and train tourist combination in
British Columbia — Railway Age, 1940, September 28, p. 445.
Coordination of Transport — Delaware, Lackawanna & Western; motor trucks replace
local L.c.L. cars — Railway Age, 1940, September 28, p. 446.
Coordination of Transport — Development and possibilities of bus and truck services —
Railway Age, 1940; January 6, p. 101; April 13, 20 and 27, pp. 659, 695, 733 and
752; May 4 and 25, pp. 771 and 889; June 29 and August 10, p. 205.
Coordination of Transport — Illinois Central; truck service on branch lines — Railway Age,
1939, September 23, p. 447.
Coordination of Transport — Kansas City Southern; motor trucks for local service reduce
stops of through trains — Railway Age, 1939, October 28, p. 672.
Coordination of Transport — Keeshin motor-caravan system (with containers) — Railway
Age, 1940, February 17, p. 934.
Coordination of Transport — Milk service in Bergen County, New Jersey, by 3,000-gal.
steel tank or containers on trucks and flat cars for haul from railroad yard to city
pasteurizing plant — Business Week, 1940, January 6, p. 34.
Yards and Terminals 141
Coordination of Transport — Missouri-Kansas-Texas; truck routes — Railway Age, 1940,
January 27, p. 322.
Coordination of Transport — Missouri Pacific; rail and road services by bus and truck-
Railway Age, 1940; February 24, March 23, June 29, and August 24; pp. 378, 554,
1121 and 287.
Coordination of Transport — Motor Terminals Co., Cincinnati and New York; containers
20 X 8 X 8 ft. handled on tractor-trailers and on flat cars; also freight traffic —
Railway Age, 1939, December 23, p. 973 ; 1940, February 24, p. 375.
Coordination of Transport — Pennsylvania Railroad; train and truck service on Delmarva
Division — Railway Age, 1940, July 27, p. 153.
Coordination of Transport — Reading Company; bus routes and services — Railway Age,
1940, September 28, p. 447.
Coordination of Transport^ — St. Louis-San Francisco; subsidiary tractor-trailer services —
Railway Age, 1939, November 25, p. 826.
Stopping Trains — Portable wayside device to check speed of trains — ^Railway Age, 1940,
June 22, p. 1102.
Stopping Trains— Cost involved — Signal Section, AAR, 1940, Proceedings, Volume 37,
No. 1, p. 6 — Railway Mechanical Engineer, 1939, August and September.
Stopping Trains — Cost and loss of time by "slow orders" — Roadmasters and Maintenance
of Way Association, Proceedings, 1940 — Railway Engineering and Maintenance, 1940,
October, p. 652.
Track — Movable-point crossings for long small-angle crossings; Missouri-Kansas-Texas
— Railway Engineering and Maintenance, 1940, April, p. 253.
Track — Spring switches; maintenance instructions — Signal Section, AAR, 1940, Proceed-
ings, Volume 37, No. 1, p. 231.
Track — Switch design, and repair by welding — AREA, 1940, Proceedings, pp. 565 and 573.
Track — Turnouts for high speed; Chicago & Northwestern — Railway Engineering and
Maintenance, 1940, August, pp. 498 and 506.
Passenger Stations and Terminals
Aguascalientes — Mexican National Railway ; passenger station and office building (pictures
only) — Railway Age, 1940, January 6, p. 43.
Amsterdam— Netherlands State Railways; demolition of trainshed of old Weesperpoort
station by four cables attached to a locomotive; new Amstel station, with re-
arrangement of terminal and approaches— Railway Gazette (London), 1940, March
29, April 5, May 17, pp. 460, 490 and 707.
Ankara — Turkish State Railway; photographs of new station and office building of
administration — Railway Gazette (London), 1940, January 26, p. 124.
Belgium — Belgian National Railways; standard designs for platform shelters at small
stations, to accommodate 30 to 100 passengers; built of precast concrete units —
Railway Gazette (London), 1940, April 19, p. 568.
Berlin — Completion of north-south underground line across city to connect terminal sta-
tions; supplements an east-west line and a circle line — Railway Gazette (London),
1940, September 20, p. 300.
Brighton — Station as built in 1841 and modified in 1939 by Southern Railway, England
— Railway Gazette (London), 1940, May 17, p. 709.
Brussels — New stations on new crosstown line connecting old terminal stations — Engi-
neering (London), 1940, July 5, 12, 26, pp. 13, 21, 74.
Chicago — Renewing longitudinal timbers carrying rails in upner floor of terminal station
of Chicago & Northwestern — Railway Engineering and Maintenance, 1939, Septem-
ber, p. 526.
Delhi — Revision of terminals to serve the adjacent cities of Delhi (old city) and New
Delhi (capital city of India) — Railway Gazette (London), 1940, April 19. p. 567.
Durban — New terminal station for South African Government Railways; seven platforms,
14 tracks 500 to 1200 ft.; three-story head-house; cost .<p2,l 10,000— Railway Gazette
(London), 1940, January 5, p. 7.
East St. Louis — Terminal Railroad Association of St. Louis; new union station project
in connection with revision of lines for crossing the river into St. Louis — Railway
Age, 1939, December 16, p. 925.
Elizabeth — Central Railroad of New Jersey; grade separation on main and branch lines,
with new station at intersection of lines — Railway Age, 1939, November 18, p. 784.
142 Yards and Terminals
England — Arrangements for traffic at stations during war "black-outs" — Railway Gazette
(London), 1939, December 1, p. 715.
Harrisburg — Pennsylvania Railroad; raising enclosed passenger bridge across tracks in
trainshed; necessitated by electrification requiring more headroom — Railway Age,
1939, October 21, p. 615.
High Point — Southern, in North Carolina; tracks depressed through city for two miles;
alterations to passenger stations and freight facilities — Railway Age, 1939, December
9, p. 882.
Jersey City — Erie; modernizing waiting rooms and other public facilities — Railway Age,
1939, November 11, p. 751.
La Crosse — Chicago, Burhngton & Quincy; new station — Architectural Forum, 1940, May,
p. 323 — American Builder, 1940, September, p. 74.
Leamington — Great Western Railway (England) ; reconstruction of junction station, with
new buildings — Railway Gazette (London), 1940, May 10, p. 675.
London — London Passenger Transport Board; new stations on the underground railways
— Railway Gazette (London), 1939, November 24, p. 668.
Los Angeles — New union station; papers by M. C. Blanchard, A., T. & S. F., and G. E.
Donnakin, Union Station Co. — -Pacific Railway Club, Proceedings, 1940, July.
Manchukuo — Views of large and small stations of Manchukuo Government Railways-
Railway Gazette (London), 1939, December IS, p. 781.
Massachusetts — New York, New Haven & Hartford ordered by State Department of
Public Utilities to reopen and restore train service at 72 stations which had been
closed — Railway Age, 1939, December 9, p. 903.
Minneapolis — Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul & Pacific; improvement and modernizing of
terminal station — Business Week, 1939. December 23, p. 24 — American Railway
Bridge and Building Association, Proceedings, 1940.
Montreal — Canadian National ; plan of new terminal and connections ; for completion in
1941— Railway Gazette (London), 1940, May 3, p. 632; August 2, p. 115.
Newcastle — London & Northeastern Railway, England ; track plan and signaling of
Central Station; ten platform tracks — Railway Gazette (London). 1939, October 13,
p. 110 of supplement.
New York — New York, Susquehanna & Western ; motor rail cars for suburban commuter
service — Railway Age, 1940, July 27, p. 135.
New York — Pennsylvania Railroad; shuttle train service between Pennsylvania Station
and World's Fair on Long Island — Railway Age, 1939, November 18, p. 801.
Oslo — Norwegian State Railway ; proposed connection between two terminal stations to
permit through traffic; West Station to have six new tracks (20 in all) with double-
track approach to tunnel between stations; the alternative is a by-pass line — Railway
Gazette (London), 1940, March 6, p. 334.
Philadelphia — Reading Company; welding repair work on arched trainshed built in 1892;
260 ft. span, 13 tracks — Railway Engineering and Maintenance, 1940, June, p. 378.
Poland — Photographs of large stations — Railway Gazette (London), 1939, December 22,
p. 814.
Rome — Italian State Railway; Rome-Ostiense station, built 1938 for reception of Hitler;
building 500 x 60 ft., with private gallery for visitors passing between trains and
automobiles — Railway Gazette (London), 1940, July 5, pp. 12 and 18.
Rome — Italian State Railway; old "Termini" station to be rebuilt to permit construction
of a new station on an extension of the underground railway to the 1942 Exhibition
—Railway Gazette (London), 1940, April 19, p. 569.
St. Louis — Terminal Railroad Association using Municipal Bridge as new route across
the river into the Union Station— Railway Age, 1939', December 16, p. 923; 1940,
February 17, p. 325.
St. Louis — Terminal Railroad Association; destruction of signal tower by fire at Union
Station, and emergency handling of traffic — Railway Age, 1940, August 3, p. 171.
South Africa — South African Government Railways; stations at Jeppe and Mayfair (near
Johannesburg), and grade separation at Jeppe; street at higher level, with entrance
to second floor of station — Railway Gazette (London), 1939, November 17, p. 644.
Sydney — New South Wales Government Railways; improved handling of baggage, mail
and parcels; baggage hauled by 7-HP. motor trucks, each with four trailers (3^
tons) at 4 miles per hour; all with pneumatic tires — Annual report of Department
of Railways, 1938-39, p. 10.
Yards and Terminals 143
Utrecht — Netherlands State Railways; new Central Station, with architectural features —
Railway Gazette (London), 1939, December 1, pp. 694 and 709.
Air Conditioning — Application to parked cars — AREA, Proceedings, 1940, p. 35.
Bus Terminal — Dunedin, New Zealand, for New Zealand Government Railways; earth-
quake resistant design; welded steel roof trusses of 110 ft. span; concourse, 30 x 65
ft. — Railway Gazette (London), 1940, February 9, p. 180.
Bus Terminal — New York; for bus service in connection with North Beach airport —
Engineering News-Record, 1940, July 18, p. 94.
Bus Terminal — Washington, D.C.; Greyhound Bus Co. terminal — Bus Transportation,
1940, April, p. 166.
Bus Terminal — Windsor, Ontario; for interurban bus and airplane services — Canadian
Transportation, 1940, September, p. 475.
Car Washing — Washing machines for cars, street cars and buses — Railway Age, 1939,
December 23, p. 975.
Coach Yards— California Avenue yard, Chicago & Northwestern; hand carts with trash
containers hauled in trains to an incinerator by tractors — Railway Engineering
and Maintenance, 1940, October, p. 402.
Coach Yards — Yards with storage sheds and repair shops at Swindon and Caerphilly;
Great Western Railway (England); shed 1800 x 125 ft.; ten tracks; capacity, 265
cars; steel truss roof of single span; traveling cranes lift bodies off wheels — Railway
Gazette (London), 1939, December 8, p. 567; 1940, March IS, p. 57.
Coach Yards — Operating methods; repair-track service; labor and costs — Car Depart-
ment Officers' Association of Chicago ; Proceedings, 1939 — Railway Age, 1939,
November 18, p. 792.
Coach Yards — Car truck and wheel handhng methods — AREA, Proceedings, 1940, p. 244.
Conveyor — Belt conveyor 200 ft. long handles mail and baggage between train and car-
ferry steamer at Larne, Ireland; London, Midland & Scottish Railway; end section
adjustable to suit height of tide and to serve various loading points on the ship —
The Engineer (London), 1939, November 24, p. 524.
Escalators — Moving stairways; definition — AREA, Proceedings, 1940, pp. 243 and 815.
Floors — Floor construction of various materials for railway stations; Missouri-Kansas-
Texas — Railway Engineering and Maintenance, 1940, August, pp. 511 and 521.
Hotels- — Canadian National; Vancouver Hotel — Architectural Record, 1940, July — Rail-
way Age, 1940, July 27, p. 150.
Hotels — Norfolk & Western ; reconstruction and rehabilitation of Roanoke Hotel — Rail-
way Age, 1939, November 25, p. 820.
Platforms — Comparison of different materials^ — -American Railway Bridge and Building
Association, Proceedings, 1939, p. 189.
Snow — Snow and ice clearing methods at stations and yards — Roadmasters and Main-
tenance of Way Association, Proceedings, 1940 — Railway Engineering and Mainte-
nance, 1940, October, pp. 663 and 667.
Snow — Switches and frogs cleared by electric heaters on London, Midland & Scottish
Railway — Railway Gazette (London), 1940, May 24, p. 735.
Stations — Modernizing old stations for appearance, comfort and convenience — American
Railway Bridge and Building Association; Proceedings, 1939, p. 181; also 1940 —
Railway Engineering and Maintenance, 1940, November, p. 744.
Stations — Modernizing old stations; Union Pacific — Railway Engineering and Mainte-
nance, 1939, October, p. 584; 1940, January and February, pp. 38 and 91.
Stations — Signaling on approaches to large stations — The Engineer (London), 1939.
December 8 and 15; pp. 565 and 582.
Stations — Train-taxi service offered by railways in 25 cities — Business Week, 1940, June
8, p. 24.
Stations — Water supply systems for drinking service at stations — AREA, Proceedings,
1940, p. 206.
Traffic — Handling military and troop train traffic on Chicago & Northwestern and Chi-
cago, Milwaukee, St. Paul & Pacific — Railway Age, 1940, August 17, p. 243.
Traffic — Handling poHtical trains for Willkie meeting at Elwood, Ind., and Government-
Day trains at Seagirt, N.J. — Railway Age, 1940, August 24 and 31, pp. 279 and 316.
144 Yards and Terminals
Freight Stations, Terminals and Yards
Car Dumper — Pennsylvania Railroad; coal-shipping dock at Sandusky; barney pusher
on incline to electrically operated elevating cradle; car per minute; dumper supple-
ments two steam-operated dumpers; extensive yard system — Railway Age, 1940,
April 6, p. 625.
Car Retarders — Definition of term — ^AREA, Proceedings, 1940, p. 243.
Car Retarders — (1) Economic value, (2) specifications, (3) maintenance instructions — •
Signal Section, AAR; Proceedings, 1940, Volume 37, No. 1, pp. 41, 93 and 219.
Car Retarders — Frolich hydraulic system at Hamm; also electric system; German State
Railway Co.— AREA, Proceedings, 1940, p. 815— The Engineer (London), 1940,
July 12, p. 27. October 11, p. 226.
Car Retarders — Switching operations speeded by their use — Railway Age, 1940, May 25,
p. 908.
Classification Yards — French National Railways; automatic control of cars in hump
yard by use of electrically operated skids acting in accordance with speed of cars —
Railway Gazette (London), 1939, December IS, p. 765 — Revue Generale des Chemins
de Fer, 1939, June.
Classification Yards — German State Railway Co.; hump yard at Hamm, with Frohch
hydraulic car retarder — The Engineer (London), 1940, July 12, p. 27.
Classification Yards — Great Western Railway, England; handling yard and freighthouse
services during black-out periods — Railway Gazette (London), 1939, November 17,
p. 649.
Classification Yards — London, Midland & Scottish Railway; mechanization of Toton
Down yard; car retarders and power-operated switches — Pamphlet, Railway Gazette
(London), 1939.
Classification Yards — South African Government Railways; new yards at Johannesburg,
Capital Park and Pretoria — Report of General Manager, 1939, p. 46 — Railway
Gazette (London), 1939, November 24, p. 666.
Coal Tipple — Coal breaker and tipple; Anthracite Coal Co., Pittston, Pa. — Coal Age,
1940, January, p. 54.
Coal Tipple — Coal breaker and tipple; Shenandoah, Pa. — Coal Age, 1940, August, p. 44.
Coal Tipple — Coal tipple and washer; Shawmut Mining Co.— Coal Age, 1939, October,
p. 56.
Containers — Keeshin motor-carrier system — Railway Age, 1940, February 17, p. 934.
Containers — Proposed handling of coal in l.c.l. lots — Circular No. 39, University of IIU-
nois (Engineering Experiment Station), 1939.
Containers — Refrigerating containers handled in box cars; Missouri Pacific — Railway Age,
1940, May 11, p. 816.
Containers — Refrigerating containers for meat traffic on English railways, with coor-
dinated service over all lines — Railway Age, 1939, December 23, p. 975.
Containers — Refrigerating insulated containers convey chilled meat at Durban harbor —
South African Government Railways and Harbors; Report of General Manager,
1939, p. 86.
Conveyors — Belt conveyor loading ore to ships at Michipicoten ; Algoma Central &
Hudson Bay — Canadian Transportation, 1940, March, p. 109.
Door-to-Door Service — Form of agreement — AREA, Proceedings, 1940, p. 28.
Door-to-Door Service — Review of merchandise handUng and pick-up and delivery service
— Railway Age, 1940, May 25, p. 898.
Express — Equipment and service of Railway Express Agency and Canadian Pacific
Express Agency — Railway Age, 1940, January 27, p. 215.
Freight House — Review of services and faciUties — Railway Age, 1940, May 25 and June
15, pp. 887, 900 and 1050.
Freight House — Great Western Railway (England) ; handling freight house and yard
work during war "black-out" periods — Railway Gazette (London), 1939, November
17, p. 649.
L.C.L. Service — Freight house operation — American Association of Railroad Superintend-
ents, Proceedings, 1939 and 1940 — Railway Age, 1939, November 18, p. 789; 1940,
June 15, p. 1050.
Produce Terminals — Chicago, 111.; transportation and marketing facilities for fruit and
vegetables — Business Week, 1939, July, p. 280.
Yards and Terminals 145
Produce Terminals — Rival projects for groups of railways at Denver, Colo.; Kansas City,
Kan., and Kansas City, Mo. — Business Week, 1939, December 16, p. 20; 1940,
January 6, p. 8.
Produce Terminals — Denver, Colo.; rival projects of the Union Pacific and a group of
five railroads (Santa Fe, Burlington, Rock Island, Colorado & Southern and Denver
& Rio Grande Western) — Railway Age, 1940, January 20, March 2 and 30, pp. 177,
407 and 584 — Wood Preserving News, 1939, December, p. 147.
Produce Terminals — Kansas City, Kan., and Kansas City, Mo.; municipal plant leased
to Union Pacific; Missouri Pacific interested in other plants — Engineering News-
Record, 1940, January 11, p. 58 — ^Wood Preserving News, 1940, January, p. 5—
Business Week, 1940, January 6, p. 8; September 21, p. 18 — Railway Age, 1940,
March 23, p. 589. •
Produce Terminals — Farm products handled by motor trucks; cost and service — .'\gricul-
tural Experiment Station, Purdue University, Bulletin 446 — Railway Age, 1940,
October 12, p. 515.
Refrigeration — Pre-cooling fruit by the tunnel system at Table Bay harbor — South
African Government Railways and Harbors; report of the General Manager, 1939,
pp. 59 and 62.
Refrigeration — Dry ice for perishable shipments in refrigerator cars — Railway Age, 1940,
August 3, p. 175.
Refrigeration — Refrigerator car of light weight — Railway Age, 1940, August 24, p. 275.
Scales — Inspection and testing system for track scales; Southern Pacific — Railway Engi-
neering and Maintenance, 1940, April, p. 256.
Scales — Specifications for track scales and motor-truck scales — AREA, Proceedings, 1940,
pp. 27 and 247.
Snow — Handling snow and ice at terminals — Roadmasters and Maintenance of Way
Association of America, Proceedings, 1940 — Railway Engineering and Maintenance,
1940, October, p. 651.
Stockyards — Miscellaneous structures at terminals — ^American Railway Bridge & Building
Association, Proceedings, 1939, p. 190.
Stockyards — Enquiry as to service requirements at Cleveland stockyards — Railway Age,
1939, December 30, p. 1010.
Switching Locomotives — Oil-electric and steam locomotives compared for yard service —
American Association of Railroad Superintendents, Proceedings, 1940 — Railway Age,
1940, February 3, p. 249.
Switching Locomotives — Oil-electric engines; 120-ton 1000 HP. and 100-ton 660 HP. —
Railway Age, 1939, December 30, p. 992.
Switching Locomotives — Number and maintenance work of oil-electric engines — Railway
Age, 1940, July 6, p. 34.
Switching Locomotives — Oil-engine machines replace steam locomotives — Railway Age,
1939, September 23, p. 436.
Switching Locomotives — Oil-electric machines in Mexico — Railway Age, 1940, January
20, p. 169.
Switching Locomotives — Oil-electric machines in the Soudan — Railway Gazette (Lon-
don), 1940, May 10, p. 60 (supplement).
Switching Locomotives — Rock Island Lines, 44-ton, 360 HP. — Railway Age, 1939, Decem-
ber 9, p. 879.
Switching Locomotives — Spokane, Portland & Seattle and other lines; 600 and 1000 HP.
—Railway Mechanical Engineer, 1940, October, p. 379— Railway Age, 1940, October
12, p. 505.
Switching Locomotives — Oil-hydraulic engine — Railway Age, 1939, October 21, p. 625.
Telephone — Train-telephone between cab and caboose; Bessemer & Lake Erie — Railway
Age, 1940, July 20, p. 114.
Teletype — Communication between yard and office; Erie Railroad — Canadian Transpor-
tation, 1940, August, p. 393.
Terminals — Terminal capacity and line capacity in relation to freight conveying capacity ;
paper by F. G. Gurley — Railway Age, 1940, January 27. p. 211.
Terminals— Terminal switching charges disputed; Sioux City (Iowa) Terminal Railway
Co.— Railway Age, 1940, July 27, p. 156.
Terminals— Terminal delays reduced on St. Louis-San Francisco— Railway Age, 1940,
June 8, p. 1008.
146 Yards and Terminals
Terminals— Terminal and division point delays reduced by car inspection — American
Association of Railroad Superintendents, Proceedings, 1940 — Railway Mechanical
Engineer, 1940, August, p. 315.
Terminals — Terminal delays reduced in yard switching and transfer operations — Railway
Age, 1940, May 27, p. 904.
Terminals — Terminal service at Philadelphia and Baltimore ; Pennsylvania Railroad —
Railway Age, 1940, July 27, p. 153.
Track — Heavy and well-maintained track aids efficiency of yard work — Railway Engi-
neering and Maintenance, 1940, October, p. 636 — Railway Age, 1940, May 25, p. 909.
Traffic — Export traffic through Atlantic and Gulf port terminals — Railway Age, 1940,
January 27 and February 3, pp. 229 and 259.
Traffic — Fast merchandise service with special box cars, Union Pacific — Railway Age,
1939, December 16, p. 929.
Traffic — Fast schedules and special "overnight" trains — Railway Age, 1940, January 6,
p. 20.
Traffic — Faster average freight train speeds between terminals — Railway Mechanical
Engineer, 1940, June, p. 226.
Traffic — Freight transportation service developments — Railway Age, 1940, May 25 and
September 28.
Truck Transport — Truck competition and Interstate Commerce Commission regulation —
Railway Age, 1940, August 10 and September 7, pp. 205, 337 and 341.
Turntables — Industrial plants in France have turntables with extensions to carry small
cars up to 20 ft. wheelbase — International Railway Congress Association, Bulletin,
1939, October, p. 1021.
Yards — City freight yards versus outlying yards — AREA, Proceedings, 1940, p. 249.
Yards — Delhi, India; revision of yards and terminals due to changes in passenger stations
and approaches — Railway Gazette (London), 1940, April 19, p. 567.
Yards — New York Central; reconstruction of West-Side yards at 30th St., New York —
Engineering News-Record, 1940, September 19, p. 379' — Railway Age, 1940, April
13 and 20.
Yards — Zone yard, or auxihary yard— AREA, Proceedings, 1940, p. 243.
Locomotive Terminals and Railroad Shops
Book — The Locomotive Running Department, by J. G. B. Sams, locomotive superin-
tendent, Kenya & Uganda Government Railway — Published by Locomotive Publish-
ing Co., London, England. Terminal layouts, ashpits, turntables, boiler water treat-
ment, etc.
Chesapeake & Ohio — -Timber truss roof construction for enginehouses — Railway Engi-
neering and Maintenance, 1939, October, p. 586.
Chicago & Eastern Illinois — Coach shop and methods of handling stores at Danville, 111.- —
Railway Age, 1940, January 13 and June 22, pp. 122 and 1099.
Chicago & Illinois Midland — Stores and store house at Springfield, 111. — Railway Age,
1940, July 6, p. 76.
Ilhnois Central — Car shops and labor saving equipment at Centralia and Paducah —
Railway Mechanical Engineer, 1940, January, June and August, pp. 28, 228 and 324.
Great Western Railway (England) — Passenger car repair and paintmg shops and storage
shed for 300 cars; overhead cranes hft car bodies from trucks — Railway Gazette
(London), 1940, June 21, p. 861 — The Engineer (London), 1940, April 12, p. 350.
London Passenger Transport Board — Trolley-bus storage and cleaning depot — Railway
Gazette (London), 1940, August 16, p. 173.
Missouri-Kansas-Texas — Purchasing and stores practice — Railway Age, 1939, December
2, p. 849.
New York Central — Handling supplies at Beech Grove shops, Indianapolis — Railway Age,
1939, November 4, p. 710.
Pennsylvania Railroad — Enginehouse with glass block windows at Oil City, Pa.— Railwav
Age, 1940, October 12.
Rock Island Lines — New stock-keeping methods at shops — Railway Age, 1939, December
16, p. 926.
Fuel Stations — Fuel supply at terminals for oil-electric locomotives — Railway Age, 1940,
May 4, p. 782 — Railway Gazette (London), 1939, November 24, p. 184 (supplement).
Yards and Terminals 147
Scrap — Methods of handling railroad supplies and scrap — Pacific Railway Club, Proceed-
ings, 1940 — Purchases and Stores Division, AAR; Proceedings, 1940 — Railway Age,
1940, June 29, pp. 1156 and 1160; October 12, p. 508.
Shops — Bus repair shop and garage at Hamilton, Ont. — Canadian Transportation, 1940,
June, p. 300.
Shops — Railway shops and motive-power equipment in relation to preparedness problem
— Railway Age, 1940, June 22.
Shops — Roof glazing for shops and enginehouses — American Railway Bridge and Building
Association; Proceedings, 1939, pp. 88, 113 and 184.
Shops — Heating methods, by piping and heater units for shops and enginehouses—
American Railway Bridge and Building Association, Proceedings, 1940 — Railway
Engineering and Maintenance, 1940, p. 748.
Shops — Wheel drop-pit table of 60 tons capacity; Green Bay & Western — Railway
Mechanical Engineer, 1940, January, p. 27.
Shops — Wheel and truck handling by drop-pits with jacks and tables — AREA, Proceed-
ings, 1940, pp. 212, 244, 246, 816 and 826.
Water Stations — Water cars on trains as auxiliary tenders to avoid stops — Railway Age,
1940, May 4, p. 781.
Water Stations — Changes necessitated by large tenders and long runs — American Railway
Bridge and Building Association, Proceedings, 1940 — Railway Engineering and Main-
tenance, 1940, November.
Water Stations — Deep wells; methods of improving supply — AREA, Proceedings, 1940,
p. 225.
Water Stations — Emergency service during drought — Railway Age, 1940, January 20,
p. 160.
Water Stations — Emergency service for army maneuvers when wells failed; Illinois
Central — Railway Engineering and Maintenance, 1940, October, p. 641.
Water Stations — Pipe; iron, steel, copper, asbestos, etc.; also prevention of incrustation —
AREA, Proceedings, 1940, pp. 224, 240, 836.
Water Stations — Pumping equipment ; steam and electric — Roadmasters and Maintenance
of Way Association of America, Proceedings, 1939 — Railway Age, 1939, October 28,
p. 658 — Railway Engineering and Maintenance, 1939, November and December, pp.
690, 754, 769; 1940, January, February and May, pp. 30, 36, 97, 329, and 330—
Railway Engineering and Maintenance, 1940, June, pp. 373 and 387.
Water Stations — Pumping plant and track tanks — American Railway Bridge and Build-
ing Association, Proceedings, 1939.
Water Stations — Reconstruction program — Railway Engineering and Maintenance, 1940,
June, pp. 373 and 387.
Water Stations — Specifications for tanks and for water treatment — AREA, Proceedings,
1940, pp. 24 and 27.
Water Stations— Tenders carrying 23,500 gal. of water and 25 tons of coal; Union Pacific
— Railway Mechanical Engineer, 1940, October, p. 386.
Water Stations — Watering facilities adjusted for larger tenders, high speeds and long runs
— American Railway Bridge and Building Association, Proceedings, 1940 — Railway
Engineering and Maintenance, 1940, November, p. 758.
Water Stations — Water cars on trains as auxiliary tenders — Railway Age, 1940, May 4,
p. 781.
Water Stations — Water column inspections — Railway Engineering and Maintenance, 1939,
September, p. 536.
Water Stations — Water treatment practice on the IHinois Central and the Union Pacific
(Council Bluffs plant)— Railway Age, 1939, December 30, p. 1002; 1940, September
7, p. 331.
Rail and Water Terminals
Car Ferries — Description of numerous American and foreign lines; paper by E. E. R.
Tratman— AREA, Proceedings, 1940, p. 965.
Car Ferries — Danish State Railways; views of side-wheel car-ferry steamers of Denmark-
Sweden line in harbor of Elsinore— National Geographic Magazine, 1940, January,
p. 10.
Car Ferries — Danube River; Rustchuk-Giurgiu line to connect Bulgarian and Rou-
manian railways; boat built in Germany, 1939, for Bulgarian State Railways-
Railway Gazette (London), 1939, October 13, p. 483.
148 Yards and Terminals
Car Ferries — Lake Michigan ; Pere Marquette builds largest car-ferry on the Great Lakes ;
sells an older boat "P. M. No. 19", in service 1908-1936 — Canadian Transportation,
1940, July and August, pp. 388 and 439.
Car Ferries — New York Harbor; welded steel car-floats or barges 350 x 40 ft. for Long
Island Railroad — Marine Engineering, 1940, June, p. 62.
Car Ferries — Ontario Car Ferry Co.; new tariffs — Canadian Transportation, 1940, June,
p. 335.
Car Ferries — Transfer bridges of pontoon and other types — ^AREA, Proceedings, 1940,
p. 177.
Conveyors — Barge loading; dock to storage plant for coal at Marmet, W. Va., on
Kanawha River — Coal Age, 1939, September, p. 36.
Conveyors — Cableway or wire-rope tramway carrying ore to ships 2,000 ft. from shore
at Cyprus, Greece; 200 tons per hour — The Engineer (London), 1939, December 8,
p. 572.
Conveyors — Coal-loading dock on Ohio River at Huntington, W. Va. — Coal Age, 1940,
May, p. 37.
Ferry — Baltimore-Love Point; Pennsylvania Railroad (Delmarva Division) — Railway
Age, 1940, July 27, p. 1S3.
Ferry — Lame, Ireland; automatically adjusting landing apron for automobile ferry;
London, Midland & Scottish Railway — The Engineer (London), 1939, November 24,
p. 524.
Ferry — Oil-engine boat for automobiles and passengers at Plaquemines, La. — Marine
Engineering, 1940, September, p. 73.
Ferry — Oil-electric ferryboat "Diefenback" at New York; one of nine similar boats on
the Hudson River — Marine Engineering, 1940, April, p. 54.
Grain Traffic — Record on the Great Lakes for 1939 — Canadian Transportation, 1940,
June, p. 332.
Marine Railway — Cable-operated incUne at La Guardia airport. New York — Marine
Engineering, 1940, March, p. 85.
Piers — Types of pier construction — ^AREA, Proceedings, 1940, p. 180.
Port Terminals— New Westminster, B.C.; port activity and terminal extensions — Cana-
dian Transportation, 1940, January, p. 45.
Port Terminals — New York; organization, belt railroad, Bayonne terminal for ship-rail
transfer — Civil Engineering, 1940, March, May and July, pp. 157, 281 and 425.
Port Terminals — Terminals and export traffic — Railway Age, 1940, June 22, p. 1103.
Port Terminals — Uniform charges and operating practices needed for municipal, private
and railroad docks — "Port Book", Houston (Tex.) Port Commission; 1939, Novem-
ber, p. 9; 1940, May, p. 9.
Steamer — Self-unloading coal steamer "Jason" for Atlantic coast service — Marine Engi-
neering, 1940, May, p. 62.
Towboat — Oil-engine twin-screw boat "Wm. Penn" for Ohio and Mississippi River service
— Marine Engineering, 1940, September, p. 68.
Wharf — Long Beach, California; concrete piles deteriorated and replaced with steel
H-beam piles and steel tube piles — Engineering News-Record, 1939, December 7,
p. 750.
Progress report — Submitted as information.
Report of Committee 9 — Highways
J. G. Brennan, Chairman, A. S. Haigh Bernard Blum, Vice-
F. D. Batchellor J. P. Hallihan Chairman,
H. D. Blake H. A. Hampton T. M. Pittman
H. E. Brink W. J. Hedley L. J. Riegler
A. P. Button Warren Henry Frank Ringer
A. R. Dewees C. D. Horton H. M. Shepard
A. F. DoRLEY Marc Johnson C. K. Smith
G. N. Edmondson R. B. Kittredge W. C. Swartout
C. F. Edwards A. E. Korsell C. A. Taylor
P. W. Elmore Fred Lavis V. R. Walling
H. L. Engelhardt E. E. Mayo R. E. Warden
H. W. Fenno G. p. Palmer J. L. Way
P. M. Gault W. C. Pinschmidt W. L. Young
Committee
To the American Railway Engineering Association:
Your committee reports on the following subjects:
1. Revision of Manual.
Progress report — submitted as information page ISO
2. Design and specifications for highway crossings at grade over railway tracks,
both steam and electric, collaborating with Committee 1 — Roadway and Ballast, and
with American Society of Municipal Engineers, and American Transit Association.
Progress report — submitted as information page l.SO
3. Comparative merits of various types of grade crossing protection, collaborating
with Committee 10 — Signals and Interlocking, Signal Section, AAR, and Highway
Research Board.
Progress report — submitted as information page 151
4. Prepare drawings of typical location for grade crossing signals, for various degrees
of crossing angles, collaborating with Signal Section, AAR.
Progress report — submitted as information page 1.52
5. Method of classifying grade crossings with respect to hazard.
No report.
6. Report requisites for flexible barrier type of grade crossing protection, collaborat-
ing with Signal Section, AAR.
No report.
7. Recommend methods of protecting highway crossings and flangeways against
obstructions and damage caused by use or passage of highway work equipment.
Final report — with recommendation for inclusion in the Manual page 152
The Committee on Highways,
J. G. Brennan, Chairman.
Bulletin 421, December, 1940.
L
149
150 Highways
Report on Assignment 1
Revision of Manual
P. M. Gault (chairman, subcommittee), Bernard Blum, H. E. Brink, A. P. Button,
P. W. Elmore, A. S. Haigh, Maro Johnson, R. B. Kittredge, E. E. Mayo, G. P.
Palmer, T. M. Pittman, Frank Ringer, H. M. Shepard, C. K. Smith, C. A. Taylor,
V. R. Walling, J. L. Way, W. L. Young.
Several letters have been received by the chairman of the committee to the effect
that, for daylight indication, a white background on the reflectorized cross buck sign,
Fig. 903-A of the Manual (AAR Signal Section 1691A), gives a better indication than
the present standard, especially where trees or other dark objects form the background.
The subcommittee, collaborating with Committee VIII of the Signal Section, is making
a thorough study to determine whether the present standard, which calls for white letters
on a black background, should be reversed so that the letters will be black on a white
background. Representatives of this committee have been designated to confer with
designated representatives of Committee VIII of the Signal Section to make the study
and such tests and observations as may be necessary to determine if any change in the
present standard should be made.
Progress is being made with the study and it is expected that report will be made
to the next annual convention.
Report on Assignment 2
Design and Specifications for Highway Crossings at Grade Over
Railway Tracks, Both Steam and Electric
Collaborating with Committee 1 — Roadway and Ballast, and with American
Society of Municipal Engineers and American Transit Association
W. J. Hedley (chairman, subcommittee), F. D. Batchellor, H. D. Blake, A. P. Button,
G. N. Edmondson, C. F. Edwards, P. W. Elmore, H. W. Fenno, J. P. Hallihan,
A. E. Korsell, Fred Lavis, H. M. Shepard, C. K. Smith, R. E. Warden, J. L. Way,
W. L. Young.
The subcommittee has under consideration a design and specifications for a solid
plank crossing. Its investigation to date has raised a doubt as to whether there is need
for a design and specification for this type of crossing. The subcommittee is to continue
its study and make a thorough canvass of the situation with the view of developing a
design and specification for a solid plank crossing for use where that type of crossing
will prove economical.
Highways 151
Report on Assignment 3
Comparative Merits o£ Various Types o£ Grade Crossing Protection
Collaborating with Committee 10 — Signals and Interlocking, Signal
Section, AAR, and Highway Research Board
H. M. Shepard (chairman, subcommittee), F. D. Batchellor, H. D. Blake, H. E. Brink,
A. R. Dewees, A. F. Dorley, C. F. Edwards, H. W. Fenno, J. P. Hallihan, H. A.
Hampton, Warren Henry, R. B. Kittredge, Fred Lavis, W. C. Pinschmidt, C. K.
Smith, R. E. Warden.
This subcommittee has confined its work this year largely to assembling data on
various types of sheet reflectorized crossbuck signs now on the market, which have been
developed for use at grade crossings. It is claimed that these signs can be manufactured
in quantity lots for about one-tenth the cost of reflector button crossbuck signs. Con-
sideration has been given to the following materials:
Mir-0-Ray. — Manufactured by Arcturus Radio Tube Company, Newark, N.J. The
manufacture of this material has been temporarily suspended.
Alzak. — Manufactured by the Reflecting Metal Corporation, Chicago. These signs are
made with Arbuckle reflecting metal, and it is claimed that they can be seen 750 ft. away
at night and clearly read at 500 ft. Test signs are being made by the manufacturer and
will be erected at a grade crossing in Chicago for test of visibility and wear.
Scotcklite Reflectors. — Manufactured by the Minnesota Mining & Manufacturing
Company, St. Paul, Minn. This is a luminous material using a powdered glass for reflect-
ing hght and is said to be waterproof, with visibility to 1,000 ft. and legibility at 400 ft.
The material is cemented to a wooden crossbuck sign and the letters are painted on the
material. These signs can also be used on a metal base. A demonstration was made for
Committee 9 at Chicago in June. Two signs have been erected at 113th street and Rock-
well street in Chicago for test as to wearing qualities. These were placed in service
August 21, 1940.
Permi-base. — Manufactured by the Prismo Safety Corporation, Huntingdon, Pa.
This is the same material as Scotchlite, being the trade name under which it is being
sold in the East.
Decalcomania Transfer Process. — Manufactured by The Cuneo Press, Chicago. This
is a waterproof reflecting material on paper backing which can be applied to a wood or
metal sign by simply wetting the material, removing the paper and immediately applying
to the sign with a roller. The letters are printed on the material before it is applied so
that no sign painting is necessary. Visibility and legibility should be the same as Scotch-
lite or Permi-base. One of these signs was demonstrated to Committee 9 at Chicago in
June. Two of them, on masonite base, were placed in service at lOSth and Rockwell
streets in Chicago on August 3, 1940, for test.
The sheet reflectorizing materials herein mentioned appear to have possibilities from
a railroad standpoint.
Several crossbuck signs with sheet reflecting material have been tested in Minnesota
and North Dakota. One installation has been in place for more than a year. Piers in the
center of streets under 16 bridges in Minneapolis have had this material applied to in-
crease their visibility at night. The committee understands that these installations have
been entirely successful to date.
152 Highways
Scotch Flasher. — Manufactured by The Scotch Flasher Display Company, Wichita,
Kan. This is a reflector button sign operated by a dry cell battery with a shutter so as
to give a flashing effect. The visibility is claimed to be 2,250 ft. A hotel demonstration
was viewed by Committee 9 in Chicago in June. Some experimental installations are
being made in Illinois for approach warning signs for railroad grade crossings.
The report is presented as information with the recommendation that the subject
be continued.
Report on Assignment 4
Prepare Drawings of Typical Location for Grade Crossing Signals,
For Various Degrees of Crossing Angles
Collaborating with Signal Section, AAR
A. P. Button (chairman, subcommittee), A. F. Dorley, H. L. Engelhardt, H. W. Fenno,
P. M. Gault, A. S. Haigh, H. A. Hampton, W. J. Hedley, Warren Henry, C. D.
Horton, Maro Johnson, A. E. Korsell, W. C. Pinschmidt, L. J. Riegler, C. K. Smith,
W. C. Swartout, C. A. Taylor.
The subcommittee has endeavored to carry out its assignment during the year and
developed drawings for the location of flashing light signals. However, it is the con-
sensus of Committee 9 that each case must be decided on its merits, and that requisites
for the location, number and arrangement of automatic signals, automatic gates and
auxiliary signs for rail-highway grade crossing protection should be developed rather
than drawings.
Accordingly, your committee recommends that the assignment be changed to read
as follows: "Requisites for the location, number and arrangement of automatic signals,
automatic gates and auxiliary signs for highway grade crossing protection."
Report on Assignment 7
Recommend Methods of Protecting Highway Crossings and Flange-
ways Against Obstructions and Damage Caused by Use or
Passage of Highway Work Equipment
Bernard Blum (chairman, subcommittee), F. D. Batchellor, H. D. Blake, A. R. Dewces,
A. F. Dorley, G. N. Edmondson, C. F. Edwards, P. W. Elmore, H. L. Engelhardt,
C. D. Horton, Maro Johnson, E. E. Mayo, G. P. Palmer, T. M. Pittman, Frank
Ringer, W. C. Swartout.
Your committee has carried out its assignment by preparing the following instruc-
tions to highway department employees:
Highways 1S3
PROTECTING HIGHWAY-RAILROAD GRADE CROSSINGS
AND FLANGEWAYS
Recommended Instructions to Highway Department Employees for Protecting
Highway-Railroad Grade Crossings and Flangeways Against Obstructions
AND Damage Caused by Passage of Highway Work Equipment
To Highway Department Employees:
Your attention is called to the necessity for watchfulness and care in approaching,
passing over, and leaving railroad grade crossings with highway equipment, in order to
avoid accidents and resultant damage to equipment, injury to persons, or derailment of
trains.
The following rules shall be strictly adhered to by all employees operating highway
department equipment:
1. Stop all highway road-working equipment before crossing railroad tracks.
2. Do not depend on train schedules. Trains may be expected any time in either
direction on any track. Keep a sharp lookout and do not cross tracks when trains are
approaching.
3. Before reaching crossing, raise the nose and blade of snow plows and graders
to clear rails and planks on crossing.
4. Stop all work equipment after passing over railroad crossings. Make a careful
inspection of the crossing.
5. Clean flangeways and crossing of any material that might derail a train.
6. If equipment is stalled on crossing, highway employees shall do all in their power
to prevent a train from hitting it.
It is recommended that the above material be adopted and printed in the Manual
and the cooperation of the Executive Committee of the American Association of State
Highway Officials be enlisted with the view of making it recommended practice for state
highway departments.
Report of Committee 24 — Cooperative Relations
With Universities
E. T. HowsoN, Chairman, R. H. Ford F. A. Russell
Lem Adams P. M. Gault W. C. Sadler
W. J. Cunningham E. M. Hastings F. S. Schwinn
F. T. Darrow Clark Hungerford Barton Wheelwright
R. E. Dougherty R. B. Kittredge C. C. Williams
W. D. Faucette B. R. Kulp Committee
To the American Railway Engineering Association:
Your committee submits in its initial report a statement of the scope and purpose
of its work page 156
It also reports on the following subjects:
1. Stimulate greater cooperation between railway officials and officers of universities
and colleges in preparing the best courses of instruction to meet changing railway problems.
No report.
2. Call to the attention of universities and colleges such information and conclusions
developed by the Association as thought to be of special interest or value to them.
No report.
3. Develop means of bringing to the attention of railway managements the value
of a technical education as a qualifying factor for young men desiring to enter railway
service with a view to advancement.
Progress report — submitted as information page 157
4. Stimulate a greater interest in the science of transportation among university and
college students, and create thereby a greater appreciation of the place of transportation
in our national economic structure.
Progress report — submitted as information page 169
5. Develop means whereby facilities of the universities may be made more directly
available for research work of the Association and the railway industry by cooperative
effort between the staffs of the universities and the committees of the Association.
Progress report — submitted as information page 170
6. Stimulate a greater appreciation among university and college authorities of the
fundamental importance of instruction in transportation and economics, and of the
necessity for assigning men of adequate ability, experience and fitness for such teaching.
No report.
7. Cooperate with organizations of university and college students engaged in study
or discussion of engineering or transportation matters and contribute to their activities
in such manner as may be mutually arranged.
Progress report — submitted as information page 171
The Committee on Cooperative Relations
With Universities,
E. T. Howson, Chairman.
Bulletin 421, December, 1940.
ISS
156 Cooperative Relations With Universities
Statement of Scope and Purpose
Appointed shortly before the last convention of this Association, your committee
on Cooperative Relations with Universities presents its first report. Its work during the
year has been largely exploratory and has consisted primarily of the formulation of
measures to gather the information called for in the assignments given it. The reports
that the subcommittees present are, therefore, of progress. In its first report, the com-
mittee beUeves it desirable also to present a brief over-all statement of the purpose and
scope of its work.
In a way, the work of this committee is less direct and immediate in its objectives
than that of most of the other committees of this Association. It is not deahng with
materials or detailed practices of working; neither is it concerned with the immediate
present. Rather, it is dealing with a problem of management, the full impact of which
will not be felt for some years. Its work is, however, of fundamental importance to the
permanent well being of the railway industry.
The railways comprise one of our largest industries. They constitute a vital hnk in
the industrial life of America, for America is a land of vast distances and the railways
offer the only economical means for the transportation of the raw materials and food
products from the mines and the farms of the Central West and the far West to the
industrial centers of the East. Furthermore, as America enters more largely into world
markets, it is forced to meet the competition of other countries with their lower wage
scales. This requires maximum economy in transportation. Again, the railways are now
meeting increasingly acute competition from new and alert agencies of transportation, a
condition which creates still further problems of another character.
All these conditions place heavy demands upon those who bear the responsibihty of
management in the railway industry. These demands will become heavier in the days
that are ahead. Will the railways be able to meet these demands adequately with the
plans now in vogue?
A far larger proportion of the more promising young men are now enjoying the
privileges of a college education than in any previous generation. It is pertinent to
inquire whether as many of these college-trained young men, and especially those with
greater promise of executive ability, are now being attracted to railway service as a
career as was true a generation or two ago? And are the colleges and universities
giving these men the education and the view point that best prepare them for progress
in railway service?
In the early days of railway development in this country, the railways attracted
many young engineers into their construction activities; in fact, they provided the major
outlet for civil engineers and the bold nature of the work challenged men of initiative
and resourcefulness, not a few of whom developed into executives of note. Today, the
era of construction is closed, and this avenue of initial employment no longer exists.
The effect on the colleges has been immediate. Some have abandoned their courses
in railway construction and have substituted no railway transportation instruction there-
for. Within recent months one of our great universities has made public announcement
of the abandonment of its long-maintained department of railway transportation and the
scattering among other courses of the instruction previously offered there. Many col-
leges are openly discouraging their graduates from entering railway service.
It is true that the railways are no longer building long extensions into new and
unsettled areas. On the contrary, they are actually taking up more miles of lines today
than they are budding. Their principal activities in the field of construction are the
Cooperative Relations With Universities 157
rebuilding of facilities to meet new and changing conditions and the reconstruction of
lines and structures to effect greater economy or efficiency in transportation. But such
activities require intensive study of present and possible practices, with relation to costs,
both of construction and of operation, and call for the display of analytical ability as
great as or even greater than that of the pioneer engineers who located our railways
over the mountains and across the plains.
But it is ability of a different character and developed through education and
training of widely differing purpose. It requires a more thorough appreciation and
knowledge of economics, as applied to transportation — a greater wilUngness to work out
refinements in practice to effect economies in costs and to increase effectiveness in
service. In brief, it requires a far greater degree of exactness.
To the young man of engineering education who accepts this view, we know that
the railways offer real opportunity. No industry so basically important in character, no
industry whose business totals $3,000,000,000 to $5,000,000,000 annually or that employs
a million to a million and a half persons, can fail to provide opportunity for analytical
and executive ability of high order. The railways do offer such opportunities.
It is contended by the colleges that the railways fail to meet the competition of
other industries for these young men. And it must be admitted that there is much evi-
dence to support this view. On the other hand, not a few railway officers contend that
the colleges have failed to revise their courses of instruction to keep pace with the
changes in railway operation and that as a result the graduates of today are not pre-
pared either in view point or training for their needs of today. It must be admitted
also that a survey of college courses of instruction will provide much in support of this
position.
Your committee understands that, in re-establishing this committee, the Board of
Direction of this Association had in mind the importance of (a) bringing about the edu-
cation of a capable group of young men in the railway problems of today and the days
that are ahead and (b) providing for these men opportunities in the various branches
of railway service comparable with those presented by other industries. Through the
work that has been initiated by the subcommittees, it is hoped to bring about a recog-
nition among college and university authorities that the railway industry does offer
opportunities to a limited number of properly trained young men equal to or greater
than those existing elsewhere and a corresponding recognition among railway manage-
ments that it is to their interest to give the same or even greater consideration to the
selection and development of their personnel that they do to their physical plant and
its use.
Report on Assignment 3
Develop Means of Bringing to the Attention of Railway
Managements the Value of a Technical Education
As a Qualifying Factor for Young Men Desiring to Enter
Railway Service with a View to Advancement
F. S. Schwinn (chairman, subcommittee), R. E. Dougherty, R. H. Ford, R. B.
Kittredge, Barton Wheelwright, C. C. WilHams.
In approaching this subject, your committee has attempted first to answer the ques-
tion— why should railway managements be interested in employing technically educated
men? This question has naturally led to another — why should technically educated men
158 Cooperative Relations With Universities
desire railway employment? It is quite evident that there must be a sufficiently attrac-
tive incentive in order to influence a desirable class of young men, with either a technical
or non-technical college education, to seek employment on a railway. If the probabihty
of ultimate reward is definitely present, there will be no difficulty in attracting the best
of these young men into the railway industry.
In order that the answers to these two questions may be fully developed, the com-
mittee has first endeavored to show what the railway managements offer the young man
with a technical or other college education and to present examples of what such young
men have accomplished in the past when they associated themselves with railways, with,
somewhat as a summary, the views of a few railway executives on this subject. In later
reports it is proposed to explore additional phases of this subject, including the investiga-
tion of means employed by other industries to evaluate and absorb such men and the
present activities of those railroads which now recognize the desirability of fostering
the employment of men who have received desirable preliminary educational preparation.
What Can Railway Managements Offer?
After a boy has outgrown his desire to wear a policeman's uniform, he begins to
envision himself as some kind of a manager or executive. This is but the natural result
of the individualistic tendencies which come from and are a part of our democracy.
Usually, the young man will tentatively select his career early during his college life, and
his selection will be influenced to a large extent by the probable reward, either imme-
diate or ultimate, following careful preparation, close application and sincere effort to
succeed in such a career. The most accurate indication of what the future may hold
for the properly equipped man who elects railroading is evidenced by the measure of
success that has been attained in the railway field by technically educated men and
other college graduates in the past.
In an address delivered last year before the New York section of the American
Society of Civil Engineers, C. E. Smith, vice-president of the New York, New Haven
and Hartford Railroad Company, pointed out that the chief executives of 180,458 miles
of railway, comprising the larger and more important systems in the United States, were
divided as follows: 36 percent of the mileage was headed by civil engineers; 40 percent
of the mileage was directed by college graduates in other than civil engineering; and 24
percent of the mileage was administered by graduates of the school of hard knocks.
This analysis covered 31 large railways and railway systems and 23 of the 31 chief
executives were college graduates, while 8 were non-college graduates. Mr. Smith also
furnished data concerning the heads of departments on these same railways which indi-
cated that college graduates (both technical and non-technical) headed the several de-
partments, based on the percent of the total mileage, as follows: accounting, 24 percent;
purchases and stores, 26 percent; operating, 28 percent; traffic, 31 percent; mechanical,
47 percent; miscellaneous departments, 47 percent; engineering and maintenance, 84 per-
cent; and law, 100 percent. On the 84 percent of the mileage whose engineering depart-
ments were headed by college graduates, these officers were naturally all civil engineers,
but in addition, civil engineers headed the operating departments on 20 percent of the
mileage, and headed miscellaneous departments on 29 percent of the mileage.
In furnishing this information, Mr. Smith writes: "Of course, the situation changes
from time to time, but several times, when I have made these analyses, I have found
that, of the important railroads, 35 percent are headed by civil engineers, 40 percent by
other college graduates and 25 percent by men who merely graduated from the school
of hard knocks and did not have a college training. I use the word 'merely' because . . .
college graduates who made their way to the top also had to graduate from the school
Cooperative Relations With Universities ISQ
of hard knocks — a post graduate course as it were". Mr. Smith makes the further com-
ment: "The astounding and amazing feature of the showing of civil engineers in rail-
roading is that much less than 35 percent of the personnel on the railroads are civil
engineers. While I have no statistics to support an estimate, I would say that 5 percent
would be a very generous estimate of the proportion of civil engineers in railroading,
which indicates that their chances of getting to the top have been seven times the chances
of all others".
In an address delivered before the Transportation Section of the Society for the
Promotion of Engineering Education at Berkeley, Cal., on June 24, 1940, M. C. Blanch-
ard, chief engineer of the Coast Lines of the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway
Company, took as his subject "What the railways offer the engineering graduate". After
Usting the strictly technical opportunities confronting the engineering graduate, Mr.
Blanchard said:
In addition to opportunities for promotion along . . . technical lines . . .
the way is open, as it has never been before, to advancement in other departments
of the railways, such as operating, purchasing and traffic. In years past the rail-
ways . . . were generally inclined to look upon the engineer as a technical man
quaUfied for advancement only along the line of his training. This attitude no
longer prevails, the railways having come to the realization that the man educated
in the fundamentals of mathematics and science has qualifications superior to
those not so equipped, and if in addition to his education he possesses those other
inherent quahties essential to advancement in any line of business, the railways
are quite ready to give him an opportunity ... to step out of his engineering
environment into other departments.
In making the above statement, I have in mind particularly the railroad on
which I am employed ... In the last twenty years . . . numbers of men from
the engineering department have been . . . selected for service in other spheres
of activity . . . These men are making good, as evidenced by the fact that two of
them are now general managers, one is assistant to the operating vice-president
and one is general purchasing agent for the system.
Mr. Blanchard concluded with the statement that "... I feel that to the engi-
neering graduate who is transportation minded; who is alert, energetic, balanced; who
is endowed with some native executive ability ; who is willing to shoulder responsibilities
and to undergo the hard work involved in each step of advancement; who is appre-
ciative of the fact that he will be in competition with many other capable and ambitious
men ... a contest in which his engineering education should be of advantage; (to such
a man) the railways offer an opportunity better than in the past, and on a par with
the outlook in any other industry".
At the same meeting (of the S.P.E.E.), J. W. Williams, chief engineer of the Western
Pacific Railroad Company, speaking in a somewhat similar vein on the subject "What a
railway expects in the engineering graduate", said:
The railway expects the engineering graduate to be equipped with a sound
foundation of engineering education and trained thought processes, by means of
which he can acquire, through e.xperience, the judgment to estimate correctly
the problems with which he will deal and arrive at reasonably accurate solutions.
The graduate entering railway service, who is qualified by character and
ability and who is equipped with a suitable education, has favorable opportunity
for advancement, not only in engineering positions, but also in administrative
positions.
160 Cooperative Relations With Universities
At no previous time have the railways had more urgent need for the services
of highly intelHgent and thoroughly educated young engineers. The quantity de-
mand is, perhaps, not as great as in the days of railway expansion, but the
quality requirement is higher than ever before. For the outstanding graduate, the
railway field offers exceptional opportunity for success.
Also at this S.P.E.E. meeting, W. H. Kirkbride, chief engineer of the Southern
Pacific Company, taking for his subject "After graduation — ^What?" referred to the
new occupations that are coming forth in an ever-expanding world and said: "What
better personnel could be found for such occupations than the men with engineering
education? Note, I said engineering education, not engineers, and herein lies the impor-
tant point of the theme I present: engineers should be educationally equipped to assume
many positions in our complicated social economy that are far from pure engineering".
In closing his address, Mr. Kirkbride remarked:
Railroads have tried various schemes of selection of personnel with particular
reference to advancement to the higher positions . . . The exact method of how
a graduate of a university is to obtain employment with a railroad and acquire
the experience that will enable him to advance to positions of greater responsi-
bility is to my mind a matter of secondary importance. More important is to
show that the opportunity exists.
In concluding, may I state that I have endeavored to show that this oppor-
tunity does exist; that the railroads are not a thing of the past and that a large
field of endeavor exists for those who wish to try ; but paraphrasing, in part,
the recent remarks of a world statesman, let us say we can only offer you labor
and sweat . . .
From the 1940 report of the Transportation Committee, E. T. Howson, chairman, to
the Civil Engineering Division of the Society for the Promotion of Engineering Education,
the following is quoted:
Their (the railways') principal activities in the field of construction are the
rebuilding of facihties to meet new and changing conditions and the reconstruc-
tion of lines and structures to effect greater economy or efficiency in transporta-
tion. Such activities . . . call for the display of analytical abiUty as great as or
even greater than that of the pioneer engineers . . .
But it is abihty of a different character and developed through education and
training of widely differing purpose ... In brief, it requires a far greater degree
of exactness.
To the young man of engineering education who accepts this view, the rail-
ways offer real opportunity. No industry so basically important in character . . .
can fail to provide opportunity for analytical and executive ability of high
order. The railways do offer such opportunities . . .
A Umited number of railways have offered engineering graduates employment as
student apprentices. In a few cases, this practice has been followed for many years and
has been found generally successful. Outstanding in this effort to develop and use the
technically educated man are the Pennsylvania Railroad and the Southern Railway
System. A future report will describe, in some detail, the poUcy of these and other
railways and their opinions of the results attained. Your committee has here reviewed
the statements of several railway officers at some length to show affirmatively that the
Cooperative Relations With Universities 161
railways do offer opportunities to college graduates and that the college-educated man
has frequently earned recognition beyond that which may be expected by the average
individual without such education.
The Railvsray Executive's View
Little would be gained in "bringing to the attention of railway managements the
value of a technical education as a qualifying factor for young men desiring to enter
railway service with a view to advancement" if such men were not of the type desired.
To develop this angle, your committee addressed a few railway executives, all of whom
are technically educated and members of your Association. In addition to requesting
their general views on the subject, these executives were requested to give specific an-
swers to five questions. Their replies go far toward developing the true answer to our
first question — why should railway managements be interested in employing technically
educated men.
To the first of the five questions — do you favor employing this class of men (college
graduates) and are they given recognition and opportunities for advancement? — all
replied in the affirmative although four replies stressed the fact that educational quali-
fications alone were not paramount and that opportunities were offered to all employees,
while two replies made reference to the difficulty of giving adequate recognition and
opportunity because of restrictions imposed by agreements with other employees.
Replies to the second question — In what manner do you recommend that such men
be selected? — ^were nearly uniform in suggesting that selections be made through per-
sonal contacts and interviews by department heads and that natural qualifications, as
well as educational background, must be considered.
The third question — Coupled with practical experience, do you believe that these
men fill the requirements of advanced positions more satisfactorily than men without
either technical or general college education? — again brought generally affirmative an-
swers, qualified, however, with repeated references to the fact that the requirements of
advanced positions go beyond the basic college education.
To the fourth question — Do they progress more rapidly than men without a college
education? — the replies were generally affirmative, although two executives here again
stressed the importance of other factors without which the college man's progress would
be slower.
The last question submitted by your committee was — Do they remain with the
property as well as men without such education who may rise from the ranks? The
experience of only one executive prompted an affirmative answer while four replies
were definitely negative and one stressed the need that management advance the men
selected with sufficient frequency to hold their enthusiasm.
Because of the important bearing of the comments and opinions expressed by these
executives upon both the desirability of employing college graduates and on the type of
college graduate to be employed, partial quotations from their letters are included:
From L. W. Baldwin, chief executive officer of the Missouri Pacific Lines:
In employing new men we naturally favor selecting those giving the greatest
promise of useful and helpful service and those considered capable of development
which will fit them for promotion. While education is important, the traits of
integrity, industry, loyalty and the ability for harmonious teamwork are fully
as important. Natural ability to use one's head and good common sense, coupled
with a pleasing personality, will go far towards overcoming any handicap due to
lack of college training.
162 Cooperative Relations With Universities
As to your third question, (regarding requirements for advanced positions)
I would say that the answer is yes in general, but there are so many exceptions
as to require the further statement that a college education is far from the most
important factor, and a college man lacking in the ability to secure teamwork, for
example, is unsuited for an advanced position. Probably a tabulation of men hold-
ing executive positions would show a preponderance of college-trained men out of
proportion to the number of college men in service and this preponderance has no
doubt increased through the years.
Do college men progress more rapidly? Again there are so many exceptions
and so many other considerations as to require caution in a general statement.
The non-college man usually has at least four years start over the college man
of the same age. He is very apt to over-estimate the handicap of not having had
the opportunity for college and if he is of the right kind, will dig in all the harder
to overcome his assumed disability. Many college men, on the other hand, are
similarly apt to over-estimate the advantages of college and in addition to being
irked by the nature of their early assignments on the railroad, are apt to hold
somewhat aloof from their fellow non-college employees. But the college man who
can retain the correct perspective and who always gives his best to the tasks
assigned, will, at least on the average, be able to progress more rapidly.
Answer to the last question (regarding speed of progress) is probably no, for
several reasons. Those who leave railroad service early usually have been attracted
by other lines of work where opportunities for rapid advancement seemed better
and where living conditions were more desirable than at many of the scattered
points on a railroad. It must be recognized that for many years the railroad in-
dustry has not been expanding, while newer industries have been growing rapidly,
and these have, therefore, provided many more opportunities for service.
As to a technically trained college man compared to a non-technically trained
one, it is my opinion that there is little choice although the former will be better
fitted for an early start in some departments than the latter. If the engineer
can retain a proper perspective and sense of proportion, his training in exactness
will be helpful. But many engineers never seem to learn that a product is no more
reliable than its least reliable factor, and they develop a hair-splitting attitude
which becomes a serious hindrance.
From Ralph Budd, president of the Burlington Lines:
One of the most important duties of the railroad's supervisory forces is the
careful selection of new employees. In the initial selection of employees, thought
should be given to how well such persons may function, not only for the imme-
diate position for which employed, but also for promotion to more responsible
duties. In all branches of our organization are young men and women who have
graduated from colleges in the last few years. They were not employed solely
because of their college education but because, in addition to that, they had
attributes which we felt would make them desirable employees and potential
candidates for advancement.
There has existed, and probably still does exist with many, some prejudice
against the employment of college graduates, principally due, I think, to the fact
that up to a few years ago ordinarily only those from families of substantial
means went to college and upon graduation some of them declined to accept
employment except in preferred occupations and with a better than average start-
ing salary. Many of them came out of school with the thought instilled into
Cooperative Relations With Universities 163
their minds that "the world was waiting for them with open arms" and that they
should be given preference over those less fortunate who did not have the oppor-
tunity to acquire a higher education. Much of this prejudice has been dispelled
in recent years. The picture has changed; now it is not only the favored few who
attend college, but a cross section from our entire population. A majority of the
college graduates nowadays realize, or should realize, that when they enter the
business world, ordinarily they must start at the bottom and often in employment
in which they can not, at first, if at all, make full use of all phases of their
education.
Your inquiry was directed not only to the question of the value of a tech-
nical education as a qualifying factor for young men desiring to enter railroad
service with a view to advancement, but also regarding college men who are not
technically educated but who may be fitted for positions on the railroad not
definitely requiring technical preparation. It is realized that certain branches of
service, such as engineering, require for some of the positions those with a tech-
nical education, but there are many places in our service where a non-technical
education, if it has taught a young man to think clearly and to carry his thoughts
into action, should be of great benefit insofar as concerns making progress in
railroad service.
Yes, we favor employing those who have acquired more than the ordinary
grade or high school education, provided they have the other attributes considered
necessary. They are given such opportunities for advancement, when they have
demonstrated their ability, as the requirements of the service and the labor agree-
ments permit. We all realize the difficulty, if not the impossibility, because of the
seniority rules contained in the labor agreements, of giving special consideration,
insofar as promotion is concerned, to those with unusual attainments, in jobs
controlled by the provisions of such agreements; however, when an opportunity
arises to promote a person from the ranks into what is referred to in railroad
terminology as an "excepted position" the situation is different. From there on,
abiUty governs rather than seniority and if a careful selection has been made in
the initial employment of those with a college education, they should have an
advantage when it comes to promotion. We recognize, however, that there are
many with native ability who, for some reason or other, have not gone to college,
and we do not favor closing the door to such persons, either for initial employ-
ment or for promotion.
While we realize the effectiveness of the formal training programs carried
on by many of the larger industries, which programs call for the recruiting of
college men who seem to be especially qualified in particular fields and the
training of them over a period of months or years in various branches of the
service, for several reasons it has not seemed to us feasible to install a training
program of that pattern. The seniority agreements in the railroad industry would
operate against the effectiveness of such a plan and would also entail a much
higher cost because of the impossibility of realizing on any productive work done
by such trainees during the early period of their employment. There is one
exception, that being in departments not covered by labor agreements.
Because of these circumstances, I favor a different form of recruiting. It
seems to me that our problem is to locate young men of ability whose general
back ground education, and views appear to make them desirable for railroad
service, looking to the possibihty of their promotion to supervisory positions, and
then absorb them into service as vacancies occur, promoting them as fast as their
164 Cooperative Relations With Universities
ability, the financial condition of the company, and the labor agreements will
permit.
To function to the highest degree in supervisory jobs, more knowledge than
that ordinarily gained through grade school and high school education is required,
or at least is of great help. Of course, knowledge itself is not enough. Such posi-
tions also require the ability to secure the cooperation of others and to think
clearly and make accurate decisions without prolonged dehberation.
Many young people with college education who enter the service in minor
positions feel that promotion and increase in salary do not come quickly enough
and they are on the alert for other opportunities carrying immediate salary
increases and what appears to be greater opportunity for promotion.
Without raising any bar to the employment or promotion of those who do
not have a college education, we have endeavored, in our traffic and other depart-
ments, to attract young men and women with exceptional education. So far as
the traffic department is concerned, there seems to be no reason for distinguishing
between those with a technical education and those with a liberal arts education,
but in some branches of the service, such as the engineering and operating depart-
ments, the technical education is, of course, of more benefit, and in the accounting
department a business education is of considerable help.
In a study made some years ago of two groups, one consisting of those who
had college education and the other of those who did not have such education,
it was found that they reached their first official position at the same average
age, but that the group which did not have the advantage of a college education
started work several years earlier than the college group. We have made no
special study of this question in recent years, but I am inclined to think that
one made now, or ten years hence, would show a different picture; in that those
with a college education would, on the average, progress faster and reach higher
positions than those lacking such education. I believe that in the future the
majority of the top positions in railroad service will be filled by those who have
prepared themselves for such positions by additional years in school, particularly
in technical schools.
From J. R. Downes, vice-president of the Pennsylvania Railroad Company:
For many years we have placed in our service, and trained for supervisory
positions, graduates from educational institutions, the courses of study at which
provide the technical training we desire. Electrical engineers and mechanical engi-
neers are usually placed in our motive power department and civil engineers in
the maintenance of way department, although the latter department also employs
some electrical engineers for training in the signal department. These courses
cover a period of three years' work before the young men are placed in minor
supervisory positions.
After review of applications by staff officers, and selection of the young men
whom it is desired to interview, appointments are only made following a personal
interview with the candidates so selected by our assistant vice-president — chief of
motive power, the assistant chief engineer joining in the review of graduate civil
engineers applying for the course in the maintenance of way department. From
these personal interviews, judgment may be formed as to the general make-up of
applicants and their interest in railroad careers.
During these special apprenticeship courses, reports are made each six months
as to the appHcation and ability of the young men and their probable advance-
Cooperative Relations With Universities 165
ment; this with the idea that if any cadet is unsuited for railroad work, or is
not considered to be "officer material," he will be released before remaining too
long with the railroad in order to have early opportunity to "find himself" in
another line of industry.
Naturally, one of technical training, interested in railroad work, selected on
the basis of his general make-up and attainments at college or other institution
of higher education, should be better equipped to come along as a supervisory
employee than one without such training. Of course, we bring along from time
to time others who have not had either a technical or a general college education,
but who display such qualities of practicability, general leadership, and admin-
istration as to warrant their advancement.
Technically educated men who come to the railroad after selecting a railroad
career for their life-work have no less interest in remaining with us than men
who come up from the ranks. From time to time, some men who are not engi-
neers but who have a general college education or its equivalent are taken into
our traffic and accounting departments. In such instances, the same general
observations apply as have been outlined in the foregoing with reference to men
of technical education.
From C. E. Denney, president of the Northern Pacific Railway Company:
I favor employing this class of men and giving them recognition and oppor-
tunities for advancement to the extent that it can be done in fairness to other
qualified employees who have not had the advantage of a technical education.
Selection should be by the head of the department in which the individual is
to be employed. A college education is helpful, but not necessary in meeting the
requirements of advanced positions. An individual with a college education should
advance more rapidly than he would without such an education.
Many college graduates are not willing to spend the time as apprentices in
the railroad or any other business, that is necessary to learn the business and
prepare themselves for advancement. Few realize that they are freshmen after
graduation.
The first requisite of anyone entering the railroad business is industriousness.
A college education is helpful, but not controlling. The college graduate who has
worked or assisted in working his way through school is, generally speaking, the
most likely candidate for railroad apprenticeship.
From E. M. Durham, Jr., chief executive officer of the Chicago, Rock Island and
Pacific Railway Company:
As I know you reaUze, it is practically impossible to give a forthright
answer to some of these questions. Based on my experience, I think I would say
that an intelligent educated man is generally superior to an intelligent man with-
out higher education. On the other hand, a technical education generally falls
short of accomplishing what is desired if a man does not have this quality.
Briefly stated, what the railroad seeks in employing young men is intelligence or
"horse-sense".
From H. M. Lull, executive vice-president of the Southern Pacific Lines:
As a general proposition a college education should equip a person entering
almost any kind of railroad service to handle his job better and give him some
advantage over other persons similarly employed who do not have the advantage
166 Cooperative Relations With Universities
of a college education. However, the rules, and particularly the seniority practices
established in contracts with the railway employee organizations, prevent manage-
ments from selective choice in advancing employees who have superior qualifica-
tions, abihty and ambition — at least until advancement by means of seniority has
gained for the employee a sufficient amount of experience for the employee to
qualify for a supervisory position where the organization rules and seniority
practices do not apply.
Under these circumstances it is difficult for railroad management to give
recognition and opportunity for advancement to those who by reason of superior
educational attainments, natural ability, or outstanding work performance, are
entitled to preferred consideration. I do not know of any means whereby this
situation can be overcome in a way to encourage college men to take railway
employment, except in the limited field of technical work where contract organiza-
tion rules and seniority practices do not apply.
On our road, and I think this is probably true on most roads, there are rela-
tively few college trained men in service, other than those doing more or less
strictly technical work, such as construction and maintenance of way department
engineers, architects, draftsmen, and mechanical department engineers, designers,
draftsmen, metallurgists, chemists, etc.
Obviously, it is highly desirable that men employed in these classifications be
quahfied by having had a complete technical education in the field of their employ-
ment and as a rule new employees are selected having such qualifications.
I think it is generally true, particularly in recent years, that the proportion
of men selected for advanced positions from railroad services made up largely
of men with college and technical education represents relatively a much higher
proportion than the selection of men for such advanced positions taken from other
classifications of railway employees. If there were more college trained men in
other branches of railway service, such as train service, station service, accounting
and clerical service, etc., the chances are that relatively a larger proportion from
these other departments would attain advanced positions.
Looking to the future, the difficulty of college trained men finding employ-
ment may and Hkely will result in a gradual infiltration of college trained men in
employee classifications other than the technical classifications. With the situation
as it now exists with respect to advancement being governed largely by seniority,
their advancement opportunity will be no greater than their fellow employees
not having the advantage of college education, at least during the early years of
their employment. Whether college trained men are hkely to be satisfied and remain
in railroad work under such circumstances cannot be answered from any experi-
ence that we have had. The chances are that this will depend largely upon the
employment situation generally and the opportunities that may be afforded to
obtain employment in other industries offering greater opportunity for advancement
in recognition of superior capacity and ambitious effort.
From H. R. Safford, senior executive assistant of the Missouri Pacific Lines:
I believe such men fill the requirements of advanced positions more satisfac-
torily than men without either technical or college education because such educa-
tion gives the men seme advantage that is beyond mere technical knowledge and
gives broader opportunities for research and analysis. It is expected also that
everybody who has a technical education is better than the average of those
who have not had it and while there are defections and failures among such
Cooperative Relations With Universities 167
people in the application of the ground work of education, I think on the whole
the answer to this is "yes".
I think it is rather hard to make a definite reply to this question (as to
remaining with a railway). My opinion is, however, that they will stay longer
with the property, except insofar as better opportunities may be offered in fields
for which they are trained beyond the scope of railroad service.
From Robert E. Woodruff, trustee and chief executive officer of the Erie Railroad
Company:
We regularly employ a few each year for our operating department; some
civil engineers for the maintenance of way department ; and some mechanical and
electrical graduates for the mechanical department. Those in the mechanical de-
partment are given a special apprenticeship, followed by opportunities for advance-
ment. Those in the maintenance of way department are given employment in
whatever branch vacancies occur, getting some experience as trackmen, signalmen,
foremen, rodmen, transitmen, etc.
One cannot generalize on this question. Half of our higher officers are college
trained, and an investigation of a highly technical manufacturing concern devel-
oped that half of its higher officers were college men. To be a good manager, a
man should be able to analyze and plan and also to organize and be able to get
along with men. A college education, with a knowledge of mathematics and engi-
neering, helps to train a man to analyze and plan, but does little to help him to
organize or to get along with men. Some college men have this latter ability.
They are, in general, the men who have taken part in college activities, been
elected by the student body to elective positions, have had experience in man-
aging clubs and organizations, and stand out definitely as managerial material.
Many boys spend their four years in college doing nothing but studying and,
therefore, miss a considerable part of a true college education. In other words,
college trained men are not necessarily good managers or good organizers. Some
men who have never been to college, but who come up through the ranks, have
a better knowledge of men, of labor conditions, of how to get work done, of how
to arouse enthusiasm, and accordingly are selected for managerial positions in
competition with college graduates.
The college training is not the principal factor, as outhned above. A college
graduate who has managerial ability and who is wiUing to study after leaving
college should progress satisfactorily. It is up to the employing officer to be
careful in hiring such men to pick only those who really want to take up railroad
work as their life work, and not to hire those who just want any job at all.
Then it is up to the management to see that these men who are employed
receive proper training and are moved often enough to retain their enthusiasm
and interest.
From F. E. Williamson, president of the New York Central System:
In approaching consideration of the advantages of a college education to men
entering railroad service, it must be remembered that there are certain funda-
mentals that must first be considered. These fundamentals primarily relate to the
fact that there are certain natural elements for success granted to some men and
denied to others, regardless of education or any other acquired experience. For
example, character, personality, tact, perseverance, inherent executive abihty,
acceptibility of the doctrine of hard work, and all-around intelligence would give
168 Cooperative Relations With Universities
a man fortunate to possess these attributes a distinct advantage over some men
without them. The only reasonable comparison that can be made is the one that
starts with the assumption that these innate characteristics are common to both,
and if that is assumed, it would seem to be absolutely futile for anyone to argue
that an education is not an advantage to a young man entering railroad service,
particularly the branches where technical training cannot help but be an asset.
No one can possibly argue that education is a panacea and a complete answer
for the success of a young man in any walk of life or that college education can
be a substitute for brains and native inteUigence. It would seem axiomatic that,
with equal natural characteristics, the well-trained educated man has a distinct
advantage.
The New York Central has employed many men with a college education
who have received recognition and opportunity for advancement. We have no
fixed method of engaging men of this calibre, but it would seem that that is a
question to which all railroads might to advantage give further consideration.
The two questions as to past rates of progress and remaining with the prop-
erty are difficult to answer, inasmuch as they have been dependent so much upon
the various individuals and the opportunities that have been opened to them
through various changes in organization. It is probably difficult in any large
organization to retain ambitious young college men seeking more rapid advance-
men than opportunity has permitted. Some in later years, however, have expressed
regrets over their earlier impatience.
In Review
Your committee is attempting to prepare its presentation of this assignment in such
a manner that it will forcefully direct the attention of railway managements to the
value of employing young men with college educations and particularly those with
technical qualifications. Considerable information already has been collected regarding
the practices followed by other industries and this indicates a surprisingly strong interest
in, and desire to employ, qualified college men. A more exhaustive investigation of this
angle of the subject will be attempted in the next report. The committee feels that
certain worth-while preliminary observations may be drawn from the informative
matter here presented and that such observations can be stated briefly as follows:
(1) Railway managements should be interested in giving employment, training,
encouragement and opportunity to desirable college men in order to provide a reserve
from which to draw the future supervising officers, managers and executives, and in
that manner enable the railways to meet the competition of other transportation
agencies and keep abreast of industry in general.
(2) A desirable college man is a young man who, in addition to his educational
qualifications, has character and loyalty, has initiative and analytical ability, is a natural
leader and organizer, is aggressive, is willing to take and execute orders and, finally but
of major importance, is not above starting at the bottom of the ladder or afraid of
hard work.
There are several phases of this assignment which deserve more detailed study and
analysis and your committee plans to develop these in future reports.
Cooperative Relations With Universities Ib^J
Report on Assignment 4
Stimulate a Greater Interest in the Science of Transportation
Among University and College Students
And Create Thereby a Greater Appreciation of the Place of
Transportation in Our National Economic Structure
W. C. Sadler (chairman, subcommittee), Lem Adams, W. J. Cunningham, R. B.
Kittredge, F. S. Schwinn, C. C. Williams.
The modern railroad is part of a highly competitive industry, which fact in itself
necessitates a superior organization. Therefore, it would seem most desirable that there
should be a steady influx into railroad service of young men, whether collegiate or not,
of that high quality and promise consistent with the attractions of the railroad industry.
Young men of today are very cognizant of the problems of life, and many of them
should be given credit for careful thought and deliberation in the selection of their life's
work. The best young men do not follow some particular vocation accidentally. Their
decision will be based in part on the probabiUty of steady employment, and the wages
available. But of no small influence will be the attractiveness of the work, and the
interest which it arouses. Above all, the student desires to be engaged in a strong, virile
industry which will offer a challenge to his fullest abilities. He has found his education
long and arduous, quite expensive, but usually fascinating. He is eager for the arrival of
that time when he can apply his academic training; and incidentally, he wants to realize
a return on his college investment. The railroad industry has a very personal interest
in these college men.
Cooperation between the railroads and the universities may well take that active,
energetic form which will ultimately render a public service, in addition to any incidental
mutual benefits.
Campus meetings, with informal addresses on problems of the railroads and other
transportation agencies, are important because of the personal contacts they offer, as
well as the subject matter of the talks. Student inspection trips to railroad operations
also develop personal contacts, as well as coordinating the academic and practical phases
of railroading. A properly-equipped library, of a size appropriate to the circumstances,
is indispensable; and where possible it might well be augmented with museum pieces.
Even the opportunity of student summer employment at common labor will awaken a
fuller appreciation of the true significance of a large railroad in operation.
The committee proposes to develop this subject further during the next year to
determine specific means and methods of obtaining a fuller appreciation among all col-
lege students of the basic importance of the transportation industry in our economic order.
170 Cooperative Relations Wi th Universities
Report on Assignment 5
Develop Means Whereby Facilities of the Universities May Be
Made More Directly Available for Research Work of
the Association and the Railway Industry
By Cooperative Effort Between the Staffs of the Universities and
the Committees of the Association
F. A. Russell (chairman, subcommittee), Lem Adams, W. J. Cunningham, R. E.
Dougherty, R. H. Ford, Barton Wheelwright.
It is the thought of the committee that its first activity should be to develop by
means of a questionnaire as complete information as possible regarding the present
facilities, personnel, activities, and interests of the various schools bearing on railway
problems, as well as a compilation of the subjects already investigated and the reports
that are available for distribution.
Information of this character can be collected most readily from the colleges giving
engineering degrees, of which there are about 145 in the United States. A questionnaire
was sent to 125 of these schools as it was thought best not to contact similar schools in
Canada at this time because of the unsettled conditions now prevailing in the country
by reason of the war. This questionnaire included the following questions:
1. What faciUties do you have available for research?
2. In what fields are you best equipped in personnel, experience and equipment?
3. What projects do you now have under way or recently completed?
4. What work have you done in recent years for or of special interest to the
railroads ?
5. Would you be interested in doing more work along lines which have a bearing
on railway activities?
Because of a late start in sending out the questionnaire and because the early fall
months comprise an extremely busy period for schools in getting the new year's program
under way, response to the questionnaire has not been complete, but the answers are
coming in slowly. As of November 1, about 40 of the 125 schools solicited had rephed,
submitting a large amount of information of a diversified character, much of which will
be interesting and valuable to the railways when made available to them in future reports
of this committee.
Cooperative Relations With Universities 171
Report on Assignment 7
Cooperate with Organizations o£ University and College Students
Engaged in Study or Discussion o£ Engineering
or Transportation Matters
And Contribute to Their Activities in Such
Manner as May Be Mutually Arranged
P. M. Gault (chairman, subcommittee), F. T. Darrow, W. D. Faucette, Clark Hungerford,
F. A. Russell, C. C. Williams.
The deans of 17 colleges located in various sections of the United States and Canada
were invited to submit suggestions pertinent to the assignment of the subcommittee.
None of those contacted is represented on the committee.
Replies were received from 14 of those to whom the inquiry was addressed, each
of whom expressed a desire to cooperate with the railroads in any way that would be
mutually helpful to the railroads and the students. Following is a brief digest of the
suggestions received.
1. Lectures before student gatherings by railroad men engaged in various branches
of service, these lectures to be given by specialists before small groups of students who
are interested in specialized subjects or by speakers who may be able to bring a message
of interest to the student body as a whole.
2. Employment of students:
(a) Summer work, looking to permanent employment after graduation.
(b) Graduates who are especially interested in, or adapted to, railroad work.
(c) Part time employment of students while still in school. Generally speaking,
this would mean that two students would be fining one railroad job, one being
in school while the other is working and alternating at definite pre-arranged
times such as every four or six weeks.
3. Conducting research work on railway problems through college laboratories by
and with students.
4. Distribution of railroad publications and literature bearing on transportation to
college libraries.
5. English composition assignments covering certain features of railroad transpor-
tation. The AREA might establish either cash prizes or medal awards to encourage
competition.
Report of Committee 27 — Maintenance of Way
Work Equipment
G. R. Westcott, Chairman, E. C. Jackson C. H. R. Howe, Vice-
C. M. Angel R. K. Johnson Chairman,
R. M. Baldock W. G. Kemmerer A. J. Neff
Edgar Bennett C. R. Knowles E. H. Ness
W. H. Bettis Jack Largent C. H. Ordas
G. E. Boyd R. M. Leeds P. G. Petri
C. R. Edwards R. W. Marye T. M. Pittman
G. J. Ermentrout F. H. McKenney W. D. Rhoads
C. L. Fero E. L. Mead F. H. Rothe
J. G. Hartley E. H. Mills J. C. Ryan
C. E. Herth C. E. Morgan R. R. Smith
L. B. Holt C. H. Morse Roy Wade
N. W. Hutchison R. A. Morrison F. F. Zavatkay
Committee
To the American Railway Engineering Association:
Your committee reports as follows on its assignments:
1. Revision of Manual.
No report except one recommendation for additional material offered under
Assignment 2.
2. Standardization of parts and accessories for railway maintenance motor cars.
Progress report — submitted as information— also ope plan recommended for inclusion
in the Manual page 1 74
3. Lubrication of roadway machines.
No report.
4. Self-contained direct-blow gasoline tampers.
No report.
5. Devices for applying metal preservative to rail and track fastenings.
Final report — submitted as information page 177
6. Methods of keeping data on work equipment.
Final report — submitted as information page IS.'?
7. Pneumatic- tired tractor equipment.
Progress report — submitted as information page 194
8. Impact wrenches.
Final report — submitted as information page 199
9. Track welding equipment:
(a) Oxy-acetylene ;
No report.
(b) Electric arc, collaborating with Committee 5 — Track, and with Committee 5,
Electrical Section, Engineering Division.
Final report — submitted as information page 200
10. Railway owned automotive equipment.
No report.
11. Off-track grading equipment.
Final report — submitted as information page 206
Bulletin 421, December, 1940.
173
174 Maintenance of Way Work Equipment
12. Weed burners and extinguisher cars.
No report.
13. Safety devices for work equipment, collaborating with Committee 22 — Economics
of Railway Labor, and with Safety Section, AAR.
No report.
The Committee on Maintenance of Way Work Equipment,
G. R. Westcott, Chairman.
Report on Assignment 2
Standardization of Parts and Accessories for Railway
Maintenance Motor Cars
R. K. Johnston (chairman, subcommittee), G. J. Ermentrout, C. L. Fero, Jack Largent,
R. A. Morrison, E. H. Ness, C. H. Ordas, P. G. Petri, Roy Wade.
During this year your committee has given consideration to, and offers to the
Association :
1. Designs of receptacle to be mounted on motor cars for the purpose of carrying
fusees and torpedoes. Figures 1, 2, 3 and 4.
Both the design shown in Figures 2 and 3, and that shown in Figures 1 and 4,
make provision for a first-aid kit in the same container. No recommendation is made at
this time as to the desirability of including a first-aid kit, nor as to the number of flags,
fusees, and torpedoes to be carried, as these matters depend on the rules in effect on
individual railroads. For this reason no dimensions are shown, as the size required depends
on the amount and character of material to be carried.
In both designs the boxes will be constructed of 26-gage to 20-gage iron with welded
joints and a weather-tight hinged lid.
A variation of design shown in Figures 1 and 4, provides space for fusees and tor-
pedoes only. In connection with the use of this box, flags are carried in sections of
second-hand air hose fastened in a vertical position on the front safety rail.
2. Design of safety rail for light inspection motor cars. Fig. 5.
A recommended design for safety rail for section duty motor car is now shown in
Fig. 2703 on page 27-S of the Manual. The design presented in Fig. 5 is submitted for
use on light inspection cars.
Recommendation
Fig. S is submitted for adoption and publication in the Manual. The remainder of
the report is offered as information, with the recommendation that the subject be
continued.
Fig. 1.
Maintenance of Way Work E q u i p m e n t
17S
176
Maintenance of Way Work Equipment
Fig. 4.
Smallest Radius Practical
Note:-
No threaded parts to be used
All railings to be of same height
All rail to be ^"standard black
wrot steel pipe.
Safety Rails for Light Inspection Motor Car.
Maintenance of Way Work Equipment 177
Report on Assignment 5
Devices for Applying Metal Preservatives to Rail and Fastenings
R. R. Smith (chairman, subcommittee), Edgar Bennett, C. L. Fero, E. C. Jackson, W. G.
Kemmerer, Jack Largent, F. H. McKenney, E. L. Mead, A. J. Neff, C. H. Ordas.
In general, the causes of corrosion to rail and track fastenings are:
1. Refrigerator car brine drippings
2. Locomotive exhaust gases combined with moisture
3. Fumes from nearby manufacturing plants
4. Drippings from locomotives and coal cars
5. Sea water and sea air
6. Electrolysis
The prevention or control of corrosion is achieved by the simple expedient of placing
a protective coating on the surface of the metal. The most commonly employed material
is an asphalt base oil usually containing 45 to 55 percent asphalt. Viscosity or density of
the oil is often varied by the addition of light solvents or by heating to make it more
adaptable to the method of application.
Appliances for placing the oil are divided into two general classifications; namely,
hand operated and power sprayers.
Hand Operated Appliances
Hand operations may be sub-divided into the three following groups:
(a) Brushing or painting
(b) Hand operated one-man sprayers
(c) Application of joint packing
(a) The method of applying preservatives by brushing or painting is too readily
perceived or generally understood to require description.
(b) Various types of hand sprayers are available, but all are basically the same.
In general, they consist of a container for the liquid to be sprayed, to which pneumatic
pressure is applied by means of a hand operated pump. Nozzles of various designs, de-
pending upon the nature of the work to be performed and also upon the characteristics
of the material to be sprayed, are connected to the tank with a short hose.
Nozzles used with hand sprayers for applying the preservative behind joint bars are
ordinarily long metal tubes, offset for easy insertion, and having one or more small
orifices for drenching the rail ends and back surfaces of the joint bars. The same nozzle
may be used for coating the outside of the joint or a spray type may be substituted.
The latter will give more uniform and more positive coverage with less oil consumption.
However, due to the smaller orifice in a spray type nozzle it may be necessary to use oil
of a lower viscosity or add kerosene or some other light solvent to the material used
with the tubular type.
(c) It has become the practice on some roads, usually when laying rail or renewing
splice bars, to fill the void between the bars and rail with a plastic filler composed of
finely divided wood flour, metal preservative oil and lubricating oil. The proportion cur-
rently used amounts to approximately 2J^ lb. of oil to 1 lb. of wood flour. The oil is 70
percent asphalt base metal preservative and 30 percent lubricating oil.
178
Maintenance of Way Work Eq uipment
PQ
m
K
Maintenance of Way Work Equipment
179
In present practice the plastic filler is formed into blocks 12 in. long, the cross-
section varying with the size of the void to be filled. The blocks are wrapped in wax
paper, a sufficient number of blocks for one joint being packed in a carton.
Application consists of placing the blocks of plastic (without removing the wax
paper) on the back surfaces of the splice bars as they lie face downward at their point
of application to the rail. The splice bars are then revolved quickly into place. The
action of bolt tightening or pulling the bars into position causes the plastic to be squeezed
or forced into all parts of the void.
Fig. 3. — Lever For Applying Splice Bars Over Plastic Blocks.
With rail sections having large void areas between the splice bars and the rail and
requiring correspondingly heavier plastic blocks, it is often difficult or impossible to
force the splice bars far enough into position by hand to apply the nut to the track
bolts. Hooks or levers for pulling the bars into position for bolt application have been
devised by some roads. A typical device for this purpose is shown in Fig. 3.
Power Operated Sprayers
For an extensive oiling program power operated sprayers are advisable. This type of
equipment employs mechanically operated pumps for forcing the preservative through
spray nozzles under high pressure.
180 Maintenance of Way Work Equipment
The equipment used falls into three general classifications:
(a) Small power sprayers hauled by motor cars
(b) Gasoline powered self propelled units
(c) Large spray cars handled by work train
(a) One railroad has developed a small car, hauled by a track motor car, primarily
designed for automatically spraying the external surfaces of rail joints.
The unit, about the size of a regular track push car, carries two standard 5S-gal.
drums of preservative, together with a single cylinder air-cooled gasohne engine driving
a small centrifugal pump for applying the preservative under approximately 70 lb. pres-
sure. Before spraying operations begin, the oil is heated by pumping it through a
manifold surrounding the motor exhaust line. Oil enters the manifold at the engine end,
passes along the exhaust line for a distance of about four feet and is discharged back
into the drum. Approximately IS to 20 min. are required to adequately heat a SS-gal.
drum of preservative.
During spraying operations valves controlling the flow of oil to the spray nozzles
are automatically opened as "kick rods" come in contact with the splice bars and close
as soon as the contact is released. The machine is equipped with an arrangement to
by-pass the oil back into the drum when spray valves are closed.
Obviously, it is feasible to use the unit for continuous spraying by simply removing
the devices used for automatically opening and closing the valve in the supply line, or
by arranging to hold the valves open for as long a period as desired.
(b) There is available through a manufacturer a self-propelled track oiler of rather
large capacity designed to accomplish all of the oiling on track or roadway. The machine
consisting of two units, the track oiler and the trailer tank car, is powered with a 72-hp.
gasohne motor for propulsion and the operation of all the mechanical equipment, such
as air pump, oil pumps, etc.
This appliance will automatically oil rail joints at a speed of 8 to 12 miles per hour,
the entire rail and the fastenings at from IS to 20 miles per hour and the roadbed at a
rate of 6 to 8 miles per hour. The spray car is equipped with two auxiliary hand spray
lines for use in oiling switches, frogs and other appurtenances within 2S ft. of the machine.
The oil is heated by the motor exhaust in the course of its flow from the supply
tanks to the spray nozzles and is applied to the track under high pressure. The oiler and
trailer tank have a total capacity of approximately 3,000 gal., and this supply can be
replenished from railway tank cars by means of a power-operated pump in about 30 min.
(c) For extensive track oiling some roads have developed large spray cars designed
exclusively for train operation. These consist essentially of a box car in which there is
mounted a rotary pump having a capacity of 200 gal. per min., with a 4-in. intake and
a 3-in. discharge, driven by a 20-hp. gasoline engine. The car is piped to permit pumping
oil direct from the tank cars in which it is received through a flexible hose suction line
between the oil car and the tank car. On the suction side of the pump there is a valve
by which the intake of oil can be controlled so as to maintain a fixed pressure of about
45 lb. in the discharge line. There is also a strainer installed in the suction line to prevent
anything from getting into the pump that might injure or clog it. Both pump and
strainer are steam jacketed.
The discharge line from the pump delivers the oil to oihng heads at the end of the
car. There is an oiling head over each rail, each head having spray nozzles on each side
of the rail so arranged that they can be adjusted to fit the rail and fastenings to be oiled.
The spray nozzles for one rail are mounted on the body of a quick-acting valve, the
stem of which is secured in a fixed position on the bracket supporting the oiling head.
By means of a lever just inside the car, both oiling heads at that end of the car can be
Maintenance of Way Work Equipment
181
Fig. 4. — Rail Joint Spray Car — Nozzle in Spraying Position.
Fig. S.— Self-1'iopelled Rail Oiling Car.
182
Maintenance of Way Work Equipment
Fig. 6. — Train-Operated Rail Oiling Car.
raised so that the spray nozzles, which in operation extend somewhat below the top of
the rail, will clear such obstructions as crossing plank or turnout rails. When the heads,
including the valve bodies, are so raised against the fixed position of the stems, the
valves are automatically closed.
As the flow of oil is cut off in this way, it is necessary to have a relief by-pass at
the pump. Other accessories at the pump are a pressure gage in the discharge line to
facilitate the maintenance of the desired pressure, and a thermometer to indicate the
temperature of the oil.
The steam piping in the car supplies steam for maintaining proper temperature at
the pump and strainer, and is arranged also for blowing out the discharge lines and
oiling heads with steam at the end of the run. It is desirable to apply the oil at a
temperature of about 175 deg. F. To this end, oil must be received in tank cars having
steam heating coils in good condition.
In use, the oiling car is pushed ahead of the work train, with the oiling end for-
ward. This permits the operator to see obstructions requiring the oiling heads to be
raised. The consist of the train back of the oiling car includes one or two tanks of oil
under heat, an engine with steam connection on the front end, other tank cars of oil, if
any, and finally, the caboose. In operation, a considerable amount of oil vapor will
collect on the oiling car and other equipment in the train and finally on the rails. It is
necessary, therefore, that the oiling car be equipped with sanders in good condition and
sand hoppers of 100 to 200-cu. ft. capacity.
The car is operated at about 20 miles per hour, and at this speed it is not prac-
ticable to stop to oil switches and frogs, and turnout rails and fixtures.
Maintenance of Way Work Equipment 183
Several roads have used equipment as described above very successfully, although
work-train service is required ; the work is done with such speed that the total cost is
comparatively low, often running less than $3 per mile. It has the additional advantage
that the oil is applied hot and therefore penetrates the rust and seals better than cold oil.
Also, as the oil is taken directly from the tank car, there is no loss of time transferring
the load, as is the case of rail oilers having a tank built into the car. In operation, only
two men, other than the train crew, are required, namely, the operator, who is stationed
at the oiling end and raises the oiUng heads when necessary, and a helper who sees that
the pump is operating properly and that pressure and temperature are correct.
Tie-tamping air compressors equipped with hose and spray nozzles are often used
for spraying facilities that are either too extensive to be sprayed economically with hand
operated appliances, or consume too much time to be economically handled with train
operated spray cars. Typical of such facilities are turnouts and crossovers at interlocking
plants.
When using compressed air a vacuum type nozzle may be employed. A vacuum
nozzle using a relatively large volume of air has the advantage of blowing the metal
free of dirt and scale as well as coating it with preservative. However, its disadvantage
lies in the fact that a short suction hose must be used and consequently the oil container
must be frequently moved as the work progresses.
Direct pneumatic pressure may be applied to the preservative oil container and an
ordinary spray nozzle used in place of the vacuum type. By using this method it is
possible to force the oil a considerable distance and thus it is feasible to mount the
container on the compressor and obtain the advantage of heating the preservative with
the motor exhaust.
The intent of this report as defined by its title is solely to describe devices used or
available for applying metal preservatives to rail and fastenings. Therefore, the economic
value of any device or method has not been discussed.
Your committee presents this report as information and recommends that the subject
be discontinued.
Report on Assignment 6
Methods of Keeping Data on Work Equipment
N. W. Hutchison (chairman, subcommittee), C. R. Edwards, G. J. Ermentrout, C. E.
Herth, W. G. Kemmerer, R. W. Marye, E. L. Mead, C. H. Morse.
Every railroad that invests in work equipment expects at least a normal return on
the money invested; otherwise it would be illogical to make the expenditure. The ulti-
mate objective, however, is to secure the maximum return, which can only be determined
where reliable data are available relative to the operating and financial costs of the work
equipment purchased.
Although data relative to the ownership, operation, and maintenance of work
equipment are not vitally essential, they are highly desirable for the following purposes:
1. To determine the rate of return on the investment
2. To compare the cost of machine work with work done manually or by other
machines
3. To permit proper coordination of work programs with the work equipment
schedule
4. To forecast maintenance allowances necessary for machine work
184 Maintenance of Way Work Equipment
5. To control, within limits, the operating and repair costs of work equipment
6. To provide information promptly regarding the location and condition of each
machine
7. To permit intelligent supervision of work equipment
8. To provide a basis on which to predicate future purchases of similar equipment
Data of any description are valueless unless accurate, and their collection should be
effectively supervised. Too much detail adds "paper work" to the duties of the foremen
and machine operators and defeats its own purpose. In specific cases test data only may
be sufficient, but where complete operating and repair costs are desirable, data should be
collected and recorded for the entire life of a unit of equipment.
To your committee was assigned the task of studying various methods of keeping
data on work equipment. Studies conducted clearly indicate that there are not now, nor
can there be, from a practical standpoint, standardized methods of keeping such data.
However, standardization of forms for the purpose is considered practical and desirable,
which forms can be utilized as necessary. Your committee has, therefore, designed forms
for collecting and recording work equipment data, which represent a cross-section of the
forms in use on various railroads that have heavy investments in work equipment.
The forms, shown on following pages with illustrative data, are classified and used
as follows:
1. Ownership, Location and Condition
Form A — Report of Inspection of New Work Equipment
Upon receipt of a new unit of work equipment it should be inspected for
visible defects, the data inserted on Form A and the form forwarded to the
supervisor of work equipment, who shall assign a railroad number to the
equipment.
Form B-1 — Record of Work Equipment
Data for the upper portion of this form are taken from Form A, from in-
voices and from other available sources, and when inserted on the form,
serve as a permanent record. The form should be made of stiff cardboard and
kept in a file drawer, grouped with cards for other equipment of the same type.
Data for the lower half of this form are supplied by Form C.
Form C — Report of Transfers of Work Equipment
This form should be filled out and forwarded to the supervisor of work
equipment each time a machine is transferred to or from a division.
Form D — Report of Failure of Work Equipment
This form should be submitted to the division engineer immediately, when a
unit of work equipment breaks down.
Form E — Work Equipment Inspection Report
This form should be forwarded to the supervisor of work equipment imme-
diately following a regular or emergency inspection of any unit of work
equipment.
Form F — Report of Location of Work Equipment
These data should be submitted to the supervisor of work equipment peri-
odically by the division engineer covering all equipment on his territory.
Form G— Report of Work Equipment Used for AFE Work
Data on this form should be forwarded at the end of each month or at the
conclusion of an AFE project to the supervisor of work equipment by the
engineer or foreman in charge of the work.
Text continued on page 194
M a intena n c e of W ay Work Equipment
185
The North and South Railroad
Report of Inspection of New Work Equipment
item of equipment
Manufacturer /S^-..^ ^^ ^
C4}M<jl^ ^^-t^^-^^V
TYPE-<^i^^^j:^ Model.
manufacturer of boiler
Size of boiler
Size.
_ mfrs. serial no..
7X& WnCHT
Boiler no
ii^ezz
Manufacturer of engine or motor
Engine or motor serial no. -^z^- /439z
model of engine or motor /2-/&-Ai^^
No. OF CYLiNDERS__£_^_ Cycles
Amps K.v.A. Rating
Other information
KIND OF boiler.
A
.SIZE OF engine OR MOTOR-
-Type of engine or motor.
: R.P.M. &50 volts
h.p.
Capacity.
Date inspected.
.CONDITION WHEN INSPECTED
List below defects if any:
ASSIGNED to jZ"^ -^^ ^*.ti^ -gU^^^ pyj in SERVICE ON -^"-^ ^ 19 =
AT_-:SL^L££2 R.R. NUMBER ASSIGNED AC-/ZS
~^ NAME a TITLE
FORM A— SIZE e'/,Xir
186
Maintenance of Way Work Equipment
a'
'^
^
V
Z
"^l
*
V
*^
C
o
^
z
en
X
o
Z
\
!5
o
bJ
<
bJ
'J
V
nr
U
a:
"^
2
a
u
^^
a
X
<
>
UJ
<
-1
o.
O
CE
^
W
bJ
z
bJ
CC
(r
O
IE
bJ
O;
oc
>-
U
2
r
O
' z
>
bi r,
z
-
O
m
O
a
bJ
c
bJ
bJ
<
a
o
i
u
u.
UJ °-
1- (T
en
UJ
1/1
<
z
bJ
»-
4
o
u
«
<
a.
o
1-
<
o
a.
_j
Z
Z
<
z
Ul
Q
<
H
»-
X
(9
li
a
111
z
o
s §
X ^^
Q
1
^
<n
UI
c
UJ
0.
bl
Ol
>■
1-
K
UJ
_J
<
2
*
X ^
^
2
<
o
(!)
z
o
1-
3
o
UJ
^
bJ
O
O
2
s
IE
b.
o
^
UJ ;
■i
</)
bJ
{/)
cr
o
O
O
OC
^
S iJ
!:
b.
o
z
<
X
-3
K
u
N
0.
0.
a.
o
z
o
>
Z
<
K
1-
z
o
en
1
1
1
o
Z
tu
O
O
UJ
1
(0
«
o
- _1
<
bJ
</
(£
UJ
a
z
O
z
a:
1^
<
bJ
cr.
i
■
I
i
UJ
o "'
~
_i
t
\-
e
3 1
■< o
3
bJ
z
o
in «5
o
u.
o
o
m
«;
4
^
UJ
Sv
Os
lU
K
=>
1-
Kj
b. a.
O bi
<
^
6
z
<
a
^
1
J
O
<
ti.
o o
!i
z
<
2
J
bJ
O
z
o
i
>*•
1
i
•1
1^
O
i
^
^
o
1-
o
2
UJ
_i
o
>-
o
z
o
o
J
Si
M
4
UJ
b.
O
bJ
<
^1
O
Z
.^
0. bJ
^ o <n
0.
o ^
le b.
X
_j
o
m
b.
O
(E
O
b.
Z
a
o
IE
b.
J
1
s
<
bJ
■ c
b. bl
? bJ
bJ
IE
bl
'^
\
E
a.
-1 »
K iC
UJ
^
X
^
liJ
V
bJ o
(0 <
N
<
1-
v^^^
H
<n
1-
M a.
U 2
Vi
2
O
^ ^
' 1
Maintenance of Way Work Equipment
187
The North and South Railroad
Report of Transfers of Work Equipment
ITEM of
EQUIPMENT
R.R
NO
MFRS.
SERNO
ENG.
NO.
RECEIVED
FROM
DATE
RECD.
SHIPPED
TO
DATE
SHIPPED
^X^ J^.-y.-y (^^nt*a^-
4/^-/i}K
.^VAj^-g/ui^ tiXC^
///Z?/?f
Purpose of tramsffw .^a«^/4>~- ^z^^a^^"^^ "'»*'^
AUTHORITY FOR Tbansffb Ji.^.^^'^^^c^ y ^O-^fU^...^ y zh.^ ^^..^^.,,^,^
SIGNED^ TITLE '^^^ -^V"
FORM c-sizE eikxn
The North and South Railroad
Report of Failure of Work Equipment
D*TF S/m/3? I OCATIQM ^&'^f4^ DATE a TIME FAILED •^^^- 7-^^-''^
ITEM OF pqiiipufmt -^ :^a...^^^ <a..y<^^..M^ PR Mft ac-^^s
Cause of failure ■'^'^-^^ ^^-^^ /^^^-^
Estimated time Will Be out of Service.
^ /'ti-fc^-4.-*'
action Taken to Return it to Service •^"-*"'^-^^ -121;
if now back in Service show day a Hour returned to service -f,^^--^^/'^
SIGNED 7 -^^^-y ^^-^ ^W^-^
Operator or mechanic
form d- Size 9X6
188
Maintenance of Way Work Equipment
z
Ul
^
O
K
ffi
^
^
1
Ul
0
z
K
O
o
\
^
4
z
(k
o
a.
o: ^
2;
O
u i
Z
» i
oc
^
o
K
3
.u
^
8
u
2
c
I
UJ
z
o
z
1
UJ
O
o
o
o
\
\
\
\
t-
UJ
* <
^""^
^^~
~^^
"^~
<
o
o
0.
Si
z
o
0) U
<
X
Ul
h- 0- <
dC
_l
q:
s
O Ul _J
o
<
or
z
«
ul _l
g;5 -
o
Ul
i
5
■n:
UJ
a.
o
4
z m o
t-
o
I
l-
v> it "^
z
i
o
O
o
bJ
0.
<n
z
UJ
<
O
DC
Ul
a
2
3
is
>
UJ
<
z
o
o
r
1
a
z
a.
a
Ul
z.
o
i
z
K
H
o
€
<
Z
_l
(n
fj
I
UJ
2
K UJ -^
Ul
a.
o
z
^
1-
a.
3
O
Ul
^5^^
z
<
t
O
z
«0 U,<4
Ul
z
I
2
bj
X
►-
o
Ul
<
2
a
>
5^
u
<
2
u.
O
K
O
-»
4
2
*5
s
3 N
0)
-1
f
2^
-1
<
V
4
t
«
V
1
Ul
z O
O UJ
Z X
<
a.
u.
o
Ul
o
<
2
UJ
1
1
H
1
K
Ul
O
Ui «>
= b.
2 1-
ffi
z
^
i
t- -*
z
2 " > <n
_, to UJ ^
o
o
Ul
a.
<o
z
s
O
^^
^.
UJ
a. *
= UJ
LJ if
*- <
o 2
E SERIAL Nl
OF FUEL U
of last pr
Radiator L
z
o
m
Ul
z
o
ul
1-
cn
>-
V)
z
z
o
o
z
LJ
C
o
en
in
Ul
c
a 1
— ^ E UJ UJ Ul
0.
s
o
Z
3
o
o
a:
m
3
0.
2
o
n z UJ 1- o o
o
o
o
-J
o
a £
Maintenance of Way Work E q u i p m e n t
189
m
"1
f"
1L
'^1
<
ffi
Z
UJ
a:
^
V
2
^
_|Z
< o
£E
z o
1
a
UJ
2
:i
1
<
o
a:
Q.
3
o
z
UJ z
o
'^
a:
Ul
bJ
_i
O
z
<
a:
o
z
UJ
o:
•
I
1-
o
^
o .
< O Ul
o
3
O
01
Li.
o
^
o: z _i
o 2 o
•" a: —
<rt Ok
-3
J
in
>
z
z
o
o
u.
^*°
'-"•
^.
<
K
I
o
1-
o
(C
_l
o
Z
u.
o
z
o
LU
t-
I
oc
l-
o
a.
UJ
o
o
_l
1
]
«i
a:.©
(TZ
'\
V
1-
^
z
^
UJ
z
,
^~
a.
;
3
>l
O
UJ
u.
o
r
z
o
z
UJ
t-
1
1
o
m
^
M
,
'
o
^^i
■^
Ov
■"
tn
0>
(A
'^^
^
<
4
2
Ul
1^
o
r
^
!«
(r
o
o
z
UJ
1
III
o
o
5
^
i
<
<
Ul
a.
v^
o
ac
o
f
_l
o
t^
<
U.
>
a:
I
UJ
w
=3
t o2
O Oo
o ir!ij
Z Ul -C
\
o
3
O
t-
z
ujaii
z
o
C/)
UJ
Crt
O
Z
z
<
o
u.
X
UJ
o
O
a:
o
.[
z 2 o
z a=¥
.<J
Z
^
^
Ui
T
u.
o
»
00
1-
o
Q.
UJ
1
o ^g
6 oi"
^
<)
^
1
ZX3
fe coo
O >. UJ
6 < f
5
•^6
^
f
15^
*\
tr 6
S
.
4
orz
H
o
z
Ul
Z
1
$
3
u.
O
o
UJ
\
]
z
o
u.
O
H
a
r
Ul
o
_J
H
i
190 Maintenance of Way Work Equipment
The North and South Railroad
Recommendation for Retirement of Work Equipment
ITEM OF EQUIPMENT ^«^ ^^^^ RRNO. ^^"^^^ DATE ^^ "^ \9.Ef-
UkttitPAr.TuttPP <^.^>>.^A^ <g>y Mfrs. serial NO.^
MAKE OF Fmci'hp /^w<^ ^C^^ A ENGINE N0.-Z£££££_B0ILER NO..
THIS MACHINE WAS RECEIVED f>M ^^ ^ \9>^ FROM 7C^ ^--^ DiviaiOM
FOR REPAIRS, COVERED BY REQUISITION NUMBER -Zl^f£2£_lT IS ESTIMATED THAT THE
REPAIRS WILL COSTjlfflff IF DISMANTLED. IT IS ESTIMATED THAT THE CHARGE
FOR DISMANTLING WILL BeJL£1££ ^ThE VALUE OF THE SECOND HAND PARTS
Will BEiliLf£_ and the value of the Scrap Parts Will be * 'cc<,
SHOP Supr J/ ^i^3<*<^
THIS machine was Purchasfp J-^ "^ 19 z^ ON A.F.E. NUMBER _^f£±lf__.
Requisition Number _£_f^___ at a cost of_£!^££
DURING THE_ZL_YEARS IT HAS BEEN IN SERVICE IT WAS USED FOR AN AVERAGE OF
//y n^v^ PER YEAR.-5_H0URS PER DAY, AT A TOTAL OPERATING COST TO DATE
OP tiz4^sAtz itir.i iiniMB Fuel. Lubrication, and Repairs.
REMARKS
It is My Recommendation That this machine BE_^f±i£.
supervisor of work Equipment.
a /^ 5i«-,
form H-SIZE 8)^X11
Maintenance of Way Wo rk Equipment
19!
The North and South Railroad
Daily Report of Operation of Work. Equipment
DivisiON_*ii^iri£i.
<;iiR-nivN gt^'-'g^ hatf V7 i9^rr machine NO._£^ii££_
KIND OF Utr.HiMF S^ ^"t^^ "^ KINO OF WORK -^"y-f
Machine working _«_hrs.:££Mins;Idle_^^HRs.z£Mins. Reason idle.
..2\.f^C,^ ^jlJmyif
. Programmed '^!^£_
A. DELAYS
weather,
traffic _
Repairs -
MovlN6_
Other.
Total Delays.
Number of Tools with OuTFiT_fi_
B. Production
LOCATION
working /izc FFFT E.W.N. OR S. OF MP i^fZ
WORKING ON TRACK Na
Working Between Tracks No and.
WORKING Border along track no.
Capacity of UNiT_£ilr±_
Work in detail
Quantity
Units
Work in detail
Quantity
Units
C. Labor (exclusive of repairs)
Repairs
NO. I Time Total
Occupation Rate men str.|Pro.|Pun.earneo
OCCUPATION
Rate
No.
MEN
TIME
STR PRO.
Pun
TOTAL
EARNED
tC^iU^A^^^
D. Work Train (Move a service equipment)
TRAIN
foreman
Laborers
Other
.Hours »» per hr. ■
zz^ Z-
truck
Time Called.
.Time Released.
. Supplies
2Z.6ALS. Gas (?«_^:g_PER Gal.-»_
.^^.Qts. Oil €'»_£2_Per Qt. ■•_
.jLLbs. Grease <?»_££. per lb. ••_
lbs. Grease ®« " " «».
GALS. Fuel Oil® » per gal. =«.
Tons Coal «> » per ton »«.
«8 Per =•.
^» PER »».
F REPAIR PARTS
PIECES
DESCRIPTION OF PART CAT NO COST
-^
^e
G. SUMMARY OF OPERATING COST
ITEM C- LABOR OPERATING
" "-LABOR Repairs
Item d-work train
ITEM E- Supplies
ITEM F- REPAIR PARTS
TOTAL COST OF OPERATION
CONDITION OF THE MACHINE AT THE CLOSE OF THE DAY'S WORK.
DATE REPAIR PARTS ORDERED 19
MACHINE FORWARDED TO SUPERVISOR AT
^#^«^
MACHINE RECEIVED BY SUPERVISOR.
REMARKS *
.DATE.
.DATE.
.I9_
.19-
SIGNED .^"^^
NAME a TITLE
FORM I -SIZE eW'xir
192
Maintenance of Way Work Equipment
.
_.,,.
m
«
oe
K
<
<
Z
b,
>-
(E
J
u in 0)
5,
- & ^
S
\
t-
Z
o
Z
1^=^
>
fl
^
1
^
t-
z
1- °
^ UJ
z or>
UJ
3 3
UJ
2
H
z
3
ai
z
UJ
<
o
UJ
2
ii
5
\
z
o
>
,
O
o
<
a:
VI
I
O
Z
o
z (ri
v^
o
2X
(0
!5
c
lij
^
z
a.
<
O
§
J
X
b.
^
1-
O
o
t
o
o
z
i
Z
O
a.
^
^^
X
cr
; eo >
J-
O -I Js
>
Vl
X
f %^
^■
1-
W Z
\
z
o
e_.
,
s
£5
'^
<n o u
^S5
$:
oo -J
§i|
w
►^ "* 9
&
1
o c i)j
a: 6
•J
^^
kz
5.
]
4
>,
X
o
<
i
1
z
ii.
t
c
"1
«
iij
^\
>
s
>■
^
>-
1
3 o»>
UJ zte
SJ
^
<n
I o:
CO
-1
<
3
V
^
<
1
N
<
^
u.
o
a:
UJ
o
0)
2
^
z
o
h-
o
~y
z
tu
llJ
2
o
i
^
3
o
<
1
1{^
^4
^
<
o
O
UJ
V
K
UJ
a:
UJ
_i
K
^
z
<
O
•)
tt
^
ffi
J
UJ
X
^
z
1-
o
o
><•
3
O
H
oe
o
<
2
at
>
cn
V)
CO
1
O
a
<
<
z
<
D.
UJ
rr
UJ
IT
i-
^
X
~^
a
o
Z
a
bJ
til
^s
Hi
X
b.
O
^1
g2
V-
a.
o
Q.
£^
UJ
< UJ
ir
Ul 4
."5
V
KZ
.V
•<.
\
o:©
V
q:z
?^
1
^
>
z
UJ
4
o.
o
UJ
1
z
o
u.
o
z
r
1
>
UJ
\
Maintenance of Way Work Eg u i p m e n t
193
194 Maintenance of Way Work Equipment
Form H — Recommendation for Retirement of Work Equipment
Following a complete inspection by the shop superintendent or road mechanic,
this form should be forwarded to the supervisor of work equipment who sup-
plies additional information with his recommendation and forwards the com-
pleted form to his superior.
2. Cost of Operating and Maintaining Work Equipment
Form I — Daily Report of Operation of Work Equipment
This form should be forwarded daily by the machine operator or foreman to
the supervisor of work equipment, with a copy to the supervisor of track and
the division engineer.
Form J — Monthly Report of Operation of Work Equipment
This form should be prepared monthly by the division engineer, from data
supplied on Form I and forwarded to the supervisor of work equipment.
Form K — Report of Field Repairs to Work Equipment
Data on this form should be supplied by the road mechanic or division engi-
neer and forwarded to the supervisor of work equipment.
Form L — Report of Shop Repairs to Work Equipment
Data on this form should be furnished by the shop superintendent and for-
warded to the supervisor of work equipment.
Form B-2 — Service Record
This form is the reverse side of Form B-1 and on it should be posted data
supplied on Forms G, I or J, K and L.
No forms have been designed nor are any illustrations submitted in this report to
indicate the manner in which final data are submitted to the management. It is felt
that, with all the data at his command, the supervisor of work equipment or other
responsible officer should be in a position to furnish any information desired by the
management.
The report is presented as information with the recommendation that the subject
be discontinued.
Report on Assignment 7
Report on Pneumatic Tired Tractor Equipment
R. M. Leeds (chairman, subcommittee), Edgar Bennett, C. E. Herth, F. H. McKenney,
C. E. Morgan, A. J. Neff, T. M. Pittman, F. H. Rothe.
The committee finds the use of pneumatic tired tractor equipment by farmers, con-
tractors, state and county highway departments has increased greatly during recent
years. This is also true of railroads, but to a lesser degree. The failure of the railways to
make use of more pneumatic mounted equipment has been due to the fact that equip-
ment of a character suitable for railroad service, has not been available. One reason
for the trend from the steel tired equipment, as well as from the crawler-mounted
tractors, is no doubt the increased mileage of paved highways over which such equip-
ment is moved, it being possible to operate pneumatic tired equipment much more
quickly from one point to another with less damage to the highways, and to the equip-
Maintenance of Way Work Equipment
195
Portable Generator Mounted on Pneumatic Tires.
Power-Operated Mowing Machine Mounted on
Pneumatic Tires.
1
^-^,.
-- -J^^'-.'
1
Q
i
■" ^^ "
."<? ■■ !■■■
^
M:.-^. :#W^^^
'" ... ^
1
Small Wheel Tractor With Trailers Used by Purchases and Stores Department.
196
Maintenance of Way Work Equipment
Pneumatic Tired Tractor Mowing Machine.
ment so handled. This applies to railroads in moving such equipment as truck-mounted
cranes and welding outfits, mowing machines and tractors from one job to another
quickly on adjacent highways, thus saving delays in loading, unloading, and delays to
rolling stock and trains when making such moves.
Another inducement accountable for the increased use of pneumatic tired tractor
equipment is the lower cost and better quality of pneumatic tires now available. Other
reasons for this transition are lower first cost, lighter weight and portability. Such
machines, especially those formerly operated on the rails, were not capable of as ex-
tensive and diversified use as the pneumatic tired machines, as their usefulness was
confined to the distances they could reach from the track. Delays caused by traffic were
also encountered by this type of equipment.
Auto Railer — Traction is Obtained Through Friction of Pneumatic Tires on Rails.
Maintenance of Way Work Equipment
Pneumatic Tired Diesel-Powered Tractor With Road Grader.
Portable Pneumatic Tired Utility Grinder.
Auto Railer in Position for Offtrack Operation.
198
Maintenance of Way Work Equipment
As compared with similar crawler-mounted equipment, the pneumatic tired equip-
ment has the advantages, as stated, of lower cost per rated horsepower, lighter weight
and greater portability in moving, but they have the disadvantage of having less tractive
power.
Other items of pneumatic tired equipment not classified as tractors are being used
to advantage by railroads, mostly because they are more portable and easier to handle,
thus effecting savings in time. These include rail grinders, compressors, generators, welding
outfits, wheel scrapers, carryalls, lawn mowers and wheelbarrows. Others, such as trail-
%
^
m
^
\j . .
wy
1
1 x^^^iuHi
__^J^
Crane Mounted on Pneumatic Tired Truck Frame.
ers, lift trucks and small cranes used around store rooms, freight houses and round-
houses, not only save time in handling, but also eliminate to a large extent the wear
on platforms and floors and reduce damage to lading carried by them.
While pneumatic tired equipment is being used advantageously by the railroads
to a limited extent, it is the consensus of your committee that cooperation between the
railroads and the manufacturers in developing units suitable for railroad service will
largely increase the use of such equipment.
This report is submitted as information with the recommendation that the subject
be continued.
Maintenance of Way Work Equipment
199
Report on Assignment 8
Impact Wrenches
R. A. Morrison (chairman, subcommittee), G. J. Ermentrout, R. K. Johnson, W. G.
Kemmerer, Jack Largent, E. H. Mills, P. G. Petri, J. C. Ryan, Roy Wade.
An impact wrench is a tool in which the twisting strain exerted in turning bolts,
nuts, screw taps, etc., is applied in a rapid series of instantaneous blows. Compressed air
furnishes the power in the two wrenches of this type on the market at the present time.
In one type, the impact wrench consists of a "Multi Vane" air motor, cam, hammer
spring, hammer anvil (enclosed in hammer case), and chuck, or socket. The specially
designed cam converts air motor torque into rotary impacts by action on the hammer
spring. These rotary or torsional impacts occur at the rate of 1,200 or more per minute.
Impacting begins when resistance to turning reaches a value determined by the strength
of the spring and continues until the air is shuti off or the torque required to turn the
nut falls below this point.
C/9»7 ^o<.<.f «<S
^
\\W^
^^
Ong^/ece iy/»AfA9<vc
Spring and Cam Type Impact Unit.
Htttj
In the second type — called Power Vane wrenches — there are no springs, gears, or
resilient member in their construction. The impactive effort is built up through a pair
of fly weights, similar in operation to a fly-ball governor, except that rotation is
interrupted each half revolution, at which point the impact is delivered to the socket
through a shank. A slow speed rotor motor is used.
Reversible (applying and removing) and non-reversible (applying only) models can
be purchased. Various models for maintenance of way work have an overall length of
l(>% in. to 19% in., weighing 13 to 27i^ lb., and handle bolts, nuts, etc., ^ to 1% in. in
size. However, larger and heavier models are made and used by the mechanical depart-
ments of railroads ia their boiler and car repair work. On the maintenance of way
models 90-lb. air pressure is used at average working speeds, and 40 cu. ft. of air is
consumed per minute.
200
Maintenance of Way Work Equipment
C<.c/7"C^/ iS^^^y^^
^^P
Power Vane Wrench.
These hammers are being used for nut running for fitting up operations on steel
structures, on cover-plate jobs, the dismantling and assembling of frogs and switches,
driving screw spikes, and track bolting.
The low torque reaction (recoil) on the operator reduces scaffold requirements and
makes it possible to use these wrenches safely at overhead or arms-length operations.
However, care must be' exercised to avoid overstressing, as the only safeguard is the
judgment and skill of the operator as to the amount of twisting strain exerted.
This report is submitted as information. It is recommended that the subject be
discontinued.
Report on Assignment 9-b
Arc Welding Equipment
Collaborating with Committee 5 — Track, and with
Electrical Section, Engineering Division
C. E. Morgan (chairman, subcommittee), C. M. Angel, R. M. Baldock, C. L. Fero, L. B.
Holt, C. H. R. Howe, R. K. Johnson, E. H. Ness, J. C. Ryan, R. R. Smith.
The report on arc welding will be confined to the mounting of machines for main-
tenance work. Because of interest in the manner in which arc-welding machines may be
adapted to suit the users' purpose, illustrations of each of many types in use today are
presented in the hope that they may help someone to solve his particular problems.
Fig. 1 shows a unit with standard skid-mounted track wheels with an adapted
undercarriage of motor car axle, wheel, and bearing assembly and with transverse
wheels to move the machine in a horizontal plane out to the side of track where the
unit comes to rest on its adjustable-leg stand at proper track clearance. It can be used
on or off the track depending on frequency of traffic. One advantage is the ease with
which the unit may be moved by towing it with a motor car. Some such units have
been made self propelling.
Maintenance of Way Work Equipment
201
Fig. 1.— Skid-Mounted Track Wheels.
Fig. 2.— Truck-Mounted Power Take-off.
Fig. 3. —Pneumatic Tire
Wheel Mounted.
202
Maintenance of Way Work Equipment
Fig. 4. — Track-Mounted Power Unit.
Fig. S. — Track-Mounted Power Unit, Removed from Track.
Fig. 2 shows a truck-mounted power take-off. These units make use of the truck
engine for power, through a "V" belt drive and a power take-off hooked up from the
transmission or drive shaft. They are used for crossing and frog work and offer the
welder a means for hauling his grinding machine, welding rods and other materials from
one job to another independent of train service. This type of unit, with panel sides or
wire mesh sides, enables the welder to keep all his equipment locked up and ready to go.
Truck units are used in terminal service or where considerable work is concentrated in a
small area.
Standard engine-driven skid units mounted on pneumatic tires, like the one shown
in Fig. 3, are used where it is possible to pull a machine around in a yard for frog or
crossing work. These units are also used on steel structures such as bridges or buildings.
They are widely used by welding shops, contractors and other industries outside of the
railroad group.
Maintenance of Way Work E q u i p m e n t
203
R»^S|^^^^
Fig. 6. — Combination
Pneumatic Tired Unit Set
on Underslung Push Car.
Fig. 7. — Underslung
Push Car.
Fig. 8. — Side View of Special Crawler.
Fig. y. — End View.
Figures 4 and S illustrate another type of track-mounted machine with take-off.
This unit moves on the rails with flanged wheels and has a device for removing it from
the track. The welder is pushed horizontally from the track, leaving the undcrframe and
wheels on the track. Then, after the unit gets to the proper clearance position, the
frame with track wheels folds up against the unit itself.
204
Maintenance of Way Work E q uipm en t
Fig. 10.— Standard Tractor With One Arc.
Fig. 11.— Track-Mounted Quick Take-off.
Fig. 12.— Track-Mounted Quick Take-off Set Up on Shoulder.
Maintenance of Way Work Equipment
20S
Fig. 13.— Track-Mounted Quick Take-off Machines
For Train Passage.
Figures 6 and 7 show a combination pneumatic tired unit and track-mounted under-
slung push car. This unit has the added flexibility of being readily moved about in
yards or at a crossing, out on a highway, on city streets, or along the shoulder off the
rails, and can also be readily moved on the rails by being towed by a motor car after
it is loaded on its underslung carriage.
Figures 8 and 9 show crawler-mounted self-propelled units. Some machines are in
use where traffic is dense and the units must be kept off the track at all times. These
units have one or two arcs.
Standard tractors of the crawler type are sometimes used with one or two welding
generators mounted on them, as illustrated in Fig. 10. They can be kept off the track
except when crossing bridges or trestles.
Figures 11, 12 and 13 illustrate a track-mounted machine with a quick take-off
device. These units are mounted on an underslung track-mounted carriage. They rest
on large pipes out of which telescope smaller pipes, which in turn rest on still smaller
pipes forming the support for an adjustable-height, four-legged stand. These machines
are so made that the stand on which they rest when off the track is carried along with
the machine when being employed on' the track at such work as building up rail ends.
These machines can be moved from the track in two minutes, which includes the time
for setting up the stand off track at the proper height. All means of fastening are made
for quick operation, such as chains and hooks, pointed pins and holes for the legs of the
stand. These machines are used on the track for rail-end work, and off the track for
work on bridges, crossings and frogs.
Conclusions
It is contended by many that the use to which welding is put in the maintenance
work depends on the mobility of the equipment associated with it. To this end, the
mountings described have been designed for a broad field of application.
The report is submitted as information and it is recommended that the subject be
discontinued.
206
Maintenance of Way Work Equipment
Report on Assignment 11
Oif-Track Grading Equipment
A. J. Neff (chairman, subcommittee), Edgar Bennett, G. E. Boyd, J. G. Hartley, N. W.
Hutchison, R. M. Leeds, T. M. Pittman, F. H. Rothe, F. F. Zavatkay.
The present tendency of railroads to replace expensive on-track equipment with the
latest off-track machines indicates that great advantages are being found in the use of
crawler machines. Questionnaires sent to IS railroads revealed that the following off-
track equipment had been purchased or was being given serious consideration: 20 Bull-
dozers; 9 bullgraders (trailbuilders) ; 9 crawler-mounted loaders with bulldozer blades;
7 crawler-mounted loaders without bulldozer blades; 3 scrapers or carryalls (wheel-
mounted); 5 scrapers or carryalls (not wheel-mounted); 35 shovels; 66 draglines; and
18 combination dragline-shovels.
Bulldozers and Bullgraders (Trailbuilders)
As bulldozers, angledozers, bullgraders, and trailbuilders are merely trade names
used by all manufacturers of this type of equipment, very little difference in general
design of the machines is encountered. The bulldozer has a large, shghtly curved rigid
blade; the angledozer has a similar type of blade, the difference being that it can be
angled to throw material to either side, which is one of the features of the trailbuilder.
These machines are operated either by hydraulic or cable control. Cable-operated blades
Hydraulic Operated Trailbuilder on Crawler-
Mounted Tractor.
can only be lifted up and must depend on their own weight to force themselves into the
material, while hydraulic-operated blades exert both up and down pressure. Bulldozers
or angledozers are generally used in leveling off or spreading loose materials.
The trailbuilder and bullgrader, which are identical, have a smaller curved blade
with heavy cutting shoes. These blades can be angled to throw material to either side
or to cut more on one side than on the other, and are used in harder materials. They
are usually operated by hydraulic control, which gives them both up and down pressure.
These machines, being very flexible units, are capable of performing a wide variety
of off-track work, such as bank widening, cutting drainage ditches, riprapping, eliminat-
ing banks for drainage or vision purposes, filling small bridges, shifting tracks, grading
Maintenance of Way Work Equipment
207
for team tracks, cleaning up stock coal storage piles, dismantling branch lines, leveling
off rubbish at dumps, plowing snow, clearing snow and rock slides, spreading cinders and
ballast, etc. It is the consensus that machines of this type are invaluable in railroad
work, and the savings effected through their use, in many cases, have paid for the
original investment during the first few months they were used. The fact that most of
the railroads report this type of machine in service 100 percent of their available time is
indicative of their adaptability.
Crawler-mounted Front-End Loaders
This type of machine is mounted on a 35 or 40-hp. crawler tractor and has either a
5^ or ^-cu. yd. bucket mounted on the front end. There are both cable and hydraulic-
operated machines, acting on the same principle as a bulldozer, except that the bucket is
shoved into the material that is to be moved until it is full and then raised and carried
to the place where the material is to be deposited. This type of machine can also be
rjfa..
Straight Bulldozer, Cable Operated.
Cable-Operated Angledozer with Same Type of Blade as Bulldozer.
208
Maintenance of Way Work Equipment
Front-End Loader — Cable Operated 54
Cu. Yd. Bucket Mounted on 40-Hp.
Crawler Tractor.
Front-End Loader — Hydraulic Operated ^-Cu. Yd.
Bucket — Mounted on 40-Hp. Crawler.
equipped with bulldozer or angledozer blades instead of the bucket, and the change can
be made in a very short time.
These machines, equipped with buckets, have proved very successful in ditching
cuts of moderate length, and have been used with a large measure of success in restoring
embankments, widening banks, surface ditching, building roads, grading, loading trucks,
lining tracks, cleaning up coal storage piles, and plowing and loading snow, and cleaning
under bridges. The hydraulic-operated machine shown is more desirable for cleaning
under low bridges than the cable-operated machine because of the high frame on the
latter.
Certain changes might be desirable in this type of equipment, i.e., the bucket should
be as wide as the tread of the crawlers in order that successive cuts can be made in the
same ditch, each pass being progressively deeper; hydraulic-operated machines should
Maintenance of Way Work Equipment
209
Four - Wheel .,^^
Scraper — Capac- '^^
ity 20 Cu. Yd.
Two-Wheel Scraper — Capacity 4 Cu. Yd., Loading.
have a pump attached to the front of the motor; and smaller and narrower machines
should be made for cuts of very close clearance.
Scrapers or Carryalls
So few carryalls are in use on railroads that very little information is available
regarding them. Some railroads are towing small scrapers behind their crawler-mounted
loaders. Manufacturers of scrapers are offering 3 and 4-cu. yd. scrapers for 35 and 40-hp.
tractors and 6 and 8-cu. yd. scrapers for the 60 and 70-hp. machines. Scrapers are also
being built up to 4S-cu. yd. capacities. Those up to 12-cu. yd. capacity are mostly
210
Maintenance of Way Work Equipment
> Two-Wheel Scraper —
Capacity 4 Cu. Yd., Un-
loading Position.
Crawler-Mounted Shovel — ^ Cu. Yd.
operated by hydraulic action and larger machines by cable. There are two kinds of wheel
mountings: two-wheel and four-wheel. The two-wheel machine is more desirable for
several reasons; it can be operated in restricted clearances, dumps from the rear, and
since most railroads have small tractors, the smaller machines can be operated with the
tractors they now have. The four-wheel scrapers are used mostly on large dirt moving
jobs, and larger tractors are required in conjunction with their use. Due to their large
size, the four-wheel machines cannot be operated where clearance is limited; they also
must be dumped from the same end as loaded and the material cannot be dumped at one
time, requiring several feet to get rid of the load. Therefore, four-wheel scrapers are
recommended for large areas and the two-wheel machines for restricted space. It is
expected that this type of machine will be more fully utilized in the near future.
Shovels
Crawler-mounted shovels hold an important place among off-track machines. Few
of these machines, however, are purchased as straight shovels. Approximately half of the
M a i n t ena nee of Way Work Equipment
211
machines reported on are combination dragline-shovels. The shovel capacities of machines
reported on vary from % to 2 cu. yd. Smaller machines up to 54-cu. yd. capacity are
more desirable for right-of-way work. The large shovels are generally used in gravel
pits, or for securing riprap and emergency material. The use of the machines has also
proved advantageous in track work on branch lines where traffic is light and side-hill
work is involved, ditching on one side and building up shoulder on the other; and in
filling bridges; with trucks making line changes; digging ditches; excavating for build-
ings; cleaning slides, etc.
Draglines
The dragline is one of the most important off-track ditchers due to the wide variety
of work which it is capable of performing. These machines are used to advantage in
bank widening, replacing shoulders, channel changing, channel cleaning, replacing eroded
channel banks, surface ditching, ditching cuts, and loading gravel, cinders, sand, coal.
Crawler-Mounted Dragline — 1^-Cu. Yd. Bucket.
emergency material, etc. For use on the right-of-way where there are many obstructions,
machines with buckets of not over ^-cu. yd. capacity are most popular. Larger sizes,
up to 1J4-CU. yd. capacities, are used for heavier work. Some railroads are equipping
these machines with clamshell buckets and magnets and using them in scrap yards, freight
yards, and shops for handling heavy material.
Typical Applications
Some of the machines mentioned in this report are used in conjunction with each
other. On one railroad, during a slack season, it was necessary to do 14 miles of ditching
in double-track territory, most of which was side-hill work, with some work to be done
in cuts. As there was very light traffic through this territory in the daytime, and no
passenger trains, it was decided to tie up one track for ten hours and use a shovel and a
dragline on the job. The shovel was used to cast the inside material over to the outside
where the dragline was ditching, and then the dragline was used to dispose of the
material. Where the dragline could not waste the material far enough, a bulldozer was
used. The only machine fouling the track was the shovel. Therefore, a foreman and
three laborers were stationed with the machines, two men flagging, and the others as-
212 Maintenance of Way Work Equipment
sisting the shovel over the track and keeping the track clear of rocks and other material
that dropped from the shovel on the live track. These men were also used in securing
lineups and assisted in clearing up at the finish of work and when starting out at the
beginning of the day. This particular job was done at a great saving compared with
what it would have cost had on-track ditchers been used.
Another railroad had a job of track shifting to perform, and it was decided to use
a bulldozer on the job. The work was accomplished by the machine alone in one day,
while ordinarily it would have cost 100 percent more to do the work by other available
methods. This job involved leveling the fill on a dump and swinging the track over on
the leveled-off portion. The saving effected through the use of the bulldozer on this job
can readily be seen. The same railroad encountered a bridge removal job on a side track
which was to be done under traffic, involving difficulties of falsework, dismantling, filling
in, etc. A bulldozer was used to push the fill under the bridge high enough to permit
blocking, the steel was cut apart and removed, and the fill was completed in 30 days
less than the estimated time, at an appreciable saving.
Conclusion
The use of off-track grading equipment will expedite work, minimize traffic delays,
perform work that it is impossible to do with on-track equipment, and effect gratifying
returns on investment costs.
The report is presented as information and it is recommended that the subject be
discontinued.
Report of Committee 22 — Economics of Railway Labor
G. M. O'RouRKE, Chairman, F. L. Guy L. L. Adams, Vice-Chairman,
Lem Adams C. C. Haire J. M. Miller
C. W. Baldridge G. H. Harris F. R. Paisley
E. J. Bayer J. G. Hartley J. A. Parant
F. J. Bishop W. E. Heimerdinger A. E. Perlman
W. H. Brameld W. H. Hillis W. G. Powrie
E. J. Brown E. T. Howson F. S. Schwinn
H. G. Carter H. E. Kirby H. M. Stout
H. A. Cassil T. Z. Krumm R. R. Strother
J. I. Catherman D. a. Kuebler W. H. Vance
A. B. Chaney G. M. Magee J. C. Wallace
Armstrong Chinn J. B. Martin Edward Wise, Jr.
C. M. Chumley J. S. McBride W. H. Woodbury
W. E. Cornell E. H. McIlheran C. R. Wright
E. A. Craft Committee
To the American Railway Engineering Association:
Your committee reports on the following subjects:
1. Revision of Manual.
No report.
2. Analysis of operations of railways that have made marked progress in the reduc-
tion of labor required in maintenance of way work.
Progress report, embracing studies of the Central of Georgia Railway "back-to-back
fiat method" of track maintenance. Submitted as information page 214
3. The relative economy of combined vs. separate bridge and building gangs.
Final report — with recommendations for inclusion in the Manual page 217
4. Labor economies resulting from improvements in drainage practices.
Final report — submitted as information page 21Q
5. Review and revise factors previously established for equating track values for
labor distribution.
No report.
6. Labor economies possible through the use of highway motor vehicles for main-
tenance forces.
No report.
7. Added labor economies resulting from use of off-track maintenance equipment.
Final report — submitted as information page 221
8. Labor economies resulting from periodic spot welding of rail ends as compared
with less frequent out-of-face welding.
No report.
9. Labor economies to be derived from keeping vegetation out of ballast.
No report.
Special — Mechanization in Maintenance of Way Department — Testimony of Carriers
Special Committee before the Railroad Carrier Industry Committee.
Final report — submitted as information page 1 *
The Committee on Economics of Railway Labor,
G. M. O'Rourke, Chairman.
* Page number refers to page on which this report appeared in Bulletin 419 — SeptemberMDctobcr,
1940, and to the page in which it will appear in the Monograph Section of the Proceedings for 1941.
Bulletin 421, December, 1940.
213
214 Economics of Railway Labor
Report on Assignment 2
Analysis o£ Operations of Railways That Have Made Marked
Progress in the Reduction of Labor Required in
Maintenance of Way Work
H. A. Cassil (chairman, subcommittee), Lem Adams, E. J. Bayer, F. J. Bishop, E. J.
Brown, H. G. Carter, C. C. Haire, W. E. Heimerdinger, E. T. Howson, H. E. Kirby,
D. A. Kuebler, G. M. Magee, J. B. Martin, J. S. McBride, F. R. Paisley, J. A.
Parant, F. S. Schwinn, W. H. Vance.
Certain changes in methods of track maintenance that were put into effect on the
Central of Georgia Railway in 1932 have been followed by a marked reduction in the
labor required. This subcommittee has, therefore, examined the methods now in effect on
that road and submits its report on their nature, advantages and disadvantages, and
their applicability to other railroads or portions of railroads.
In order to permit the members of the committee, and particularly members of the
subcommittee, to observe conditions at first hand and talk with maintenance of way
officers and employees, a meeting was held at Macon, Ga., on April 23, 1940, in con-
nection with which a motor car inspection was made of the Central of Georgia tracks
between Atlanta, Ga., and Macon and between Macon and Birmingham, Ala., a total
distance of 388 miles.
The Central of Georgia forms a network which covers a large part of Georgia and
Alabama, the principal freight traffic lines extending fiom Birmingham to Macon and
thence easterly to Savannah, Ga., and northerly to Atlanta. Freight traffic density on
these lines averages between 1,300,000 and 2,400,000 net tons per year. Lines with less
traffic reach important terminals at Chattanooga, Tenn., Albany, Ga., and Augusta,
while branches with still lighter traffic connect with other points. A considerable part of
the passenger traffic between Florida and the middle north moves over its rails. The
mileage of road maintained in 1939 was 1,861.
On practically the entire line, stable roadbed conditions exist and drainage is
excellent. Standard widths of roadbed are 18 ft. for principal lines, 17 ft. for secondary
lines and 16 ft. for branches. The ballast is Birmingham slag, with bank run gravel and
cinders on the less important lines. Ties are creosoted pine except for some untreated
cypress, and are all produced on line. Ties are bored, adzed and treated at the com-
pany's treating plant at Macon. Tie plates are extensively used. All new rail is 112 lb.
and is now control-cooled and end hardened at the mill.
Prior to 1932, the practice on this road was to require each section gang to give
one-fourth its track a full out-of-face hft each year, making necessary tie renewals and
gaging, lining, etc. The remainder of each section received but little attention, except
where conditions demanded immediate repairs. The track was patrolled daily.
The practice begun in 1932 and still in effect, sometimes known as the "flat work"
system, contemplates a procedure in which the section gangs work over all tracks in an
orderly sequence once every 12 to 18 months. Working back to back, that is, two gangs
starting at the hne between their sections and working away from each other, each gang
begins early in the year and goes over its entire section, doing all of the following
work where a raise on new ballast is not involved:
Replacing all ties that will not last another year
Squaring up and spacing crossties
Setting up and replacing missing rail anchors
Economics of Railway Labor 215^
Gaging, with replacement of corroded tie plates
Tapping down spikes and replacing bad spikes
Smoothing and cross-leveling out-of-face
Correcting irregularities in line
Tightening and replacing bolts and oiling joint bars
New ballast is applied in track surfaced out-of-face by extra gangs where new
112-lb. rail is laid, or where the ballast has so deteriorated that satisfactory results
cannot be obtained by the "flat work" of the section gangs.
Section gangs consist of a foreman and four laborers. When business increased dur-
ing 1937 the gangs were raised to six men per crew, commencing with April. If traffic
again becomes as heavy the number of laborers will, very probably, be increased to six
men. This minimum force is employed the year round and devotes ten months of each
year to track repairs and two months to mowing and burning weeds and brush and
cleaning ditches. Generally the work is started in January and completed on schedule
unless too much emergency repair work interferes.
The full gang is employed five days per week. In addition, on Saturday the foreman
and two men patrol the section, inspect switches and police the property. Daily track
patrol is not required of the section foreman, except in the event of heavy rains or
Comparison of Labor Employed in 1929 and 1939
Percent
1929 1939 Decrease Decrease
Miles main line maintained 1,926 1,861 65 3
Average length of sections 7.82* 17.18* 9.36** 119**
Number of section foremen 246 108 138 56
Number of B&B foremen 23 15 8 35
Number of extra gang foremen 6 5 1 17
Number of section laborers 1,150 600 550 49
Number of extra gang laborers 126 100 26 21
Number of B&B laborers 94 76 18 19
Number of B&B carpenters 80 43 37 46
• Miles. ** Increase.
other unusual situations. Road supervisors cover their districts three or four times each
week, including one trip on a locomotive, and direct section foremen when to discontinue
the regular work temporarily to make needed repairs.
Five extra gangs are employed on the Central of Georgia, consisting of a foreman,
an assistant foreman and 20 men. One gang is worked on the Savannah division and
two each on the Macon and the Columbus divisions. They lay rail, augmented by sec-
tion gangs; raise and surface track out-of-face and assist section gangs that fail to
complete flat work repairs on their entire sections. They are, as a rule, assigned to
primary main line territory of 710 miles.
In switching yards, "sweepers" are employed to keep the grounds clean, pick up
scrap, oil switches, etc. These men work under the yard section foreman but do not
work with the track gangs and are not included in the track labor allowances. Each has
a wheelbarrow, a scoop and a heavy rattan push broom.
The section gangs of experienced trackmen, familiar with the system that has now
been in effect since 1931, and reUeved of daily track patrol, the policing of yard tracks
and switching leads, and the general out-of-face work done by the 20-men extra gangs,
produce thoroughly satisfactory results. The progress is greatly expedited by the fact that
a uniform force is worked and that the working season extends throughout the year.
216 Economics of Railway Labor
Monthly reports are made by foremen, supervisors and division engineers showing
the miles completed for the current month ,and to date.
A comparison of the labor employed in 1Q29 and 1939 is shown in the table.
Computations based on returns to the Interstate Commerce Commission show a 51
percent decrease from 1929 to 1939 in man-hours of sectionmen time per equated track
mile, although freight traffic density was only 22 percent less in 1939 than in 1929.
It is obvious that only a part of this reduction in labor can be ascribed to the
change in method. A considerable part of it is due to the same causes which have re-
sulted in reducing maintenance labor expense on most railroads; namely, curtailment or
abandonment, because of reduced revenue, of work formerly considered necessary; and
greater efficiency of labor. It is the experience of this road that the "flat work" method
now followed is better adapted to its conditions than the "cycle" method formerly in
vogue.
The method now used is not novel, but with some modifications, is in effect on a
large share of the railroad mileage of this country, especially on tracks which carry
medium and light traffic. The back-to-back feature is not essential, although widely
used because it cuts in half the number of intervals of unworked track. The conditions
which favor the use of this method are:
1. Medium to light traffic
2. Stable roadbed, with good drainage and few soft spots, slides, or other features
that require frequent attention
3. Fairly uniform tie renewals
4. No daily patrol by section gangs
This method has some important advantages where conditions favor its use, chief
among which are the following:
1. Less time lost in moving from place to place
2. Better control of labor output
3. More uniform tie conditions
4. Maintenance of more uniform track conditions
5. Permits closer check and comparison of work done on different sections, thus
strengthening the competitive spirit
A disadvantage of this method, even where conditions favor its use, is that it does
not permit tie renewals to be made early in the season and, in general, does not permit
the doing of the more important things first. This objection has less weight where there
is a long working season.
It is not adapted for a track where heavy traffic necessitates frequent light surfac-
ing, where attention must frequently be given to chronic places of trouble, or where
forces are so small that attention can only be given to bad conditions as they arise.
Conclusions
1. The "flat work" method employed in track maintenance on the Central of Georgia
merits consideration on lines of medium to light traffic, with fairly uniform tie renewals
and with a stable roadbed having few soft spots or other conditions requiring frequent
and special attention.
2. On such lines it reduces the amount of time lost in moving forces from place to
place, permits better control of the labor output, brings about the more uniform dis-
tribution of tie renewals, creates more uniform track conditions and permits comparisons
to be made of the work done on different sections, thereby strengthening the competitive
spirit among the forces.
Economics of Railway Labor 217
3. This method is not adapted to tracks where heavy traffic necessitates frequent
light surfacing, where frequent attention must be given to places of chronic and recur-
ring trouble or where the forces are so small as to require their constant attention to one
trouble spot after another.
Report on Assignment 3
The Relative Economy of Combined vs. Separate Bridge
and Building Gangs
C. M. Chumley (chairman, subcommittee), W. H. Brameld, H. A. Cassil, J. I. Cather-
man, A. B. Chanev, Armstrong Chinn, W. E. Cornell, E. A. Craft, T. Z. Krumm,
E. H. Mcllheran, F. R. Paislev, A. E. Perlman, H. M. Stout, R. R. Strother, W. H.
Vance, J. C. Wallace, C. R. Wright.
In making a study of this subject, the committee's interpretation is that "combined"
gangs handle renewal and maintenance work on bridges and culverts (except steel
bridges), buildings and miscellaneous structures (except those of considerable importance,
probably of steel, brick or stone construction) over an assigned territory, or as directed;
while "separate" gangs comprise bridge gangs, which handle only bridge and culvert
work and other miscellaneous heavy work, as directed, carpenter gangs, which do only
building and hghter miscellaneous work, and paint gangs, which do only painting, both
bridge and building.
In the combined gangs, your committee excludes those which work on steel bridges
for the reason that most roads prefer to handle this work with special or system gangs,
provided with special tools and roadway machinery. For similar reasons, the more im-
portant building work is excluded or left optional, since it is felt that an ordinary gang
will not be equipped to erect structures larger than the average station, office building,
or shop building. However, the combined gang or the separate building gang, should be
able to maintain such structures ecnomically.
In order to determine the prevaihng practice, a questionnaire was forwarded to S3
representative railroads throughout the United States and Canada, 38 of which replied,
furnishing valuable information on the subject. These 38 roads have a combined mileage
of approximately 232,202, with 3,303 miles of steel and masonry bridges, 1,500 miles of
timber bridges, and with approximately 80 percent of the buildings and miscellaneous
structures of wood. Twenty-seven of these roads, with 85 percent of the total mileage,
95 percent of the steel and masonry bridges, and 80 percent of the timber bridges, use
combined gangs. Eleven roads, with IS percent of the total mileage, S percent of the
steel and masonry bridges, and 20 percent of the timber bridges, use separate gangs.
It was found that some of the roads, which use combined gangs as a general practice,
have separate gangs for building work in their larger terminals. Other roads, which use
combined gangs for bridge and building maintenance, use separate gangs for painting,
while several roads, which use separate gangs for bridge and building maintenance,
combine the painting with the building gangs.
Some of the economies claimed for the combined gangs are:
Reduction in number of foremen
Fewer outfit cars
Reduced investment in motor cars, tools and other roadway machinery
218 Economics of Railway Labor
More economical distribution of available force, with much less loss of time in
movement of gangs
Training bridge and building men in all phases of the work in that department,
resulting in all employees being available and qualified to render efficient service
on any assignment
Simplifies handling seniority problems, in that all bridge and building employees
in the various classifications appear on one roster so that they can be assigned
according to their seniority without regard to whether they are bridge carpenters,
helpers, etc., or building carpenters, helpers, etc.
Affords more continuous employment, thereby developing more highly trained
and efficient men
Shortens the designated maintenance district, permitting closer inspection of
bridges and buildings, producing greater efficiency through better planning of work
FaciUtates handling of materials and supphes
Condenses supervision
Some of the advantages or economies claimed for separate gangs are:
Opportunity for working fewer men in gangs assigned to building or other light
work
Improvement in efficiency by being able to select foremen and men more highly
trained in the separate classes of work, thereby increasing production and improv-
ing quality
The ability to use tools and roadway machinery more continuously, enables a
road to effect the economies resulting from a larger investment in such tools and
equipment
Much additional argument can be produced for both combined and separate gangs,
but after considerable study and careful analysis of the subject, the committee arrives
at the following conclusion, supported by appropriate definitions.
RELATIVE ECONOMY OF COMBINED AND SEPARATE GANGS
The relative economy of combined or separate gangs for bridge and building work
depends upon the conditions prevailing on individual railroads and, in many cases, on
grand divisions or districts of a single railroad. For railroads in general, with half or
more of their bridges of timber construction and with a large proportion of their build-
ings of frame construction, combined gangs are preferable to separate gangs. See defini-
tions for Gang — Combined, and Gang — Separate, in the Glossary.
Gang — Combined. — One handling renewal and maintenance work on bridges (other
than those of steel) and culverts, buildings and miscellaneous structures (other than
those of considerable importance and commonly of steel, brick or stone construction)
over an assigned territory, or as directed.
— Separate. — One handling only bridge and culvert work and other miscellaneous heavy
work as directed; or handling only building and lighter miscellaneous work; or
handling only painting, both bridge and building, or either.
The committee recommends that the above conclusions be adopted and published in
Chapter 22 of the Manual, following the matter on programming of bridge and building
work, and that the definitions be adopted and published in the Glossary.
Economics of Railway Labor
219
Report on Assignment 4
Labor Economies Resulting From Improvements in
Drainage Practices
E. H. Mcllheran (chairman, subcommittee), L. L. Adams, Lem Adams, C. W. Baldridge,
F. J. Bishop, J. I. Catherman, A. B. Chaney, C. M. Chumley, W. E. Cornell, E. T.
Howson, T. Z. Krumm, D. A. Kuebler, J. B. Martin, A. E. Perlman, F. S. Schwinn,
R. R. Strother, W. H. Vance, W. H. Woodbury.
Your committee refers to pages 1^3 to 1-63, inclusive, of the Manual for general
descriptions of and information about the various types of drainage, including intercept-
ing ditches for cuts and fills, side ditches at the foot of slopes, tile pipe and perforated
corrugated pipe for draining road beds, French or rock drains, and other special drainage
practices and will not repeat these descriptions in this report.
Many reports have been made to the Association indicating the necessity for good
roadway drainage and the benefits to be derived therefrom, some of which are found
in the following volumes of the Proceedings: Vol. 40, p. 346; Vol. 39, pp. 320-562-565;
Vol. 38, pp. 173-357; Vol. 37, p. 141 ; Vol. 36, p. 1092; Vol. 35, p. 348; Vol. 34, p. 132;
Vol. 33, p. 304-330-377; and Vol. 32, p. 169. Vol. 31, p. 601, gives references to studies
made in former years.
These reports indicate savings in labor for roadway maintenance and for track laying
and surfacing, due to stabiUzation of the roadbed by improved drainage, as well as
reductions in ballast requirements, in damage to rail and other track materials, and in
damage to rolling stock and lading, and the elimination of train delays due to slow orders.
Your committee has attempted to determine the monetary saving in labor resulting
from improvement in drainage practices, and mailed inquiries to 52 railroads, operating
about 208,000 miles of road. We received replies from 30 railroads, operating 152,690
miles of road, but of these only 20 furnished any figures, although practically every
officer replying stated that economies resulted from improvement in drainage. The
replies received from railroads which furnished some figures are shown in the table.
Sub-Surface Drainage
Feet of Annual Saving in Labor
Track Cost of Percent
Drained Installation Amount of Cost
487,460 $553,114 $96,974 17.6
Number of
Railroads Type of
Reporting Installation
11 Tile pipe in cuts
1 Tile pipe in fills .. 1,475 5,719 372 6.5
8 Perforated metal
pipe in cuts 18,618 45,584 9,019 20.0
14 Perforated metal
pipe in fills 93,083 238,109 37,063 15.6
10 French or rock
drains 155,480 225,031 38,771 17.2
Date of
Installation
1912-1939
1929
1927-1939
1928-1940
1923-1939
Surface Drainage
5 Intercepting ditches 114,598 $ 53,696 $23,746 44.2 1890-1939
2 Grading the right
of way 50,600 3,902 6,104 156.0 1937-1939
220 Economics of Railway Labor
Tile Drains
An example of the economies secured from tile drain pipe is afforded by an installa-
tion in a cut on the main line of the St. Louis Southwestern Railway a short distance
south of Pine Bluff, Ark., on what is known as Sorrells hill. At this location the track
is on a one percent gradient for IJ/2 miles and is then practically level for a mile across
four small ridges. There is one cut 3,500 ft. long half way up the one-percent grade,
another cut 1,000 ft. long at the summit of the grade, and four cuts each 1,000 ft. long
in the next mile. The distance from the beginning of the first soft spot to the end of
the last one is 2.2 miles.
The material in these cuts is clay that has very little supporting quality when wet,
and these cuts were saturated at all times. The track was ballasted with gravel, but it
could not be held to line and surface, and although either section or extra gangs were
employed on the track in these cuts practically every day, it was impossible to keep it
in a condition that would preclude derailments.
In 1920, tile drains were installed in all six of these cuts, a total of 8,349 ft. of
track being drained by installing 8-in. longitudinal drains on both sides of the track and
6-in. laterals at intervals of 16^ ft. along the track, one lateral draining into the longi-
tudinal pipe on one side of the track and the next one into the pipe on the opposite side.
The tile drains were installed according to the general instructions shown in Proceedings
Vol. 22, page 719, Exhibit 1^, for the drainage of soft spots by tile on both sides of the
track. The total cost of the installation was $15,162.17.
As soon as the tile was installed, water began flowing from the drains, the condition
of the track improved, and within 12 months the roadbed became sohd and all trouble
from irregular surface and hne from this section of road disappeared. Permanent slow
orders of 10 or 15 miles per hour were removed and trains now operate at a speed of
60 miles per hour. The tile in the long cut on the one-percent grade and in three of the
other cuts is still functioning, but in two of the cuts where the tiles were not laid on a
steep grade some indication of heaving developed about three years ago and some poles
were driven to correct the condition.
It is estimated there was a reduction of three track laborers, which at present rates
of pay amounts to $2,620 per annum, in addition to the large savings due to increases
in train speeds and reductions in damage to rolling stock and lading.
Perforated Corrugated Metal Pipe Drain in Fill
An example of the economies secured from the installation of perforated galvanized
metal drain pipe is afforded in a fill on the Illinois Central Railroad on the north approach
to the crossing of the Bayou De Chien drainage canal about 8 miles north of Fulton,
Ky., on the Bluford district. This fill was constructed in 1925 with material secured from
adjacent cuts, which, when excavated dry, seemed to be satisfactory for embankment
construction, but which after being placed and becoming wet, had very little supporting
power and began to slide. After the line was placed in operation, the slides were filled
with earth and cinders, but a section about 1,000 ft. long with an average height of
SO ft. continued to cause trouble. Due to a slide in 1928, it was necessary to drive 219
ft. of open-deck trestle across this fill in order to maintain traffic. By 1934 this trestle
had been extended to a total of 466 ft. because of additional slides. When it became
necessary in 1939 to make heavy repairs to the portion of the trestle first constructed,
an investigation was made to determine the exact condition of the fill and ascertain if
it could be stabilized. This investigation, which consisted largely of test borings with a
two-inch auger, revealed a large number of water pockets in the deposits of cinders and
gravel which had been unloaded to restore the embankment.
Economics of Railway Labor 221
This fill was drained with 8-in. perforated, corrugated, asphalt-coated iron pipe.
Thirty-one laterals were placed at intervals of not to exceed 50 ft. and were from 58 ft.
to 207 ft. long, extending into the fill from both sides to the bottom of the water pock-
ets. From the end of each lateral pipe in the water pockets a perforated riser extended
upward to the surface of the fill. In addition, four short laterals were placed where
water pockets existed directly beneath the track. When some of the water pockets were
tapped, as much as 100 gal. per min. flowed from the pipe for several days before the
pockets were completely drained.
Altogether, 4,000 lin. ft. of pipe was installed in the fill, in the 31 main laterals and
risers and 4 short laterals. Since the completion of the work, the fill has apparently
stabilized. The total cost of this job was about $13,500, and the estimated annual saving
is $2,250, consisting of $1,000 for labor patrolling track, $500 for work trains unloading
material at slides, $500 for labor unloading material and surfacing, and $250 for
maintenance of the trestle.
Conclusion
The study made by this subcommittee substantiates the conclusions reached by pre-
vious committees of this Association that (a) adequate drainage of the roadbed is essen-
tial to the economical maintenance of track, (b) that economies can be effected by the
various methods reported on herewith, and (c) that the particular type of installation
best adapted to any location varies with the local conditions existing at the specific point.
This report is submitted as information.
Report on Assignment 7
Added Labor Economies Resulting from Use of Off-Track
Maintenance Equipment
Armstrong Chinn (chairman, subcommittee), L. L. Adams, Lem Adams, E. J. Bayer,
W. H. Brameld, E. J. Brown, H. A. Cassil, F. L. Guy, W. H. Hillis, E. T. Howson,
H. E. Kirby, T. Z. Krumm, G. M. Magee, J. S. McBride, J. M. Miller, A. E. Perlman,
W. H. Woodbury.
The assignment, as stated, implies that labor economies result from the use of
maintenance equipment, consequently, the purpose of this report is to point out the
additional economies that may be expected when work is done with off-track equipment.
When we try to determine the economies or savings that may be expected from the use
of a certain type of equipment we must, of necessity, compare it with something else,
such as another type of equipment, another method of doing the work or other condi-
tions affecting labor or material before we can arrive at any sort of an answer. For
instance, the labor cost of renewing ballast is reduced when the life of the ballast is
extended by cleaning it, but as a rule the labor cost of cleaning it will be less with
off-track equipment than with rail-bound equipment requiring expensive work train
service. Also, recent interpretations of certain labor agreements have so increased the
cost of operating some classes of rail-bound maintenance equipment as to make its use
prohibitive. This is a trend that is being met, to .some extent, by the development of
off-track equipment.
^'^'^ Economics of Railway Labor
Generally speaking, the development of off-track maintenance equipment has been
brought about by the following factors:
(a) Today main line tracks must be kept clear for the fast and exacting schedules
that are being run on most railroads in both passenger and freight service, and mainte-
nance of way gangs are being forced to conduct their work in a way that will not
interfere materially with the operation of trains.
(b) Working agreements with certain classes of employees make it desirable to keep
work equipment off the rails.
(c) More hours of productive work can be secured from off-track equipment than
rail-bound equipment as there is little or no time lost in clearing trains.
(d) The proximity of good highways to many railroads makes it easy and economical
to move men, some classes of materials and certain types of off-track equipment quickly
with trucks running on the highways instead of with motor cars running on the rails.
This applies particularly to specialized gangs, such as in the water service department
and to men, materials and equipment needed for emergency work.
(e) Off-track equipment has the ability to get to places and to do work that cannot
be reached with rail-bound equipment.
A partial hst of track maintenance equipment divided between rail-bound equip-
ment, off-track equipment and equipment which is used on the rails but can be set off
to clear traffic is shown in the table.
Where air compressors and electric generators are mentioned in the list, it is under-
stood that the numerous small tools that can be operated by these power sources are
included.
As will be noted from the Hst, a wide variety of off-track equipment is now avail-
able and it is expected that this list will grow as its advantages are recognized and
additional equipment is developed for new uses.
With the exception of some recently developed earth-moving equipment, rail-bound
equipment is, as a rule, heavier and has more power than off-track equipment, and as a
result will do more work in a given period of time, but because of traffic interruptions,
work train and flagging expenses, and the additional men in the operating crew required
by recent interpretations of certain labor agreements, the unit costs are usually higher.
As these extra costs are increased, additional incentive will be given for further develop-
ment and use of off-track equipment. The costs of train slow-ups and delays caused by
rail-bound equipment are seldom considered when figuring the unit costs of work done
by it, but they are there and at times are considerable.
The development of the crawler tread has probably done more than any other one
thing to release work equipment from the rails and now numerous types of earth-
moving equipment, mounted on crawler treads, are replacing car-mounted shovels and
car-top ditchers. The most popular of these is the combined crawler shovel and drag-
line. Machines of this type have moved earth for bank widening at costs ranging from
6 to 12 cents per cubic yard, compared with IS to 45 cents per cubic yard for car-top
ditchers. Most of this saving is in the labor, as the off-track equipment can be operated
with smaller crews and without the service of a work train and work train crew.
Labor costs have been reduced by crawler-mounted and portable air compressors
and electric generators used for operating tamping tools as these power units can move
along with the work without the labor cost and lost time inherent in moving long pipe
and power lines.
The committee has been unable to find any railroads that have kept comparative
cost data showing in dollars and cents the additional labor savings that will be realized
Economics of Railway Labor
223
Classification of Maintenance Equipment
Rail-Bound Equipment
1. Power shovels
2. Locomotive ditchers
3. Spreader ditchers
4. Car-top ditchers
5. Locomotive cranes
6. Large ballast cleaners
7. Ballast scarifiers on
AAR trucks
8. Ballast cars
9. Dump cars
10. Pile drivers
11. Large rail and joint
oilers
12. Roadbed oilers
13. Weed burners on AAR
trucks
14. Chemical weed sprayers
on AAR trucks
15. Detector cars
16. Snow plows
Off-Track Equipment
1. Crawler shovels
2. Crawler draglines
3. Crawler bulldozers
4. Crawler tractors with
front end loaders
5. Crawler-pulled carry-all
scrapers
6. Crawler cranes with pile
driving leads
7. Crawler cranes
8. Trucks
9. Truck-mounted crane
10. Truck-mounted
air compressors
11. Truck-mounted
generators
12. Truck-mounted
earth drill
13. Portable air compressors
14. Portable generators
15. Portable wheel-mounted
weed burners
16. Portable chemical weed
sprayers
17. Portable oil sprayers
18. Power weed mowers
19. Power ballast cleaners
20. Self-contained gasoline
ballast tampers
21. Oxy - acetylene welding
and cutting equipment
22. Rail switch and frog
grinders
23. Tie spacers
24. Track liners
Equipment Used on the
Rails But Which Can Be
Set Off the Track
1. Power ballaster
2. Power cribber
3. Ballast scarifier
4. Power weed and ballast
discers
5. Power jacks
6. Power track shifters
7. Power tie adzers
8. Power tie cutters
9. Power tie borers
10. Tie pullers
11. Power spike pullers
12. Air compressors
13. Electric generators
14. Power and hand rail
layers
15. Power cranes and rail
layers
16. Power rail saws
17. Power and hand rail
drills
18. Power wrenches
19. Rail expanders
20. Rail grinders
21. Oxy-acetylene rail end
hardening machine
22. Rail and joint oilers
23. Weed mowers
24. Motor cars, push cars
and trailers
25. Auto railers
26. Trackbarrows
2 7. Monocars
from the use of off-track equipment, and is therefore unable to give any comparative
figures; however, the committee finds that the use of off-track equipment, as compared
with rail-bound equipment, should make possible labor economies as follows:
1. Greater production per man-hour, as little or no time will be lost clearing trains.
2. A substantial reduction in flagging expense, as very little, if any, will be required.
3. EHmination of work train crew expense.
4. Elimination of additional and unnecessary men required on rail-bound equipment
by recent labor board decisions.
5. A reduction in the cost of doing work that could not be reached by rail-bound
equipment and therefore had to be contracted or done by less efficient methods.
224 Economics of Railway Labor
6. A marked saving in time, on certain classes of work, by moving men, materials
and equipment in trucks on highways instead of by motor cars on the rails or, for
longer distances, by train, with resulting lost and dead time on account of infrequent
train service.
It is pointed out, however, that in considering the labor economies resulting from
the use of off-track equipment one must not lose sight of the fact that rail-bound
equipment has its place and is not likely to be displaced for certain work.
This report is submitted as information.
Report of Committee 6 — Buildings
L. H. Laffoley, Chairman,
A. T. Hawk
A. C. Copland, Vice-
CM. Angel
E. G. Hewson
Chairman,
G. A. Belden
C. D. Horton
G. A. Rodman
E. Christiansen
N. D. Howard
C. H. Sandberg
H. M. Chxjrch
A. C. Irwin
C. P. Schantz
H. G. Dalton
F. R. Judd
E. W. Scripture, Jr.
A. G. Borland
L. P. Kimball
L. W. Smith
W. T. Dorrance
H. C. Lorenz
A. L. Sparks
Hugo Fllippi
E. K. Mentzer
A. B. Stone
J. P. Gallagher
H. A. Pasman
0. G. Wilbur
W. G. Harding
Committee
To the American Railway Engineering Association:
Your committee reports on the following subjects:
1. Revision of Manual.
No report.
2. Preparation of specifications for railway buildings.
No report.
3. Requirements and design of garage buildings for railway service.
Final report — submitted as information below.
4. Railroad warehouse requirements for handhng quick frozen products.
No report.
5. Methods of determining the protective value of paints.
Final report — submitted as information page 227
6. Refrigerator equipment for cold storage houses and rooms, collaborating with
Committee 1 — Power Supply, Electrical Section, Engineering Division, AAR.
No report.
The Committee on Buildings,
L. H. Laffoley, Chairman.
Report on Assignment 3
Requirements and Design of Garage Buildings for Railway Service
J. P. Gallagher (chairman, subcommittee), W. G. Harding, N. D. Howard, A. C. Irwin,
H. C. Lorenz, H. A. Pasman, G. A. Rodman, O. G. Wilbur.
General
Transportation of passengers over the highways in buses operated by railways, and
the movement of express and freight by automobile equipment, have so expanded during
recent years that it has become necessary to develop garages at terminals and large way
station points, where buses, trucks and other equipment can not only be properly stored
and handled, but running repairs, general overhauling and maintenance can be done under
economical and modern methods. In the development of garages, faciUties for the oper-
ating personnel and other employees should also be carefully studied and analyzed.
In planning these facilities consideration must be given to the location, design, con-
struction and arrangement, consistent with the importance of the contemplated improve-
ment, the size of the initial development, and probable future increase in various
operations in the plant and the storage requirements.
Bulletin 421, December, 1940.
225
226 Buildings
Location
Garages, whether small or large, should be isolated from other structures in order to
reduce to a minimurrt the hazard of exposure from fire. The introduction of garage
occupancies into portions of buildings used as storehouses or shops, or other railroad
facilities, is not recommended. Large bus and truck garages should be located as near
the passenger, freight or express facilities or terminal as possible, so as to reduce the
expense of non-productive operation between the garage and the operating terminal.
Design
Garage facilities for the storage and maintenance of bus or trucking equipment,
should be of simple but substantial design. The introduction of columns into the building
should be reduced to a minimum, where possible, consistent with the type of structure
selected. This is particularly recommended in the live and dead storage areas where the
bus or trucking equipment is stored or handled.
In terminal units, the entire layout of offices, shops and storage area should be placed
on one floor. The dead storage area should preferably be confined in the rear of the
building, and should be of adequate size to meet the demands of the terminal, and be
cut off from the remainder of the facilities by fire walls with openings large enough to
handle the equipment. The live storage areas should be equipped with wash racks, and
oiling and greasing pits or elevating racks near the entrance. Pits or elevating racks for
inspection and repair, should be located at the rear, or where they will not interfere with
the movement of vehicles, should the cars require layover for light or heavy repairs.
Permanent lighting and outlets for portable head lights should be provided. Oil and
grease traps should be installed in drainage lines where sinks, floor drains or other
plumbing fixtures are used to dispose of oils, grease and volatile materials.
Rooms cut off by standard fire walls should be constructed around the live storage
areas for auxiliary facilities such as welding, painting and spraying, motor repairs, battery
repairs and charging, upholstering, vulcanizing, and for storerooms for materials and
repair parts. These facilities should be placed with due regard for efficient and economical
shop operation. Toilet, wash rooms and locker facilities should be provided for machinists
and workmen. Storage space for grease, lubricating oils, waste and wiping rags, should
be segregated from the general storage supplies.
Fuel storage facilities for bus and truck terminals and shops should embody the
most modern and latest layout of tank and pump design, and should be installed in
accordance with the latest rules and regulations of the National Board of Fire Under-
writers and other authorities having jurisdiction. Facilities for lubrication and tire
inflation should be provided.
Offices for the personnel, consisting of necessary private offices, conference rooms,
general office, toilet facilities, and registry and call rooms, should be included in the
facility, and so located as to be easily accessible from the street and the live storage and
repair shop areas. These rooms may be connected by corridors, but should, as a group,
be cut off from the shop areas by fire walls with standard protected openings. Where
adequate ground space is not available, offices and facilities for personnel may be placed
in a second story over the live storage areas. If space limitations demand, some of the
shop facilities, such as the upholstering shop, may also be placed on the second floor,
with elevator service between the floors to handle repair parts and materials.
At terminal points, and at way stations where crews change or lay over, toilet and
locker rooms, and rest rooms, should be provided for chauffeurs. In connection with bus
chauffeurs' requirements, tailoring and valet service is deemed essential and should be
worked into the layout.
Buildings 227
Construction
Garage buildings should preferably be of fire resistive construction. Slow burning
or mill construction may be used with proper safeguards.
When garage occupancies are introduced into storehouse or shop buildings to take
care of one or two passenger cars or trucks, the garage area should be cut off from the
remainder of the building by fire wall construction without access of any kind through
the wall from the garage space.
Large facilities should be heated by a plant preferably housed in a separate building,
or may be provided within the structure if properly cut off from the rest of the
facilities by fire walls. All lighting should be electric with wiring run in rigid metal con-
duit in accordance with the latest National Electrical Code, and lighting fixtures pro-
vided with vapor-proof lamps and guards as may be required by the occupancy or use
of the separate rooms. Openings in fire walls between room areas, should be properly
protected with self-closing or automatic fire doors of approved types to meet the speci-
fications of the National Board of Fire Underwriters and local building and fire law
requirements. Special consideration should be given to the mechanical ventilation of
paint and spraying rooms. Disposal of gases to the outer air from these rooms should be
arranged so that the exhaust will not become a nuisance.
Fire Protection
Large structures for bus and truck storage and maintenance, should have a standard
fire standpipe system, and it is further recommended that an approved automatic
sprinkler system be installed. An approved system of watchmen's tour service should be
provided if the facility warrants such protection. Fire fighting apparatus and portable
equipment should meet the requirements as established by the latest rules of the National
Board of Fire Underwriters and local building and fire laws applying to such installations.
Conclusion
As a whole, each problem of large bus or truck garage design must be treated
separately, so that all faciUties will be in proper relation to each other and to the plant
as a unit. In addition, the plan should be studied so that any final arrangement adopted
may permit of proper expansion without materially affecting the elements of efficiency
and economy embodied in the initial layout.
The report is presented as information.
Report on Assignment 5
Methods of Determining the Protective Value of Paints
C. M. Angel (chairman, subcommittee), H. M. Church, H. G. Dalton, A. G. Borland,
A. T. Hawk, C. D. Horton, A. C. Irwin, L. P. Kimball, G. A. Rodman, C. H.
Sandberg, E. W. Scripture, Jr.
Introduction
Paint has become one of the most important materials used by railroads; its use
results in great savings in maintenance and appearance. Therefore, railroads have become
keenly interested in the durability of paints for the purposes used.
Today the railroads in many cases must rely on the paint manufacturer's predic-
tion of the Ufe of a paint. The producer bases his claim on extensive long-time atmos-
228 Buildings
pheric tests to determine to what extent breakdown of the material will occur. As the
railroads have no way to check these claims, it is sometimes found that a so-called long-
life paint fails early in service, in which case the railroad suffers a loss, as many gallons
of the paint may have been applied when failure is discovered. This not only involves
the cost of the material but also the cost of the labor.
In time, factors will be developed from the tests suggested herein whereby the dura-
bility of one paint can be readily compared with another. In other words, the paints
must be studied from the angle of durability or resistance to breakdown.
To ascertain the manner in which paints are now being purchased by the railroads
and the tests being made to check the Ufe of paints used, a survey was made of the
practices of 39 railroads. The facts disclosed by this investigation are summarized
as follows:
Number of
Railroads
Using ready mixed paints 38
Mixing all paints used 1
Mixing part of paints used 1
Using trade name paints only 20
Using specification paints only 10
Using trade name and specification paints 9
Making weatherometer check tests and no chemical tests 3
Making chemical tests and no weatherometer tests 9
Making both weatherometer and chemical check tests 7
Making exposure panel tests 2
Making check tests before paint is purchased 2
All except two of the railroads surveyed purchase all their paints ready mixed, in-
cluding paints purchased to specifications or trade name. One railroad mixes some of
the paints it uses, namely, enamels, lacquer, building paints and shellacs; another mixes
all paints used.
The railroads that buy paint on specifications do so for the purpose of insuring
delivery of a product which has been found under certain conditions to give relatively
good surface protection or decoration. The use of these specifications has been perpetu-
ated regardless of their age, as the purchaser is fearful of substituting a manufacturer-
recommended paint, as no means are available to the railroad to evaluate the claims in
a short period of time.
Since research is constantly developing better paints, railroads committed to speci-
fication paints may lose the economies which result from paint improvement. They may
also pay a higher price for a product complying with specification requirements which
could be purchased on the paint manufacturer's recommendation at a lower cost. When
a standardized method of testing paints has been adopted by the railroads, the trend
will be somewhat away from the use of specification paints and toward the purchase of
paints recommended by the paint manufacturer.
Tests conducted by the railroads should be as simple as possible. It should not
be inferred that such tests are designed to determine the extreme life of the paints, as this
would be duplicating work previously done by the manufacturers in evaluating the life
of their products. The railroad test must be such as will make it possible to select from
a group of paints recommended for certain work, one having the greatest economic value.
To do this three methods may be considered: (1) Long-time exposure tests, (2) chemical
analysis, and (3) laboratory accelerated weathering, in which the paint is subjected to
moisture, light, heat and cold under definitely prescribed cycles, or other special tests.
The tests outlined by your committee in this report are offered as suggested means
through which paints can be tested to ascertain their comparative qualities.
Buildings 229
Paint Testing Procedure
In testing paints care must be exercised to conduct tests under conditions similar to
those to which the paint will be subjected after application.
It will not suffice to test a paint only for light, heat, moisture and cold, when it
is to be used on train sheds where the paint will be continually subjected to sulphur gases
from locomotive smoke. An additional test is needed to ascertain the film breakdown
under sulphur gas. If a paint were recommended for use where salt air is prevalent,
then a test would be required to ascertain the film reaction to saline moisture. When
protective paints are being considered for the coating of steel coal bins, they should be
tested for resistance to abrasion and to the dilute sulphuric acid leachings which result
from the sulphur in the coal combining with the moisture present. In a like manner,
paints for use on hot surfaces should be tested under temperatures within the range of
service conditions.
Therefore, in view of the large number of paints now on the market, it is impossible
to set up a test procedure for each class and its use. If each group, however, is tested
under the same set of predetermined conditions, factors will be developed whereby one
paint can be compared with another and proper selection made from the group tested.
Paint Failures
Before taking up the actual test procedure of paints, it may be well to consider and
define briefly the various paint failures:
Checking (Figures 1 and IS). — This defect takes the form of fine splits or rup-
tures in the paint which break the surface into innumerable small irregular areas, but
which are in the top coats only and do not extend through to the surface underneath.
Slight checking is not a serious defect because the durability and the protective value of
the paint are not affected, nor does checking make repainting difficult. The usual cause
of checking is the presence of too soft an undercoat, which can be avoided by allowing
plenty of drying time between paint coats and by making sure that each undercoat is
properly formulated to insure its being harder than the succeeding coat.
Alligatoring (Figures 2 and 14). — This defect is similar to checking in character
although the ruptures in the paint film are much wider and the surface is broken into
larger irregular areas. Like checking, it affects the top coats only and does not extend
through to the surface underneath. Alligatoring, however, gives the surface an unsightly
appearance. It seriously affects the durability of the paint and makes repainting difficult.
The cause of alligatoring is always too soft an undercoat. This may be due to the use
of too much oil, to insufficient drying time between coats or to the use of impure oil or
other vehicles which dry to a soft film.
To avoid alligatoring, make sure that the undercoats have plenty of time in which
to dry and that they are properly formulated to insure their being harder than the
succeeding coats.
Cracking and Scaling (Figures 3, 13, 17 and 19). — These two defects are closely re-
lated, since scaling is a later stage of cracking. Cracking is a rupture of the paint film
extending down to the surface to be protected. This allows moisture to enter behind the
paint film, which loosens the paint and scaling results. This defect is caused by the use of
a paint which becomes hard and brittle as it ages and can no longer follow the movement
of the surface underneath.
If cracking and scaling have occurred over the entire surface it is usually advisable
to remove all of the old paint by means of a torch and scraper before repainting. Other-
wise, the old film will probably continue to scale, carrying the new paint with it.
230
Buildings
Fig. 1. — Cracking and Checking
and Cracking.
Fig. 2. — AUigatoring.
Fig. 3. — Cracking and Scaling
Fig. 4. — Blistering and Peeling.
Fig. S. — Spotting. Fig. 6.— Washing.
Common Painting Defects
Buildings
231
Fig. 7. — ^Wrinkling.
Fig. 8. — Bleeding Over Knot.
Fig. 9. — Discoloration Over Cedar
or Red Wood.
»#
■AS U y ,."*«• ,
f'%
'■\ ,*1
\i , %''
Fig. 10. — Dirt Discoloration U^iU
Mildew (right).
Fig. 11. — Sagging. Fig. 12. — Running.
Common Painting Defects
232 Buildings
Blistering and Peeling (Fig. 4). — The most common cause of blistering is the pres-
ence of moisture in the material behind the paint film. Peeling quite naturally follows
blistering in most cases, since the paint which has blistered no longer grips the surface
properly, and a comparatively small amount of pressure is sufficient to force it completely
from the surface. In some cases, the heat of the sun is enough to increase the vapor
pressure of the moisture in the material so that it will cause blistering. In interiors, it is
usually the heat of a radiator or a riser which causes the trouble. The more moisture-
tight a paint is, the more apt it is to blister. Therefore, a paint that permits some escape
of the moisture behind it, and that grips the surface properly is less likely to develop
this trouble.
The best way to avoid blistering is to make sure that the surface to be painted is
thoroughly dry. In the case of porch columns which are painted on all sides, it is neces-
sary to be particularly careful, because blistering is apt to occur if there is moisture in
the column when it is painted.
On repainting a bhstered surface, it is necessary to scrape off all the defective paint,
allow the surface to dry thoroughly and repaint as on new work. The priming coat on
such work, if properly designed and given adequate drying time, will permit the surface
to dry more thoroughly, and yet tend to prevent the entrance of moisture from the out-
side. If leaks or faults in construction are responsible for the presence of moisture,
these should, of course, be properly repaired before anything else is done.
Spotting (Fig. 5). — Spotting is characterized by loss of gloss, fading and early chalk-
ing in spots or small areas due to absorption of oil from the finishing coat by the porous
surface underneath. It is very likely to occur on new work that is given only two coats,
or old work painted with one coat. Spotting usually appears more prominently with dark
tints and colors. This defect will not occur when sufficient coats of properly formulated
paint are applied.
Washing (Fig. 6). — This condition occurs when a paint film contains ingredients that
are soluble in water or when soluble compounds are formed by chemical reactions after
the paint has been applied. Washing may be noticed in the form of streaks near the
lower edge of clapboards and in accumulations on column footings or building founda-
tions. The material that is dissolved out of the paint will collect in these places and when
the water evaporates the streaks can be plainly seen.
Wrinkling (Fig. 7). — ^The principal cause of this defect is an excessively thick coat
of paint, sometimes exaggerted by the excessive use of drier. When paint is appUed in
too thick a film, it is impossible for it to dry uniformly and after the surface skin has
formed the later drying of the part underneath causes the surface to wrinkle. There are
sometimes contributing factors, such as changes in temperature or excessive humidity
during the drying period, but even under unfavorable drying conditions, wrinkHng can
be avoided if the coat is brushed out to a thin, even film. It is not customary to remove
the old paint when wrinkling has occurred, although in some cases this is the easiest
way of producing a first-class repaint job. If the wrinkling has occurred only over lim-
ited areas, the ridges can be rubbed down with a fairly coarse sandpaper before
repainting.
Bleeding Over Knots (Fig. 8). — Bleeding of this type is caused by the oil in the paint
dissolving substances in the knot, and can usually be prevented by coating knots with a
thin resin-free shellac or other recommended materials after the priming coat has been
applied. One-half of the knot shown in Fig. 8 has been so treated.
Discoloration Over Cedar or Redwood (Figures 9 and 16). — This appearance of dark
spots through or on the paint film is caused by dark-colored water-soluble substances in
the wood which are brought to the surface by moisture and deposited there. The paint
Buildings
233
Fig. 13.— Flaking of Paint Over Summerwood of Ponderosa Pine.
Fig. 14.— Alligatoring of a Mixture of White Paint and Dark Blue Enamel.
234
Buildings
Fig. 15.
-Checking and Crumbling of White Lead Paint
That Has Been Neglected.
is in no way responsible for this trouble, which may be avoided by allowing the wood to
weather thoroughly before it is painted.
Dirt Discoloration and Mildew (Fig. 10).— These conditions are frequently confused
with each other. The right half of the illustration shows a mildewed surface and left
half dirt discoloration. Finishing coats that contain too much oil are likely to dry soft
and tacky, forming the type of surface that catches and holds every particle of dust and
dirt. On the other hand, a finishing coat made on the basis of a good formula will pro-
duce a glossy but sufficiently hard film to resist excessive dirt collection. Mildew is a
dark-colored fungus growth which tends to form under the combined conditions of
moisture, warmth and shade. It also develops more readily on soft paint films than on
harder ones. Where mildew is encountered, as much of it as possible should be removed
before repainting.
Early Loss of Gloss and Early Chalking (Fig. 18). — If pronounced sudden loss of
gloss or chalking occurs shortly after painting, it is probably due to incorrect formula-
Buildings
235
tion of the paint or to the presence of moisture in some form (frost, fog, rain, etc.) dur-
ing the drying of the paint. Soft undercoats which were not allowed sufficient time for
drying may reduce the gloss of the finish coat.
Running and Sagging (Figures 11 and 12). — Running and sagging are associated
defects. Both are nearly always due to the application of too much paint. If the paint
is high in oil content, there is a tendency to apply it too freely, and consequently the
paint will run or sag. A paint of correct formulation, brushed on a suitable surface in
Fig. 16. — Bleeding of Redwood Extractives Through Paint, Because of Moisture in the
Walls. Puddles of Water Were Formed in the Basement, Because Tree Roots Clogged
the Sewer.
a workmanlike manner, never will show either of these defects. For repainting, the
preparation of a surface with these defects is similar to the preparation of a surface
that has shown wrinkling; that is, the rough portions of the surface are smoothed with
sandpaper before the first repaint coat is applied.
Physical Characteristics — Test Procedure
In testing paints certain physical characteristics must be considered along with the
life. These physical characteristics determine in the beginning whether it is even worth
while to make extensive tests.
In addition to others, a test should be conducted on a fairly large area to ascertain
the number of square feet the paint will cover. Further physical tests include determina-
tions of the drying time, adhesiveness of the paint, gloss after application, and brittleness
or elasticity. It should be ascertained whether the paint will sag in application and if it
grips satisfactorily the material or priming coat to which it is to be applied.
One of the important characteristics of a paint film is its elasticity or, conversely,
its tendency to turn brittle under service conditions. The elasticity can be tested in the
laboratory by applying the paint on a thin metal panel and, after drying, by bending the
panel around a one-inch mandrel, coated surface out. The comparative failures are evalu-
236
Buildings
Fig. 17.— Scaling Due to Prolonged Neglect of
Hard Type Paints.
ated by the number of degrees of bend the paint will stand before failure. The elasticity
of a paint film can be tested after it has been in service by cutting the surface with a
sharp knife. If the paint has become brittle it will crack ; if it is still elastic only the sharp
cut will be observed in the paint film.
The drying time can be ascertained by preparing a paint panel and observing the
time required for it to dry sufficiently so it will be no longer tacky to the touch.
Adhesiveness can be tested after drying by observing the resistance offered to
efforts to scrape the paint film from the test panel with a sharp edged instrument.
Gloss and sagging can be noted from visual observation.
Buildings
237
Chemical Analysis
A chemical analysis should be made of each paint sample to be tested. This should
show (1) the percentages by weight of the total solids and the total liquids and (2) the
chemical composition of both the solids and the liquids expressed in percentages of their
constituents.
Accelerated Weathering Tests
For some years accelerated weathering machines, called weatherometers, have been
available for standard weathering tests of paints, and methods of procedure have been
developed for their use. They consist of apparatus for exposing paint panels to re-
frigeration, wet and dry conditions, water spray and artificial sunlight under accurately
Fig. 18.— Chalking of Paint.
I
238
Buildings
Fig. 19. — Cross-Grain Cracking, Caused by Incompatibility
of Paints of Various Colors Over One Another.
controlled conditions. A typical accelerated weather testing machine is shown by
Figures 20 and 21.
Samples to be tested are placed in a framework which rotates slowly within a tank.
The size of the test samples used is dependent on the type and size of the testing
machine. A water spray and hght within the tank permit samples to be subjected
to the combined effects of radiation and moisture during a portion of each revolution.
In the accelerated tests, a complete record must be maintained of all weatherometer
tests, along with the chemical analysis of the paints tested. Also, each paint tested in the
weatherometer should be subjected to an out-of-doors exposure panel test at three or
more locations on the railroad. This arrangement of tests will give not only the film
breakdown of the paint, both from the weatherometer and the outside exposure tests,
but also a record of the chemical analysis of each paint tested.
When one or a group of paints is to be tested the panels are prepared on surfaces
similar to that on which the paint is to be applied. If the paint is to be used on wood
Buildings
239
surfaces it is placed on a wood panel; if for use on metal surfaces it is placed on a steel
panel. Paint panel specimens should be coated in a manner as nearly similar as possible
to that which will be used for application of the paint in practice. For example, if two
coats of paint were to be applied to a sand-blasted steel surface, then the panel should be
prepared by first giving it a light sand blast and then applying two coats with a proper
drying interval between the application of the coats.
The best method of coating panels, when ascertaining the physical characteristics of
the paint, is to fasten them to the surface to be painted. The panels will then receive
the paint in a manner similar to that employed in applying paint to the buildings or
structures for which the paint is being considered. This eliminates any variable which
might arise from the testing of laboratory prepared panels. After the test panels are pre-
pared they are ready to be placed in the weatherometer. In this test the drum revolves
H
msbwkI^^H
^
i
H^^
^H
1
^P
£=^g^^^§
W
Fig. 20. — Apparatus for Accelerated
Weathering Test.
Fig. 21. — View of Apparatus Showing
Rotary Sprinkler.
the specimens around the light and water spray at the rate of approximately IS to 20
min. per revolution.
Many weathering cycles are employed, but the cycle recommended is refrigeration 1
hour, wet and dry 3J^ hours (panel is sprayed on one side and dried by the light rays
on the other as the drum is revolved) ; rain by water spray 3J^ hours, and sun (artificial
light) 16 hours. It must be clearly understood that the cycle recommended can be varied
or adjusted to suit any personal ideas, but after a cycle has been adopted it should be
maintained throughout all the tests conducted, so that a proper comparison can be made
at all times with paint tested in the past.
The refrigeration test can be made in any refrigerator or cold box capable of main-
taining a temperature of 10 deg. F., or lower, to suit desired conditions. The panels
should be so placed in racks that the painted surface of all the samples will be exposed to
the same temperature. This test can also be conducted by placing ice in the weatherometer.
240 Buildings
For light, rain, and light-spray exposure periods the panels should be placed in the
holders of the weatherometer cylinders. For the rain period the lamp should be raised
above the cyHnder and the latter covered, and the samples sprinkled vigorously with
water by means of a rotary spray. During the light period the lamp should be operated
with the revolving cylinder, and should shine on all the specimens continuously.
During the light and water spray period the light from the lamp should shine on
the specimens continuously while the water is running constantly from a spray at a
fixed point, thus wetting the specimens in the revolving cylinder once every IS or 20
min. The position of the test specimens in the revolving cylinders should be changed for
each repetition of any one of the cycles, especially with respect to their location in the
upper or lower tiers of slots or hooks, in order to compensate for unavoidable differences
in their relation to the light source.
The panels of the paint on test should be inspected after each cycle of weathering
and a record made of any noticeable change in the paint film surface. If the paint film
begins to check, alligator or crack, etc., a suitable record should be made of the number
of accumulated accelerated hours to the time of failure.
The result of the accelerated weathering test should be determined by comparing
specimens of the unweathered material with those that have been weathered. The dura-
bility of the material may be expressed as the number of cycles or hours of accelerated
weathering that were required to bring about failure or definite changes in the materials
tested.
Outside Exposure Tests
For each panel prepared for the weatherometer, three or more should be prepared
in the same manner for outside exposure tests on the racks at three or more locations on
the railroad. Each test panel should be provided with a waterproof hood to cover one-
third to one-half of the painted surface. The purpose of the hood is to protect the cov-
ered portion from the sun and rain and other atmospheric conditions, so that when an
inspection is made, the hood may be removed to afford a direct comparison of the
paint film as applied and as weathered.
The outside exposure tests are slow and in some cases are continued for a long time.
This is due to variations in light intensity, as the effect of sunlight is relatively low
during a large portion of the daylight hours. Exposure racks placed in locations subject
to marked climatic changes, will show wide variations in results.
Inspection of the outside exposure panels should be made at intervals of not less
than three months nor more than six months, and the condition of the paint film surface
compared with that of weatherometer panels of the same samples of paints.
Special Tests
In testing of paints many cases will arise where the accelerated weathering tests and
the outside exposure tests will not give a comparative evaluation of the material. Such
situations call for special tests and the construction of special apparatus. A few examples
will give an idea of the manner in which special tests are arranged and conducted. How-
ever, in this type of testing it should be borne in mind that such tests should be prac-
tical and as nearly parallel as possible with the conditions to which the paint will be
subjected in actual service. These examples are as follows:
Sulphur Gas Test
In some cases it is necessary to paint metal structures exposed to sulphur gas. The
accelerated weathering test furnishes some information as to the lasting qualities of the
Buildings 241
paint, but the outside exposure test should be made in a location where sulphur gas
contaminates the atmosphere, for example, in the top of a roundhouse. Metal panels,
the number to depend on the number of inspections to be made, are coated all over,
including the edges. They should be hung in close relation with each other in top of the
roundhouse. A predetermined test schedule is arranged and at each test inspection a
panel is removed and examined closely. It is then filed as information and not returned
to its former location. When the last one has been removed, all of the panels can be
laid down in a row and evaluated with respect to the period of time they were on test.
Cinder Cutting
Where cinder cutting must be considered, a test on top of a locomotive cab will
disclose an interesting comparison. The paints to be tested are painted in squares on the
top of the cab roof, which should be sand blasted before the application is made. During
the test the paint squares are inspected and rated as to their condition. This type of
test gives not only the effect of cinder cutting, but also an acid test because the steam
moisture and sulphur gases combine to form dilute sulphuric acid.
Abrasive Tests
Protective paints are sometimes considered for use where abrasion is the most im-
portant factor. This statement refers to coal bins and other places where such materials
are to be used.
A simple test for the abrasive quaUties involves the use of a plate % in. thick and
about 12-in. wide by 18-in. long, each end of which is tapered off at 30 deg. The sur-
face to be coated for test should be sand blasted. Not more than three paints can be
tested at a time on one plate. It is divided into six parts 4 in. wide and 9 in. long; the
three sections at one end of the plate are coated with the three different paints; the
three sections at the other end are painted with the same materials but their locations
are reversed. The plate is then bolted in the chute of a coal dock where it will be sub-
jected to the abrasive action of the moving coal. If possible to do so, it is advisable to
log the tons of coal passing over the plate for comparison with other tests of this
character.
A laboratory test can be made by placing small coated plates in a rotating device
containing small lumps of coal. The machine is then slowly rotated until the coatings
fail, in a manner similar to that occurring in the test above described. The number of
hours to failure is recorded.
Acid Leaching Test
Protective paint coatings are sometimes used where acid leachings or dilute sul-
phuric acid are present. A test for exposure of this type can be conducted by means of
a wooden box approximately six feet square and five feet deep. The bottom of the box
is made of a heavy metal screen. About six inches of coal is placed on the screen and
the coated test panels laid flat on this layer of coal. The panels are coated on both sides
and the edges. Four feet of coal is placed on top of the coated plates. Then, each day
a measured amount of water is sprayed on the coal, allowing this water to run through
the coal down on the plate surface. The coal can be removed from time to time and the
plates inspected and graded.
In a test of this type it is of value to analyze the coal for sulphur content, and
also take samples of some of the leachings to ascertain the acid content. A laboratory
test can be conducted to determine the effect of acid leachings on protective coatings by
immersing small coated steel specimens in a one percent sulphuric acid solution.
242 Buildings
Brine Drippings
The effect of salt must be considered where paint film coatings are subjected
either to salt air or "salt fogs", or to direct brine drippings. The salt solutions are pre-
pared so as to parallel as nearly as possible the conditions under which the paint is to
be used. One cubic centimeter of the brine solution, of desired strength, is applied twice
daily until the paint film fails. The panels are rated with respect to their resistance to
the salt solution.
Paint Testing Equipment and Staff
The paint laboratory should be estabhshed at a location close to the paint supply
storage, where samples of all paint are conveniently accessible. It should be equipped
with paint spray apparatus and a hood ventilated with an exhaust fan. Approved fire
extinguishing equipment is also important. Glassware test apparatus and a centrifuge for
analysis of paints are required. A weatherometer for testing paint panels should be
conveniently located adjacent to the paint room.
The capacity of the test racks for outside atmospheric exposure will depend upon the
number of test panels to be tested. A typical yard exposure rack is shown in Fig. 22.
The test panels may be of any convenient size. However, for railroad work a panel
seven by twelve inches is satisfactory, as it can be conveniently filed for future reference
after the tests are completed.
Exposure racks of lasting qualities can be constructed from angle irons welded to-
gether. They should be coated with a good protective paint. The racks should be so
constructed as to expose the test paint panels at an angle of 45 deg. to the sun, with a
southern exposure. These racks can be located in a field, but the most desirable location
is on the roof of a one or two-story shop building.
At least three outside exposure paint test racks should be provided, one located
close to the paint testing department and the others at various locations over the
railroad where extreme atmospheric conditions may occur.
Special equipment will have to be constructed to meet the various problems enter-
ing into the paint testing work. No specific suggestions regarding the design of this
equipment can be offered to supplement that given in each case, under the procedure
for making special tests. It is necessary, in each case to reproduce as nearly as possible
the conditions under which the paint materials are to be used.
The staff necessary to carry on the investigation will depend on the amount of paint
tested. However, the minimum force should consist of a paint chemist to make chemical
analyses of the paints and care for the weatherometer, and a paint inspector to examine
outside exposure panels on the railroad and do routine paint testing work. If the paint
testing work is of sufficient volume the services of a clerk will be required to assist the
chemist and inspector with the records.
Correlation of Test Data
There has always been considerable discussion of the value of outside exposure tests
and weatherometer tests of paints, particularly with respect to the correlation of the
results obtained from both types of tests on the same sample of paint.
The accelerated weathering testing machine will not forecast the life of a paint in
terms of accelerated hours converted into years of service, until the results are correlated
with actual service of the paint. However, pending such correlation the weatherometer
will give very useful indications and, used in conjunction with other tests, may serve as a
Buildings
243
Fig. 22. — Test Rack for Outside Exposure of Paint Panels.
means of evaluating the probable life of paints. Under controlled conditions it should
also permit the determination of the uniformity of successive paint deliveries.
No test can replace the test of a paint applied to a surface and weathered until
failure. Outside exposure tests on panels at locations where the paint is to be applied
would undoubtedly classify the paint, but such a test could not be completed until long
after the selection of the paint must be made.
Comparative outside exposure tests afford the most ideal method of predicting the
life of a paint at the locations where paint is to be used. Climatic conditions have a
marked effect on the breakdown of a paint film, so the exposure tests should be con-
ducted in each locality where the paint is to be used. On the majority of the railroads
such tests would not be practical.
244 Buildings
The accelerated weathering machine tests the paint samples under fixed conditions
with a definitely prescribed cycle; therefore, tests made at any time can be compared
with other samples tested in the past, if the same cycle and conditions are maintained.
This type of test gives the comparative result in a very short time as compared with the
outside exposure test.
As an illustration, a railroad desires to purchase 500 gal. of building paint and five
manufacturers have submitted samples which they recommend on the basis of their own
outside exposure tests. If panels are prepared in the same manner for each manufactur-
er's paint, and are placed in the weatherometer and tested under the same cycle of
weathering, it is reasonable to assume that the paint on the panel accumulating the
greatest number of hours without breaking down would be the most acceptable paint
for purchase from among the samples tested.
Although the paint manufacturers lean to the outside exposure test on test farms at
various locations over the country, the fact remains that one or more weatherometers are
to be found in their paint laboratories. It is assumed that these weatherometers are used
for the purpose of selecting those paints that have possibilities for outside exposure before
being offered to the railroads.
From the tests outlined in the report four basic elements have been developed: The
quick accelerated weathering test; the outside exposure test at three or more locations
on the railroad, which takes into consideration the different climatic conditions which
may be encountered; the chemical analysis of the material; and the physical char-
acteristics of the paint being tested. The question then arises, will the field service test
show any interesting agreement with the accelerated weathering tests, and what part does
the chemical analysis play in classifying the paints? In other words, after all of the data
have been developed, is it possible to correlate them to bring about a distinct classification
of the paints?
The use of the same solids from similar raw materials and liquids, when mixed in
the same proportions, and compounded in the same manner, should give the same rela-
tive life in the weatherometer and the outside service test under similar climatic conditions.
This correlation can be best illustrated by a typical problem. A paint sample is
selected for test and its physical characteristics are found suitable for the type of mate-
rial on which it is to be used. Weatherometer panels are prepared and tested to accelerated
weathering, and failure is found to occur in 2,000 hours. The exposure panel at the
north end of the line showed an identical failure in three years, the panel at the south
end of the railroad failed in four years, and the panel centrally located failed at three
years. The average life from the outside exposure test would be 3% years over the
entire railroad. Then, by dividing 2,000 by 3% we find that 606 hours of accelerated
weathering of the paint tested is equal to one year of average service on the railroad.
Or, if desired, the hours of accelerated test equivalent to one year's service can be worked
out for the territory represented by each field exposure test.
Suggested Method of Paint Purchases
Any railroad that initiates tests of the kind outlined in this report is confronted
with the fact that the field exposure tests must be continued for three or four years
before they would develop any information of practical value. This obstacle may be
overcome by adopting for temporary use a ratio of 500 hours of accelerated weathering
to one year of average service. Then, as groups of tests are conducted this ratio can be
raised or lowered in accordance with the results shown by the exposure panels at the
various locations over the railroad.
Buildings 245
It is suggested, when paint is purchased, that the bidders furnish a one-gallon sample
of the paint which they would supply if the contract were awarded them, and that an
accelerated weathering test be conducted under the same cycle of weathering on all of
the samples furnished by bidders, the sample resisting failure the longest being selected
for purchase, with due consideration for its economy. An analysis should be made of
the paints from the original samples furnished so that when the paint purchased has been
received a check analysis can be made for comparison with the original sample.
This report has been presented by your committee primarily as a guide for those who
use paints. By reason of the tremendous growth of the paint industries and of the
research which they carry on, many new paint materials are being introduced from year
to year. Therefore, the selection of paints from among the many varieties available will
have to be based on correlated test data prepared as correctly as possible.
The report is presented as information.
Report of Committee 7 — Wood Bridges and Trestles
H. M. Church, Chairman,
H. AUSTILL
M. W. Beach
S. Blumenthal
H. F. BOBER
G. M. Cornell
F. H. Cramer
G. S. Crites
D. H. Dowe
S. F. Grear
G. V. Guerin, Jr.
Hugh Everett, Jr.
W. E. Hawley
H. C. Heinlen
C. J. HoGUE
C. S. Johnson
J. V. Johnston
W. D. Keeney
J. E. Myer
W. O. Nelson
R. P. Hart, Vice-Chairman,
J. A. Newlin
W. H. O'Brien
W. A. Oliver
W. L. Peoples
G. W. Rear
Arthur Ridgway
W. C. Schakel
L. W. Smith
William Walkden
Com,mittee
To the American Railway Engineering Association:
Your committee reports on the following subjects:
1. Revision of the Manual.
Progress report including recommended revisions of the Manual necessary for com-
pliance with revised American Lumber Standards page 248
2. Simplification of grading rules and classification of timber for railway uses,
collaborating with other organizations interested.
Progress report — submitted as information page 273
3. Overhead wood or combination wood and metal highway bridges, collaborating
with Committee IS — Iron and Steel Structures: Confer with proper committee of Ameri-
can Association of State Highway Officials.
No report.
4. Specifications for design of wood bridges and trestles.
Progress report — submitted as information page 273
5. Bearing power of wood piles, with recommendation as to methods of determina-
tion, collaborating with Committee 8 — Masonry.
Report on this assignment presented under Subject 6.
6. Recommended relationships between the energy of hammer and the weight or
mass of pile for proper pile driving, to include concrete piles, collaborating with
Committee 8 — Masonry.
Progress report — submitted as information page 282
7. Design of timber structures —
(a) To give longer life with lower cost of maintenance.
(b) For heavy loading.
No report.
8. Fireproofing wood bridges and trestles, including placing of fire stops.
Final report^ — with recommendations for inclusion in the Manual page 291
9. Specifications and design of fastenings for timber structures, including metal
joint connectors.
No report.
10. Use of tar and asphalt compositions for wearing surfaces on wood floored
highway bridges.
No report.
The Committee on Wood Bridges and Trestles,
H. M. Church, Chairman.
i
Bulletin 422, January, 1941.
247
248 Wood Bridges and Trestles
Report on Assignment 1
Revision of Manual
R. P. Hart (chairman, subcommittee), G. V. Guerin, Jr., W. E. Hawley, J. V. Johnston,
Arthur Ridgway, William Walkden.
The committee reviewed American Lumber Standards — Simpliiied Practice Recom-
mendation R-16-39, which was approved by the National Bureau of Standards Octo-
ber IS, 1939, and in collaboration with the AREA representative on the Central
Committee on Lumber Standards has approved the revisions, which are recommended
for inclusion in the Manual together with changes as follows:
Withdraw the Specifications for Wood Shingles appearing on pages 7-11 to 7-15,
inclusive.
Revise the Specifications for Structural Timbers as set forth in detail below:
Page 7-18, in the Foreword —
Delete Paragraph 7, reading as follows:
7. No piece of exceptionally light weight should be accepted for structural timber use.
Renumber Paragraphs 8, 9 and 10 as Paragraphs 7, 8 and 9.
Page 7-19, under I General Requirements —
Add the following to Paragraph 102. General Quahty:
No pieces of exceptionally light weight shall be permitted in any structural grade.
Pitch pockets are not required to be limited in structural grades.
Revise Paragraph 104 to read as follows:
104. Wane
When wane is permitted, the bark shall be entirely removed. Wane is measured at
the point of most wane on any face.
Renumber Paragraph 106. Heartwood, as Paragraph 105.
Delete Paragraph 105. Crossgrain, and substitute the following:
106. Slope of Grain
Slope of grain shall be measured over a distance sufficiently great to determine the
general slope, disregarding short local deviations.
In joists and planks, beams and stringers, slope of grain is limited only within the
middle half of the length of a piece.
In posts and timbers, slope of grain is limited in any part of a piece.
Pages 7-20 to 7-23, inclusive —
Withdraw Paragraphs 107 to 121, inclusive, and replace with the following new
Paragraphs 107 to ISO, inclusive:
Density
107. The following methods for determining density of Douglas fir and southern
pine are for use with the grades where density is required.
108. Dense Douglas fir and southern pine shall average on either one end or the
other not less than 6 annual rings per inch, and, in addition, one-third or more summer-
wood (the darker, harder portion of the annual ring) over a 3-inch portion of a radial
line located as described below. The contrast in color between summerwood and spring-
wood shall be distinct.
109. Pieces averaging less than 6 annual rings per inch shall be accepted as dense
if averaging one-half or more summerwood.
Wood Bridges and Trestles 249
110. In inspection for density, reasonable variation of opinion between inspectors
must be recognized. In reinspection of a particular lot of lumber for density, for every
three pieces accepted as having one-third or more summerwood, one of the remaining
pieces shall be accepted if agreed upon as having between 30 and 33% percent
summerwood.
Radial Line
111. The radial line shall be representative of the average growth on the cross
section.
112. When the radial line specified is not representative, it shall be shifted suffi-
ciently to present a fair average, but the distance from the pith to the beginning of the
3-inch portion of the line in boxed-pith pieces shall not be changed.
113. In case of disagreement, two radial lines shall be chosen, and the number of
rings per inch and percentage of summerwood shall be the average of these lines.
Location of Radial Line in Douglas Fir and Redwood
114. In boxed-pith pieces the radial line shall run front the pith to the corner
farthest from the pith. When the least dimension is 6 inches or less, the 3-inch portion
of the hne shall begin at a distance of 1 inch from the pith. When the least dimension is
more than 6 inches, the 3-inch portion of the hne shall begin at a distance from the
pith equal to one-fourth the least dimension of the piece.
lis. In pithless pieces the center of the 3-inch portion of the radial hne shall be
at the center of the end of the piece.
116. If a 3 -inch portion of a radial line cannot be obtained, the measurement shall
be made over as much of a 3-inch portion as is available.
Location of Radial Line in Southern Pine
117. In boxed-pith pieces the measurement shall be made over the third, fourth,
and fifth inches from the pith along the radial line.
118. In pieces containing the pith, but not a S-inch radial line, which are less than
2 by 8 inches in section or less than 8 inches in width, that do not show over 16 square
inches on the cross section, the inspection shall apply to the second inch from the pith.
In larger pieces that do not show a S-inch radial line, the inspection shall apply to the
3 inches farthest from the pith.
119. In cases where pieces do not contain the pith and it is impossible to locate it
with any degree of accuracy, the same inspection shall be made over 3 inches on an
approximate radial hne beginning at the edge nearest the pith in pieces over 3 inches in
thickness, and on the second inch nearest the pith in pieces 3 inches or less in thickness.
Close Grain
120. The following methods for determining rate of growth of Douglas fir and
redwood are for use with grades where close grain is required.
121. Close-grained Douglas fir shall average on either one end or the other not less
than 6 nor more than 20 annual rings per inch, over a 3-inch portion of a radial Une
located as described below.
122. Pieces averaging S rings or more than 20 shall be accepted as equivalent of
close grain if having one-third or more summerwood.
123. Close-grained redwood shall average on either one end or the other not less
than 10 nor more than 3S annual rings per inch, over a 3-inch portion of a radial Hne
located as described below.
250 Wood Bridges and Trestles
Holes
124. Holes from knots and from causes other than knots are measured and limited
as are knots.
Faces and Edges
125. The faces of a piece of lumber are the four longitudinal surfaces of the piece,
sometimes further designated as "wide" faces or "narrow" faces.
126. The edges of a piece of lumber are understood to be the narrower faces, and
the sides the wider faces. In describing the locations of knots and other grade limitations
in structural lumber, however, the edges of a given face are understood to be the
intersection of two adjacent faces, commonly called corners.
127. In a piece of lumber graded for use in bending, wide faces shall be taken as
vertical faces, and narrow faces as horizontal faces, unless otherwise specified.
128. When the faces of structural lumber, 5 by 5 inches and larger, are of equal
nominal width, grades for posts and timbers shall be used, unless otherwise specified.
When such faces are of unequal nominal width, grades for beams and stringers shall be
used, unless otherwise specified.
Knots
129. Knots crossing the corners of pithless pieces which do not extend beyond the
area of permissible wane are not considered.
130. Cluster knots are not permitted in structural grades.
Knots in Joists and Planks
131. In joists and planks the only knots measured on narrow faces, except knots
that cross the corners of pithless pieces, are those which do not show on wide faces, and
their size is the distance between lines enclosing the knot and parallel to the edges of the
piece.
132. On wide faces the size of knot is its average diameter, except that knots which
cross the corners of pithless pieces and contain the intersections of adjacent faces shall
be measured only on the end appearing on the face containing the shorter portion, and
knots which extend entirely across a face shall be measured at both ends, both measure-
ments between lines enclosing the knot and parallel to the edges of the piece.
133. The size of knots on narrow faces and at edges of wide faces may increase
proportionately from the size permitted in the middle third of the length to twice that
size at the ends of the piece.
134. The size of knots on wide faces may increase proportionately from the size
permitted at the edge to the size permitted along the center line.
135. The sum of the sizes of all knots within the middle half of the length of any
face, measured as specified by paragraphs 131 and 132 for the face under consideration,
shall not exceed, in a piece 16 feet long, four and one-half times the size of the largest
knot allowed on that face. In other lengths this sum shall not exceed the sum per-
mitted in the 16-foot length multiplied by the fraction (L -\- 16)/32, where L = length
in feet. In pieces longer than 16 feet the sum of the sizes of the knots within any
8-foot portion of the middle half of the length shall not exceed four and one-half times
the largest knot allowed on that face.
Knots in Beams and Stringers
136. In beams and stringers, the size of a knot on a narrow face is the distance
between lines enclosing the knot and parallel to the edges of the piece, except that when
the knot extends into the adjacent fourth of the wide face the smallest diameter is its
Wood Bridges and Trestles 251
size. The size of a knot on the wide face is its smallest diameter, but at the edges the
size is limited as on the narrow face.
137. Knots which cross the corners of pithless pieces and contain the intersections
of adjacent faces shall be measured only at the end appearing on the face containing the
shorter portion; knots which extend entirely across a face shall be measured at both
ends, both measurements between Unes enclosing the knot and parallel to the edges of
the piece.
138. The size of knots on narrow faces and at edges of wide faces may increase pro-
portionately from the size permitted in the middle third of the length to twice that size
at the ends of the piece, except that the size of no knot shall exceed the size permitted
along the center line of the wide face.
139. The size of knots on wide faces may increase proportionately from the size
permitted at the edge to the size permitted along the center line.
140. The sum of the sizes of all knots within the middle half of the length of any
face, measured as specified by paragraph 136, for the face under consideration, shall
not exceed, in a piece, 16 feet long, four times the size of the largest knot allowed on
that face. In other lengths this sum shall not exceed the sum permitted in the 16-foot
length multiplied by the fraction (L + 16)/32, where L =: length in feet. In pieces
longer than 16 feet the sum of the sizes of the knots within any 8-foot portion of the
middle half of the length shall not exceed four times the largest knot allowed on that face.
Knots in Posts and Timbers
141. In posts and timbers, the size of a knot at any point on any face is its average
diameter, except that knots which cross the corners of pithless pieces and contain the
intersections of adjacent faces shall be measured only at the end appearing on the face
containing the shorter portion, and knots which extend entirely across a face shall be
measured at both ends, both measurements between Hnes enclosing the knot and parallel
to the edges of the piece.
142. The sum of the sizes of all knots in any 6 inches of the length of a piece,
measured as specified in paragraph 141, shall not exceed twice the maximum permissible
size of knot. Two knots of maximum permissible size are not allowed in the same 6 inches
of length on any face.
Shakes, Checks, and Splits
143. The sum of the sizes of shakes, checks, splits, or any combination thereof shall
not exceed the permissible size of shake.
144. Checks extending entirely across the end within the middle half of the height
shall not extend into the piece at the center of the width at the end a distance greater
than the size of the allowable shake.
Shakes in Joists and Planks, Beams and Stringers
145. Shakes are measured at the ends of a piece. Only those within the middle half
of the height of the piece are considered. (Height equals width of wide face.) The size
of a shake is the distance between lines enclosing the shake and parallel to the wide faces
of the piece. The permissible size is determined by the width of the narrow face of the
piece.
Shakes in Posts and Timbers
146. The size of a shake is the greater dimension of a rectangle enclosing the shake
and having its sides parallel to the faces of the piece.
252
Wood Bridges and Trestles
Checks and Splits in Joists and Planks, Beams and Stringers
147. The limitations apply to both ends but only within the middle half of the
height of a piece and within three times the height from the end. (Height equals width
of wide face.) The size of checks within this portion of a piece shall be their estimated
area, along the horizontal section showing maximum area, divided by three times the
height of the piece. When checks on two parallel faces are opposite or approximately so,
the sum of their sizes is taken.
Checks and Splits in Posts and Timbers
148. Size of checks shall be the sum of seven depth measurements, one on the end
and three on each of two sides, divided by 3. Each measurement shall be the greatest
depth of any check within the above-specified portion of the piece ; the measurement
on the end made at the middle of the width of the piece and the six measurements on the
sides at 1, 2 and 3 times the height of the piece from the end in joist, plank, beams and
stringers, and the width of the piece from the end in posts and timbers. Each depth meas-
urement shall be determined by the penetration into the piece of a probe <h inch thick and
% inch wide.
Dimensions
149. The standard sizes of structural timbers are as shown in the following table:
Joists and Beams and Posts and
Planks Stringers Timbers
Nominal thickness 2" to but not 5" or more S" or more
including 5"
Nominal width 4" or more 8" or more 5" or more
Standard length Multiples of 2' Multiples of 2' Multiples of 2'
Sizes in fractional inches or odd feet are special cutting.
Tolerances and Surfacing Allowances
150. The actual dimensions of structural timbers when green shall conform to the
following tolerances and surfacing allowances.
Minimum* Surfaced Minimum* Surfaced
Nominal Rough Thickness Nominal Rough Width
Thickness Thickness SIS or S2S Width
Width SlEorSZE
Joists, planks and other 2" ^" off Yf," off 4"
framing members with 3" fn" off do 6"
load applied to either 4" do do 8" & wdr.
wide face or narrow face.
■\s" off
do
y4" off
^"off
do
K" off
Beams, stringers and 5", 6" do ^" off
other heavy members 8" and 34" off do
with load applied to thicker
narrow face.
8" & wdr.
do
do
Posts, timbers and other
members to carry longi-
tudinal loads.
S"
6"
8" and
thicker
-h" off
do
%" off
y%" off
y^" off
do
S"
6"
8" & wdr.
T%"0ff
do
yc off
Permissible in not to exceed 20 percent of the pieces in any one shipment.
y?," off
3^" off
do
Wood Bridges and Trestles 253
Pages 7-23 and 7-24
Renumber Paragraphs 122 to 128, inclusive, as Paragraphs 151 to 157, inclusive.
Page 7-69
Delete bold face heading:
GRADING RULES AND CLASSIFICATION OF TIMBER AND
LUMBER FOR RAILWAY USES
and replace with the following:
NOMENCLATURE OF COMMERCIAL DOMESTIC SOFTWOODS
AND HARDWOODS
1940
Revise Paragraph heading 101 reading —
101. Nomenclature of Commercial Domestic Softwoods
to read:
501. Softwoods
Page 7-71
Revise Paragraph 102 reading —
102. Nomenclature of Commercial Domestic Hardwoods
to read:
502. Hardwoods
Pages 7-73 to 7-80, inclusive
Withdraw the heading II CLASSIFICATIONS and all of the material following on
pages 7-74 to 7-80 inclusive, and substitute the following matter:
DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED IN DESCRIBING STANDARD
GRADES FOR LUMBER
601. Definitions
The commonly recognized characteristics and conditions occurring in lumber are:
Bark pockets
Bird's-eye
Checks
Cross breaks
Cross grain
Decay
Gum spots and streaks, etc.
Holes
Knots
Mismanufacture
Pitch
Pitch pockets
Pitch seams
Pitch streaks
Pith
Pith flecks
Shake
Sphts
Stain
Wane
Warp
advanced (or typical) decay. See decay.
air dried. Seasoned by exposure to the atmosphere, in the open or under cover, without
artificial heat.
all-heart. Of heartwood throughout; that is, free of sapwood.
254 Wood Bridges and Trestles
American standard lumber. See paragraph 830.
annual ring. Growth layer put on in a single growth year.
bark pocket. Patch of bark partially or wholly enclosed in the wood; classified as are
pitch pockets.
bastard sawn. With annual rings which form angles of 30° to 60° with the surface of
the piece.
beam. Lumber of rectanguler cross section, graded with respect to its strength in bend-
ing when loaded on the narrow face. Nominal thicknesses: S or more inches;
Nominal widths: 8 or more inches. Standard sizes: SlS, SlE, S2S, or S4S, J^ inch
off each way. Standard lengths: Multiples of 2 feet.
bird's-eye. Small central spot with the wood fibers arranged around it in the form of an
ellipse, so as to give the appearance of an eye. Not objectionable, unless unsound
or hollow.
blemish. Anything marring the appearance of lumber which is not classifiable as a defect.
board. See paragraphs 802 and 848.
bow. See warp.
boxed pith. When the pith is between the four faces on an end of a piece..
branch knot. See knot.
break. See cross break.
bright (sapwood). Unstained.
broadleaved. See hardwood.
burl. Distorted grain surrounding the piths of several buds which did not develop.
burn. See machine burn.
butted. Sawed square at the ends.
characteristics. Distinguishing features which by their extent and number determine the
quality of a piece of lumber.
check (seasoning). Lengthwise separation of the wood, most of which occurs across the
rings of annual growth.
surface check. Occurs on a surface of a piece.
small surface check. Perceptible opening not over 4 inches long.
medium surface check. Not over s's inch wide and over 4, but not over 10 inches
long.
large surface check. Over g^ inch wide and over 10 inches long.
end check. Occurs on an end of a piece.
through check (split). Extends from one surface through the piece to the opposite
surface or to an adjoining surface.
heart check. See shake.
chipped grain. Area where the surface is chipped or broken out in very short particles
below the line of cut. Not classed as torn grain and, as usually found, is not
considered unless in excess of 25 percent of the surface involved.
clear. Free of all blemishes, characteristics, or defects.
close grain. See paragraphs 120, 123.
closed pitch pocket. See pitch pocket.
coarse grain. Wide annual rings, or rings made conspicuous by considerable difference in
proportions of springwood and summerwood.
common lumber. See paragraph 844.
conifer. See softwood.
crook. See warp.
cross break. Separation of the wood cells across the grain, such as may be due to tension
resulting from unequal shrinkage or mechanical stress.
Wood Bridges and Trestles 255
cross cutting. See cutting.
cross grain (slope of grain). Deviation of the fiber from a line parallel to the sides of
the piece. Cross grain may be diagonal, spiral, or both.
slight cross grain. Slope of grain not over 1 inch in a length of 15 inches.
medium cross grain. Slope of grain over 1 inch in a length of IS inches, but not over
1 inch in a length of 10 inches.
steep cross grain. Slope of grain over 1 inch in a length of 10 inches.
cross grain (shingles). Deviation of the fiber from the longitudinal axis of the shingle.
See paragraph 868.
cup. See WARP.
cup shake. See shake.
cutting. The portion of a board or plank obtained by sawing it crosswise or lengthwise,
or both ways, which is then flat enough to be surfaced on both sides to standard
thickness and which has straight edges.
decay. Disintegration of wood substance due to action of wood-destroying fungi. Also
known as dote and rot.
advanced (or typical) decay. Older stage of decay in which disintegration is readily
recognized because the wood has become punky, soft, and spongy, stringy, shaky,
pitted, or crumbly. Decided discoloration or bleaching of the rotted wood is often
apparent.
incipient decay. Early stage of decay in which disintegration has not proceeded far
enough to soften or otherwise change the hardness of the wood perceptibly.
Usually accompanied by a slight discoloration or bleaching of the wood.
pocket rot. Typical decay which appears in the form of a hole, pocket, or area of
soft rot, usually surrounded by apparently sound wood.
water soak or stain. Water-soaked area in heartwood, usually interpreted as the
incipent stage of certain wood rots.
defect. Any irregularity in or on wood that may lower its durability, strength, or utility
value.
de-grades. Pieces which on reinspection prove of lower quality than the grade in which
they were shipped.
density rules. See paragraphs 107, 110.
diagonal grain (lumber). See cross grain.
diagonal grain (shingles). Deviation of the grain from a line parallel to the edges of the
shingle. See paragraph 869.
dimension. See paragraphs 802 and 848.
discoloration. See stain.
dote. See decay.
double end trimmed. Sawed square at both ends.
dressed lumber. See paragraph 804, Surfaced.
dry. Not green. See air dried, kiln dried, moisture content, seasoning, and smoke
DRIED.
edge. See paragraph 126.
edge grain (vertical grain). Annual rings (so-called grain) which form an angle of 45°
or more with the surface of the piece. See also flat grain.
encased knot. See knot.
end check. See check.
face. See paragraphs 125, 128.
firm knot. See knot.
256 Wood Bridges and Trestles
firm red heart. A stage of incipient decay characterized by a reddish color in the heart-
wood, which does not unfit the wood for the majority of yard purposes.
fiat grain (slash grain). Annual rings (so-called grain) which form an angle of less than
45° with the surface of the piece. See also edge grain.
fleck. See pith fleck.
gouge. See machine gouge.
grain. See chipped, coarse, cross, diagonal, edge, flat, loosened, mixed, raised, spiral,
STRAIGHT, and torn grain.
green. Unseasoned; not dry.
gum pocket. Well-defined opening between rings of annual growth which usually con-
tains, or did contain, more or less gum; classified as are pitch pockets. Bark also
may be in the pocket.
gum seam. Check or shake filled with gum.
gum spot. Accumulation of gumlike substance occurring as a small patch. May occur in
conjunction with a bird-peck or other injury to the growing wood.
gum streak. Well-defined accumulation of gum in a more or less regular streak; classified
as are pitch streaks.
hard rot. See incipient decay.
hardwood. One of the group of trees which have broad leaves. The term has no refer-
ence to the hardness of the wood.
heart check. See pith shake.
heart face. Face side free of sapwood.
heart, red. See firm red heart.
heart shake. See pith shake.
heartwood. Inner core of the tree trunk comprising the annual rings containing nonliving
elements; usually darker in color than sapwood.
hit and miss. Series of surfaced areas with skips not over tV inch deep between them.
hit or miss. To skip or surface a piece for a part or the whole of its length, provided it
is nowhere more than iV inch scant.
holes. Holes may extend partially or entirely through a piece and be from any cause.
To determine the size of a hole, average the maximum and minimum diameters,
unless otherwise specified.
pin hole. Not over tV inch in diameter.
medium hole. Over iV inch, but not over % inch in diameter.
large hole. Over % inch in diameter.
hollow knot. See knot.
incipient decay. See decay.
industrial lumber. See paragraphs 848, 850.
intergrown knot. See knot.
joists. Lumber of rectangular cross section, graded with respect to its strength in bend-
ing when loaded either on the narrow face as joist or on the wide face as plank.
Nominal thicknesses: 2 inches to, but not including, 5 inches. Nominal widths:
4 or more inches. Standard thicknesses: SlS or S2S, J^ inch off. Standard widths:
4 to 7 inches SlE or S2E, -j/g inch off; 8 or more inches wide SIE or S2E, yi inch
off. Standard lengths: Multiples of 2 feet.
kiln dried. Seasoned in a chamber by means of artificial heat.
knot. Branch or hmb, embedded in the tree and cut through in the process of lumbei
manufacture; classified according to size, quality, and occurrence. To determine
the size of a knot, average the maximum length and maximum width, unless
otherwise specified.
Wood Bridges and Trestles 257
knot size:
pin knot. Not over y^ inch in diameter.
small knot. Over J^ inch, but not over ^ inch in diameter.
medium knot. Over ^4 inch, but not over IJ^ inches in diameter.
large knot. Over IJ/2 inches in diameter.
knot quality:
decayed knot. Softer than the surrounding wood, and containing advanced decay.
encased knot. Its rings of annual growth are not intergrown with those of the sur-
rounding wood. The encasement may be partial or complete; of pitch or bark.
hollow knot. Apparently sound and having in it a hole over % inch in diameter.
intergrown knot. Its rings of annual growth are completely intergrown with those
of the surrounding wood.
loose knot. Not held tightly in place by growth or position, and cannot be relied
upon to remain in place.
unstable knot. Will hold its place in a dry piece under ordinary conditions; can be
moved under pressure, though not easily pushed out.
pith knot. Sound knot having pith hole not over ^ inch in diameter.
sound knot. Solid across its face, as hard as the surrounding wood, and showing no
indications of decay. May vary in color from red to black.
star-checked knot. Having radial checks.
tight knot. So fixed by growth or position as to retain its place.
firm knot. Solid across its face, but containing incipient decay.
water-tight knot. Its rings of annual growth are completely intergrown with those
of the surrounding wood on one surface of the piece, and it is sound on that
surface.
knot occurrence:
branch knots. Two or more divergent knots sawed lengthwise and tapering toward
the pith at a common point.
corner knot (in structural lumber only). Contains the intersection of adjacent faces;
measured only as provided in paragraphs 131, 132, 137, 141.
knot cluster. Two or more knots grouped together, the fibers of the wood being
deflected around the entire unit. A group of single knots is not a knot cluster.
single knot. Occurs by itself, the fibers of the wood being deflected around it.
loose knot. See knot.
loosened grain. Small portion of the wood loosened but not displaced.
lumber. See general, under American Lumber Standards for Softwood Lumber.
machine burn. Darkening or charring due to overheating by machine knives.
machine gouge. Groove due to the machine cutting below the desired line of cut.
massed pitch. See pitch.
matched lumber. See paragraph 804.
miscut lumber. That having a greater variation in thickness or width at different places
on the piece than that specified for variation in sawing.
mismamifacture. Includes all defects or blemishes produced in manufacturing. See chipped
grain, hit and miss, hit or miss, loosened grain, machlne burn, machine
GOUGE, miscut LUMBER, MISMATCHED LUMBER, RAISED GRAIN, SKIP, TORN GRAIN, and
variation in SAWING.
mismatched lumber. Worked lumber that does not fit tightly at all points of contact
between adjoining pieces, or in which the surfaces of adjoining pieces are not in
the same plane.
slight mismatch. Surface variation not over u'? inch.
258 Wood Bridges and Trestles
medium mismatch. Surface variation over ^, but not over 5*2 inch.
heavy mismatch. Surface variation over s'2 inch.
mixed grain. Any combination of edge grain and fiat grain.
moisture content. Weight of the water in wood expressed in percentage of the weight of
oven-dry wood.
patterned lumber. See paragraph 804.
peck (found in cedar and cypress). Channeled or pitted areas or pockets of localized
decay.
pecky. Characterized by peck.
pin hole. See hole.
pin knot. See knot.
pitch. Accumulation of resin in the wood cells in a more or less irregular patch.
light pitch. Lightly evident presence of pitch.
medium pitch. Trace of pitch slightly more evident than light pitch.
heavy pitch. Very evident presence of pitch showing by its color and consistency.
massed pitch. Clearly defined accumulation of solid pitch in a body by itself.
pitch pocket. Well-defined opening between rings of annual growth, usually containing,
or which has contained, more or less pitch, either solid or liquid. Bark also may be
present in the pocket.
very small pitch pocket. Not over ^ inch in width and not over 2 inches in length.
small pitch pocket. Not over % inch in width and not over 4 inches in length; or
not over % inch in width and not over 2 inches in length.
medium pitch pocket. Not over % inch in width and not over 8 inches in length;
or not over ^ inch in width and not over 4 inches in length.
large pitch pocket. Width or length exceeds the maximum permissible for a medium
pitch pocket.
closed pitch pocket. Does not show an opening on both sides of the piece.
open (through) pitch pocket. Is cut across on both sides of the piece.
pitch seam. Shake or check filled with pitch.
pitch streak. Well-defined accumulation of pitch in a more or less regular streak.
small pitch streak. Not over one-twelfth the width by one-sixth the length of the
surface on which it occurs.
medium pitch streak. Over one-twelfth, but not over one-sixth the width by over
one-sixth but not over one-third the length of the surface on which it occurs.
large pitch streak. Over one-sixth the width by one-third the length of the surface
on which it occurs.
pith. Small soft core in the structural center of a log.
boxed pith. When the pith is within the four faces on an end of a piece.
pith fleck. Narrow streak resembUng pith on the surface of a piece, usually brownish,
up to several inches in length, resulting from burrowing of larvae in the growing
tissue of the tree.
pith knot. See knot.
pith shake. See shake.
plain sawed. See flat grain.
plank. See paragraph 803 ; also joists.
pocket. See bark, gum, and pitch pocket.
pocket rot. See decay.
post. Lumber of square or approximately square cross section, graded primarily for use
as posts or columns carrying longitudinal load, but adapted to miscellaneous uses
in which strength in bending is not especially important. Nominal sizes: 5 by 5
Wood Bridges and Trestles 259
inches and larger. Standard sizes: SlS, SlE, S2S, or S4S, in less than 6 by 6
inches, ^ inch oJEf each way; 6 by 6 inches and larger, y^ inch off each way.
Standard lengths: Multiples of 2 feet.
quarter sawed. See edge grain.
radial. Coincident with a radius from the axis (pith) of the tree to the circumference.
raised grain. Roughened condition of the surface of dressed lumber in which the hard
summerwood is raised above the softer springwood, but not torn loose from it.
red heart. See firm red heart.
rift grain. See edge grain.
ring. See annual ring.
rot, hard. See incipient decay.
rot, soft. See advanced decay.
rough edge. Piece which failed to surface on both edges because of scant sawing.
rough lumber. See paragraph 804.
rough spot. See skip.
round shake. See shake.
sap. See sapwood.
sapwood. Outer layers of growth in a tree, exclusive of bark, which contain living ele-
ments ; usually lighter in color than heartwood.
bright sapwood. Unstained.
saw sized. Sized with fine saws for uses where exact dimensions but not dressed surfaces
are necessary.
sawing. See variation in sawing, miscut lumber, bastard sawn, butted, double end
trimmed, plain sawed (flat grain), quarter sawed (edge grain), saw sized.
seam. See gum and pitch seam.
seasoning. Evaporation or extraction of moisture from green or partially dried wood. See
paragraph 811, also air dried, kiln dried, moisture content, smoke dried.
select lumber. See paragraph 844.
Shake. Separation along the grain, most of which occurs between the rings of annual
growth.
fine shake. A barely perceptible opening.
slight shake. More than a perceptible opening, but not over g'a inch wide.
medium shake. Over s's, but not over ^ inch wide.
open shake. Over J^-inch wide.
cup shake. Does not completely encircle the pith.
round shake. Completely encircles the pith.
shell shake. When both ends of a shake which has been cut across occur on the face
or edge of a piece.
through shake. Extending from one surface through the piece to the opposite surface
or to an adjoining surface.
pith shake, (heart check). Extends across the rings of annual growth in one or more
directions from the pith toward, but not to the surface of a piece. Distinguished
from season check by having its greatest width nearest the pith, whereas the
greatest width of a season check is ordinarily at the surface of a piece, and when
a piece has boxed pith the greatest width of a season check is farthest from the
pith.
shiplapped lumber. See paragraph 804.
side cut. A pithless piece.
single knot. See knot.
skip. Area on a piece that failed to surface, classified as follows:
260 Wood Bridges and Trestles
slight skip. Area not over six times the width of the piece that the planer knife
failed to surface smoothly.
shallow (small) skip. Area not over six times the width of the piece that the planer
knife failed to touch by not over 3^2 inch.
deep (heavy) skip. Area not over twelve times the width of the piece that the planer
knife failed to touch by not over -^ inch.
slash grain. See flat grain.
smoke dried. Seasoned in the open, exposed to the heat and smoke of a fire maintained
beneath and within stacks of lumber.
soak. See water soak.
soft rot. See advanced decay.
softwood. One of the group of trees which have needle-like or scale-like leaves. The
term has no reference to the softness of the wood.
solid knot. See knot.
sound. Free of decay.
spiral grain. Fibers which extend spirally about, instead of vertically along, the bole of
a tree.
split (through check). Lengthwise separation of the wood extending from one surface
through the piece to the opposite surface or to an adjoining surface.
short split. Length does not exceed either the width of a piece or one-sixth its length.
medium split. Length exceeds the width of a piece, but does not exceed one-sixth its
length.
long split. Length exceeds one-sixth the length of a piece.
spot. See GUM and rough spot.
springwood. More or less open and porous tissue marking the inner part of each annual
ring, formed early in the period of growth.
square edged. Free of wane.
square (of shingles). See paragraph 871.
stain. Discoloration, occurring on or in lumber, of any color other than the natural color
of the piece on which it appears; classified as follows:
light stain. Slight difference in color which will not materially impair the appearance
of the piece if given a natural finish.
medium stain. Pronounced difference in color which, although it does not obscure
the grain of the wood, is customarily objectionable in a natural but not in a
painted finish.
heavy stain. Difference in color so pronounced as practically to obscure the grain
of the wood.
straight grain. Wood in which the fiber does not deviate from a line parallel to the sides
of the piece sufficiently to constitute sUght cross grain.
streak. See gum and pitch streak.
stringer. See beams.
strip. See paragraph 802.
structural lumber. See beams.
summerwood. Denser fibrous outer portion of each annual ring, usually without conspicu-
ous pores, formed late in the growing period, not necessarily in summer.
surface check. See check.
surfaced lumber. See paragraph 804.
through check. See check.
through shake. See shake.
tight knot. See knot.
Wood Bridges and Trestles 261
timbers. See paragraphs 802, 803. See beams and posts.
torn grain. Part of the wood torn out in dressing; classified as follows:
slight torn grain. Not over s'2 inch in depth.
medium torn grain. Over 5^2, but not over iV inch deep.
heavy torn grain. Over -in, but not over Ys inch deep.
deep torn grain. Over ]/% inch deep.
typical decay. See decay.
uneven sawing. See variation in sawing.
unsound. Decayed.
unstable knot. See knot.
variation in sawing. Deviation from the line of cut. Slight variation is not over -h inch
in 1-inch lumber, Y, inch in 2-inch, tg inch in 3- to 7-inch, and ^ inch in 8-inch
and larger lumber.
vertical grain. See edge grain.
wane. Bark, or the lack of wood from any cause, on the corner of a piece.
slight wane. Not over ^ inch wide on the surface on which it appears, for one-sixth
the length and one-fourth the thickness of the piece.
medium wane. Over J4 inch, but not over J^ inch wide on the surface on which it
appears, for one-sixth the length and one-fourth the thickness of the piece.
large wane. Over Yz inch wide on the surface on which it appears, or over one-sixth
the length and one-fourth the thickness of the piece, or both.
Page 7-81
Delete the following items:
CBIS&E Edge and center bead one side; i.e., surfaced one or two sides and
with a longitudinal edge and center bead on a surfaced face.
CB2S&E Edge and center bead two sides; i.e., all four sides surfaced and
with a longitudinal edge and center bead on the two faces.
CVlS&E Edge and center V one side; i.e., surfaced one or two sides and with
a longitudinal edge and center V-shaped groove on a surfaced face.
CV2S&E Edge and center V two sides; i.e., all four sides surfaced and with a
longitudinal edge and center V-shaped groove on the two faces.
Insert following alphabetically:
E&CBlS Edge and center bead one side; surfaced one or two sides and with
a longitudinal edge and center bead on a surfaced face.
E&CB2S Edge and center bead two sides; all four sides surfaced and with a
longitudinal edge and center bead on the two faces.
E&CVIS Edge and center V one side; surfaced one or two sides and with a
longitudinal edge and center V-shaped groove on a surfaced face.
E&CV2S Edge and center V two sides ; all four sides surfaced and with a longi-
tudinal edge and center V-shaped groove on each of the two
faces.
M.G Mixed grain..
262 Wood Bridges and Trestles
Pages 7-85 to 7-99, inclusive —
Delete all of the matter now appearing under the heading:
AMERICAN LUMBER STANDARDS FOR SOFTWOOD LUMBER
and substitute the following:
GENERAL
[Lumber is the product of the saw and planing mill not further manufactured than by
sawing, resawing, and passing lengthwise through a standard planing machine, cross-
cutting to length and working. Lumber of thickness not in excess of one-quarter
inch to be used for veneering is classified as veneer.]
Classifications
Use classification
801. For the purpose of simplification of sizes and grades and of equahzing, among
species used for similar general purposes, the grades of a similar name, lumber shall be
classified by principal use as shown below. Different grading rules may apply to each
class.
Yard lumber.- — Lumber of all sizes and patterns which is intended for general build-
ing purposes. The grading of yard lumber is based on the intended use of the
particular grade and is applied to each piece with reference to its size and length
when graded, without consideration to further manufacture.
Factory and shop lumber. — Lumber intended to be cut up for use in further manu-
facture. It is graded on the basis of the percentage of the area which will produce
a limited number of cuttings of a specified, or of a given minimum, size and quality.
Structural lumber.—Lurahtr that is 2 or more inches thick and 4 or more inches
wide, intended for use where working stresses are required. The grading of struc-
tural lumber is based on the strength of the piece and the use of the entire piece.
Size classification
802. Yard lumber is classified by size as shown below:
Strips. — ^Yard lumber less than 2 inches thick and less than 8 inches wide.
Boards. — Yard lumber less than 2 inches thick, 8 or more inches wide.
Dimension.— A\\ yard lumber except boards, strips, and timbers; that is, yard lumber
from 2 inches to but not including 5 inches thick, and of any width.
Timbers. — Lumber 5 or more inches in least dimension.
803. Structural lumber is classified by size as shown below:
Dimension (joists and planks). — ^Lumber from 2 inches to but not including 5 inches
thick, and 4 or more inches wide.
Timbers. — Lumber 5 or more inches in least dimension.
Beams and stringers. — Pieces of rectangular cross section 5 or more inches thick,
and 8 or more inches wide.
Posts and timbers. — Pieces of square or approximately square cross section S by 5
inches and larger.
I
Wood Bridges and Trestles 263
Manufacturing Classification
804. Lumber is classified according to the extent to which it is manufactured as
shown below:
Rough lumber. — Lumber undressed as it comes from the saw.
Surfaced lumber. — Lumber that is dressed by running it through a planer. It may be
surfaced on one side (SIS), two sides (S2S), one edge (SlE), two edges (S2E),
or on a combination of sides and edges: (SlSlE), (S2S1E), (S1S2E), or (S4S).
Worked lumber. — Lumber which has been run through a matching machine, sticker,
or moulder. Worked lumber may be:
Matched lumber. — Lumber that is worked to provide a close tongue-and-groove
joint at the edges or, in the case of end-matched lumber, at the ends also.
Shiplapped lumber. — Lumber that is worked to provide a close rabbetted or lapped
joint at the edges.
Patterned lumber. — Worked lumber that is shaped to a patterned or moulded form.
General Grading Rule Provisions
Size and Grade
805. To the extent to which differences in the characteristics of species, in quality
of logs, in conditions of manufacture, and in the uses to which the product is put, will,
in practical application, permit, the basic provisions for the grading of lumber shall be
uniform.
806. Lumber not conforming to standard sizes or grades and that intended for
special uses shall be covered by special contract and inspection.
807. The characteristics and limitations in any grade or species vary as the area of
the piece to be graded increases or diminishes with respect to the basic size or area
specified, but their size shall not exceed that permitted in the respective grading rules.
808. Whenever any characteristics other than those defined in regional association
grading rules are encountered, they shall be regarded as equivalent (equal) to permitted
characteristics or prescribed hmitations in proportion to their effect on the strength,
appearance, or other utility value of the piece in the grade under consideration.
809. Characteristics permitted and limitations prescribed in rough lumber shall be
the same as those applying to dressed lumber of like kind and grade, and, in addition,
such others as will disappear in dressing such lumber to standard sizes shall be allowed.
810. Mixed grades, other than the two highest recognized grades for each species,
not specifying the proportion of each grade, are not American standard grades.
811. Specifications dealing with lumber seasoning and moisture content shall be
developed by each regional manufacturers' association in accordance with its own con-
ditions and the requirements of the users of its products. Such specifications adopted
from time to time by any regional association shall be filed with the Central Committee
on Lumber Standards for approval. Each association publishing grading rules shall in-
clude definitions of any terms used therein to describe condition of seasoning, such as air
dry, kiln dry, shipping dry.
812. In addition to meeting its grade specifications, lumber shipped shall conform
to such grain, heartwood, sapwood, moisture content, or other specifications as may have
been agreed to in the contract of purchase and sale.
264 Wood Bridges and Trestles
Description, Measurement, and Tally
813. To be standard, lumber shall be described by the thicknesses and widths speci-
fied in paragraph 852, and see also definitions of Beams, joists and posts. Lumber of
other sizes shall be considered special.
814. The dressed dimensions specified in paragraph 852 shall apply to lumber in the
condition of seasoning as sold and shipped.
815. Board measure is the term used to indicate that a board foot is the unit of
measurement of lumber. A board foot is the quantity of lumber contained in, or derived
from, by drying, planing, or working, or by any combination of these means, a piece of
rough green lumber 1 inch thick, 12 inches wide, and 1 foot long, or its equivalent in
thicker, wider, narrower, or longer lumber.
816. Except moulding, which shall be tallied in linear feet, lumber shall be talHed
board measure. The measurement of rough dry or dressed lumber shall be based on the
corresponding nominal dimensions of rough green lumber. The measurement of lumber
of thickness less than 1 inch shall be based on the surface dimensions; i.e., width and
length.
817. To determine the board-foot contents of lumber thicker than 1 inch, the surface
measure shall be multipHed by the nominal thickness in inches and fractions of an inch.
818. Lumber finished to special size shall be tallied as of the standard rough size
necessarily used in its manufacture.
819. Lumber of stock sizes shall be talUed by the number of pieces of each size and
length in the shipment.
820. Lumber shipped on the basis of board measure shall be taUied by the number
of pieces and of board feet in each piece.
821. In shipments of lumber measured with a board rule on actual widths, pieces
measuring to the even half foot shall be alternately counted as of the next higher and
lower foot count; fractions below the half foot shall be dropped, and fractions above
the half foot shall be counted as of the next higher foot.
Shipping Provisions
822. When lumber not of standard size is shipped, its actual thickness and width
shall be shown on the invoice.
823. In shipments of rough finish and boards, pieces one-half inch or more above
the count thickness, such as may be produced by uneven sawing, may, at the option of
the buyer, be rejected, or accepted as of the next lower grade.
824. The average length of a shipment of lumber shall be computed by dividing the
total length in feet by the total number of pieces in a shipment.
825. The average width of a shipment of lumber 1 inch or less in thickness shall
be computed by dividing the total board feet by the total length in feet and multiplying
the result by 12. The total board-foot tally of lumber thicker than 1 inch shall be
divided first by the thickness as expressed in inches and fractions of an inch.
826. Each length of bundled lumber except end-matched lumber and bevel siding
shall be bundled separately.
Tally Cards
827. Cards should be placed in cars of lumber at mill of origin, showing piece tally
by grades and sizes: Provided, That a wholesale dealer or other buyer or shipper may>
Wood Bridges and Trestles 265
by arrangement with mill of origin, provide for the use, for this purpose, of a whole-
saler's or buyer's or shipper's car card: Provided, That in such case said wholesaler,
buyer, or shipper whose name appears on card is financially responsible for the correct-
ness of the tally as shown on such car card; And provided, That this shall not be con-
strued as relieving the manufacturer from his responsibility, if any, to such wholesaler,
buyer, or shipper.
828. The grades thus required to be entered on tally card shall be the official asso-
ciation grades as defined in published grading rules: Provided, That this requirement is
not construed as prohibiting the entry on tally cards of special grades, but that such
entry is not recognized under American Lumber Standards.
829. The Am^erican Lumber Standards shall not apply to "special" grades (that is,
grades not recognized in published grading rules) whether entered on tally cards or not.
Inspection and Service
830. Lumber manufactured, graded, measured, and described, as herein provided,
is American standard lumber. The purchase, sale, or shipment of lumber as American
standard is construed as involving agreement to submit to official association inspection
any complaint involving either standard sizes or standard grades.
831. Lumber must be accepted on grade in the form in which it is shipped. Any
subsequent change by manufacture, millwork, or dry kilning will prohibit an inspection
for the adjustment of claims, except with the consent of all parties interested.
832. Official association inspection service for the inspecting of lumber sold as of
standard size and standard grade shall be available to nonmembers of associations upon
request and at a reasonable charge.
833. In case of complaint on account of the grade or tally of any shipment of
standard size or standard grade, official association reinspection shall be available.
834. Official inspection service is required to be available for the inspection of grades
not described in association rules (see par. 806) only when written, detailed specifica-
tions accompany the request for such inspection; and for the inspection of standard
grades in nonstandard sizes only on the basis of paragraph 807, unless otherwise prescribed
in the contract of purchase and sale.
835. When buyers demand, and will pay the cost thereof, a certificate made by a
certified association inspector shall be furnished with each shipment so arranged for.
836. Upon receipt of complaint from the purchaser the seller shall immediately re-
quest the association under whose rules shipment has been made to provide official re-
inspection or retally, as the case may be, according to its inspection rules in effect at the
time of execution of contract, and the purchaser shall lend all reasonable assistance to
facilitate the reinspection or retally.
837. The expense of such reinspection or retally may be divided between the buyer
and seller, or may be borne by either, according to agreement between them, but the
person calling for the reinspection shall be responsible to the association for the costs
thereof.
838. In case of complaint involving tally, the entire item shall be held intact for
retally.
839. In case of complaint regarding grade or size but not involving tally, the buyer
is required to accept that portion of a shipment of lumber of standard grade or standard
size which is up to grade or of standard size, as the case may be, holding intact that
portion thereof the grade or size of which is in dispute for official association inspection,
266 Wood Bridges and Trestles
but the action on the part of the buyer in accepting and using such portion of the ship-
ment shall not be construed as his acceptance of the entire shipment. Further, the buyer
shall pay in accordance with the terms of sale for that portion which he accepts, but
acceptance by the buyer of a part of a shipment does not prejudice his just claims on
account of any unused lumber that is alleged by him to be below standard grade or not
of standard size. The complainant buyer shall hold disputed material intact, properly
protected, for not exceeding 30 days after date of the request for official inspection or
reinspection, and shall file complaint with seller within 10 days from receipt of shipment.
840. Each item in a carload or cargo shall be considered as of the grade invoiced,
if, upon official association reinspection under the grading and inspection rules under
which the lumber has been graded and sold, 95 percent thereof or more is found to be of
said grade, the lumber below said grade to be accepted by the buyer as of its actual
grade. Where the de-grades are in excess of 5 percent of such item, or where the de-
grades are found upon official reinspection to be more than one grade lower than the
grade invoiced, the de-grades shall be the property of the seller. These provisions shall
not apply in the case of specially worked lumber.
841. Each association shall undertake to reinspect lumber for its members, and for
nonmembers upon request.
842. All grading shall be done by properly supervised and qualified graders or
inspectors.
843. Sales contracts should incorporate in substance the following clause: Shipment
under this contract shall be in accordance with the American Lumber Standards. In the
case of shipments made or received under such contracts, exemption from any provi-
sion of the American Lumber Standards shall be by special agreement and the burden of
proof thereof shall be upon the person claiming exemption.
YARD LUMBER
[Lumber manufactured and classified into those sizes, shapes, and qualities required for
ordinary construction and general-purpose uses]
Grade Standards
Basic Classification
844. On the basis of quality, yard lumber is classified as follows: (a) Select lumber,
and (b) common lumber. These are again divided into two classes: Select lumber, into
(1) that suitable for natural finishes, and (2) that suitable for paint finishes; common
lumber, into (1) that which can be used without waste, and (2) that which permits
some waste. Each of these four classes is further divided into quality classes or grades.
The grade names of select lumber are A, B, C, and D, and of common lumber. No. 1,
No. 2, No. 3, No. 4, and No. 5. These divisions, classes, and grades are differentiated as
follows:
W o o d B r i dge s and Trestles
267
Total products of a typi-
cal log arranged in
series according to
quality as determined
by appearance and
use.
SELECT
Lumber of good ap-
pearance and finish-
ing qualities.
COMMON
Lumber not of finish-
ing quality, but
which is suitable for
general utility and
construction pur-
poses.
f Grade A. — Practically clear.
Suitable for natural ^ Grade B. — Of high quality —
finishes. [ generally clear.
high-
Suitable for paint
finishes.
Suitable for use with-
out waste.
Permitting some
waste.
Grade C. — Adapted to
quality paint finishes.
Grade D. — Intermediate be-
tween higher finishing grades
and common grades, and par-
taking somewhat of the na-
ture of both.
(No. 1 — Sound and tight knotted.
May be considered watertight.
No. 2 — Less restricted in quality
than No. 1, but of the same
general character.
No. 3 — Prevailing grade charac-
teristics larger than in No. 2.
No. 4. — Low quality.
No. 5. — Lowest recognized grade
but must be usable.
General Provisions
845. The rules for yard lumber shall prescribe the number, extent, and limitations
of the characteristics permitted in the poorest pieces admissible in each grade. A grade
shall be representative, however, and shall not comprise only low-line pieces.
846. Except in dimension and timbers, the grade of yard lumber, rough or surfaced
two sides, shall be determined from the better or face side of the piece, and lumber
which is surfaced one side only shall be graded from the surfaced side.
847. The grading of lumber cannot be considered an exact science, because it is
based on a visual inspection of each piece and on the judgment of the grader. Grading
rules, however, shall be sufficiently explicit to establish 5 percent below grade as a
reasonable variation between graders.
Size Standards
Dressed Sizes
848. The terms "standard yard board" and "standard industrial board", and "stand-
ard yard dimension" and "standard industrial dimension" shall be the designations for
1-inch boards and 2-inch dimension, respectively.
849. §i inch, SlS or S2S, shall be the minimum thickness for the standard yard
board; |f inch, SIS or S2S, for the standard industrial board.
850. 15^ inches, SlS or S2S, shall be the minimum thickness for standard yard dimen-
sion not more than 12 inches wide; 1^ inches, SlS or S2S, for standard industrial
dimension.
851. The minimum finished widths of finish SlE or S2E shall be H inch off on
lumber of standard width of 3 inches; the finished widths of finish SlE or S2E shall be
14 inch off on lumber of standard widths of 4 to 7 inches, inclusive, and ^ inch off on
lumber of standard widths of 8 to 12 inches, inclusive; and the finished widths of strips,
boards and dimension SlE or S2E shall be }i inch off on lumber of standard widths less
than 8 inches, and J^ inch off on lumber of standard widths of 8 to 12 inches.
852. The minimum thicknesses and widths of finished lumber, SlS, S2S, SlE, S2E,
or any combination thereof, shall be as follows:
268
Wood Bridges and Trestles
Strips, Boards, and Dimension
[The thicknesses apply to all widths and the widths to all thicknesses]
Thickness
Width
Product
Board
measure
Minimum dressed
dimensions
Board
measure
Minimum
dressed
dimen-
sions—
standard
Yard
standard
Industrial
standard
Inches
Inches
%
%
If
IJTe
1^
2}^
2^
ff
1^6
Inches
Inches
3
4
5
6
Y
8
9
10
11
12
Inches
2^
31^
4H
5>^
1
IM
13^
3
1
IM
26/32
6^
7M
8M
9M
1 6/8
lOM
llM
Common: strips and boards
26/32
3
4
5
6
Y
8
9
10
11
12
2
4
6
8
10
12
25^
3^
45^
5^
6^
Y>l
8>^
93^
lOJ^
llj^
2
2H
3
4
IM
2J^
2 5'^
35/8
1 6/8
15^
3^
5^^
7H
9K
llj^
Factory Flooring, Heavy Roofing, Decking,
AND Sheet Piling
[The thicknesses apply to all widths and the widths to
all thicknesses]
Thickness
Width
Board
measure
Minimum
dressed
dimen-
sions—
standard
Board
measure
Minimum dressed di
standard face
mensions,
width
D&M
Ship-
lapped
Grooved
for
splines
Inches
2
2H
3
4
Inches
\%
2V8
ZVs
ays
Inches
4
6
8
10
12
Inches
SVs
71-8
9}8
nys
Inches
3
5
7
9
11
Inches
3M
73^
9)'i
11>^
Note. — In patterned lumber 2 or more inches thick, board
measure, the tongue shall be 3^ inch wide in tongue-and-groove
lumber and the lap ^ inch wide in shiplapped lumber, with the
over-all widths i/s inch and yi inch wider, respectively, than the
face widths shown above.
Wood Bridges and Trestles
269
Siding, Flooring, Celling, Partition, Shiplap, and Dressed and Matched
[The thicknesses apply to all widths and the widths to all thicknesses except as modified]'
Thickness
Width
Product
Board
measure
Minimum
dressed
dimensions —
standard
Board
measure
Minimum
dressed
dimensions —
standard
face width
Inches
Inches
'A by »^
10/16 by 'A
Inches
4
5
6
8
10
12
4
5
6
8
4
5
6
8
2
3
4
5
6
Inches
3H
4H
5'A
3Ji
4M
5^6
Wide bevel siding
% by ?i^
% by ?i6
%
Rustic and drop siding (shiplapped) .. .
Rustic and drop siding (dressed and matched)
%
M
7
Flooring
'A
%.
%
I'A
3M
4)i
5^A
1
Ceiling .. .
3
4
5
6
3
4
5
6
4
6
8
10
12
4
6
8
10
12
2%
4M
5^6
Partition
2H
3!4
4M
5^
Shiplap , ._.
1
H
3^
5A
7 A
9A
113^
Dressed and matched.
1
'A
3ii
9^
1134
^ In tongue-and-groove flooring and in tongue-and-groove and shiplapped ceiling A, ■fs, and A '"'^'i
thick, board measure, the tongue or lap shall be -^ inch wide, with the over-all widths -{^ inch wider than
the face widths shown above. In all other patterned lumber, fj, J4. 1. 1J4. and I^ inches thick, board
measure, the tongue shall be 14 inch wide in tongue-and-groove lumber, and the lap H inch wide in ship-
lapped lumber, with the over-all widths li inch and 3/s inch wider, respectively, than the face widths
shown above.
270
Wood Bridges and Trestles
Rough Dry Sizes
853. The standard rough dry thickness of the standard yard board shall be not less
than II inch, allowing that 20 percent of a shipment may be not less than ff inch; and
the standard rough dry thickness of the standard industrial board shall be not less than
fl inch, allowing that 10 percent of a shipment may be not less than §§ inch.
854. The standard rough dry thickness of finish, common boards, and dimension of
standard sizes 1J4 or more inches thick, board measure, shall be not less than J^ inch
thicker than the corresponding standard finished dry thickness, allowing that 20 percent
of the shipment may be not less than ^2 inch thicker than the corresponding standard
finished dry thickness.
855. The standard rough width of finish of 3-inch width, board measure, shall be
not more than % inch less than the nominal width; the standard rough-dry widths of
finish, of widths 4 to 7 inches, inclusive, board measure, shall be not more than ^ inch
less than the nominal widths, and widths 8 to 12 inches, inclusive, board measure, shall
be not more than % inch less than the nominal widths; and the standard rough-dry
widths of common strips, boards, and dimension, 7 inches and narrower, board measure,
shall be not more than J4 inch less than the nominal widths, and the widths 8 to 12
inches, board measure, shall be not more than f^ inch less than the nominal widths.
Description
856. The description of the dimensions of lumber shall be as follows:
Thicknesslof.lumber described as-
1 inch, board measure, to be not less than
IJ^ inches, board measure, to be not less than
IJ^ inches, board measure, to be not less than
\% inches, board measure, to be not less than
2 inches, board measure, to be not less than, .
2}^ inches, board measure, to be not less than
3 inches, board measure, to be not less than..
3J^ inches, board measure, to be not less than
4 inches, board measure, to be not less than..
Minimum
thickness,
SIS or S2S
Inches
tI
^^
1 A
lA
15-8
2-^
Note. — Widths of finish, described as 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12
inches, board measure, to be, respectively, not less than 2%, SIE or S2E, in
the condition of seasoning as sold and shipped, and 3%, 4^, SJ4, 6^^, 754.
8J4' 954. 1054. and 11J4 inches, SIE or S2E; widths of strips, boards, and
dimension, described as 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12 inches, board
measure, to be, respectively, not less than 1§^, Z^A, 3%, 4%, 5%, 65^,
754, 81^, 91^, lOyi, and 11^^ inches, SIE or S2E, in the condition of
seasoning as sold and shipped.
The description of thickness of dressed stock less than 1 inch thick,
board measure, SIS or S2S, to be its actual thickness in the condition of
seasoning as sold and shipped.
It is to be understood that the standard dimensions of rough lumber are
in excess of the dimensions of finished lumber of the corresponding size,
board measure, by the amount necessary to permit of surfacing either 1 or
2 sides, 1 or 2 edges, or any combination of sides and edges.
Lengths
857. The marketing practice covering lengths of yard lumber shall permit the buyer
to obtain specified lengths, specified assortments of lengths, or both.
858. Standard lengths of yard lumber shall be in multiples of 1 or 2 feet as specified
in the manufacturers' association grading rules.
859. Unless otherwise stated in the contract of purchase, yard lumber shall be double
end-trimmed within a tolerance not exceeding 3 inches in excess of the nominal length.
Wood Bridges and Trestles 271
FACTORY AND SHOP LUMBER
[Lumber graded with reference to its use for doors and sash, or on the basis of char-
acteristics affecting its use for general cut-up purposes, or on the basis of size of
cuttings]
(Standards for Factory and Shop lumber are not included because of their limited
application to railroad uses.)
STRUCTURAL LUMBER
[Basic provisions for selection and inspection where working stresses are required]
(Standards for Structural Lumber are included in "Specifications for Structural
Timbers"— pages 7-17 to 7-35.)
SHINGLES'
[Thin lumber tapered lengthwise, used overlapped on roofs and side walls with a
definite portion of the length exposed to the weather]
Grade Standard
Basic Classification
860. The basic classification for shingles is:
I No. 1. — Edge grained, clear throughout,
all heartwood, thickness uniform, butts
and one face smooth.
No. 2.2
No. 3.2
[No. 1. — Edge grained, clear throughout.
Dimension shingles; i. e., of sped- \ all heartwood, thickness uniform, butts
fied width. ( and one face smooth.
INo. 2.2
Size Standards
861. The standard sizes of shingles are 16 inches long by 5/2 thick, 18 inches long
by 5/2^ thick, and 24 inches long by 4/2 thick. (Shingles are measured at the butt
ends, and their thickness designated as the number required to constitute a specified
unit. Hence 5/2, S/2J4, and 4/2 mean, respectively, 5 shingles to 2 inches, 5 shingles to
2J4 inches, and 4 shingles to 2 inches.) Standard widths for dimension shingles 16 and
18 inches long are 5 and 6 inches, and for 24-inch shingles, 6 inches.
862. Lengths may vary not more than 1 inch over or under in not to exceed 10 per-
cent of any shipment, but shingles cut from equalized blocks or rebutted stock may be
J4 inch short.
863. The maximum width of shingles is 14 inches. The minimum width is 4 inches
for 24-inch shingles. For 16- and 18-inch shingles, the minimum width is 3 inches, but
shingles less than 4 inches wide shall not exceed 10 percent of the running inches in any
shipment.
864. The width of shingles shall be uniform; that is, their sides shall not be out of
parallel more than J4 inch.
865. The width of dimension shingles when dry may be not more than }4 inch
scant.
'This section covers No. 1 grade shingles of the following species: Western red cedar (Thuja
plicata), red cypress (Taxodium distichum) , and redwood (Sequoia sempervirens).
' Basic descriptions for these grades are not included, because the various shingle-producing groups
have not adopted a uniform clarification extending beyond No. 1 grade.
272
Wood Bridges and Trestles
866. Bundles of shingles may measure across the butts when dry 3 percent less
than the calculated thickness based on size of shingle and number of courses in the
bundle. Example: 14 courses of 4/2 shingles equals 7 inches across the butts.
General Provisions
867. The detailed rules for grading shingles shall prescribe the number, extent, and
limitations of the characteristics permitted in the poorest piece admissible in each grade.
A grade shall be representative, however, and shall not comprise only low-line pieces.
868. Cross grain which slopes from one face to the other within a longitudinal dis-
tance of 4 inches in any portion less than 12 inches from the butt is not permitted.
869. Diagonal grain which diverges from a line parallel to the edges of a shingle
by 2 inches or more in 12 inches of length measured from the butt is not permitted.
870. Holes and knots which are not round shall be measured by the shortest
dimension.
Packing and Shipping Provisions
871. When shingles are packed by the square, which is the quantity required to
cover 100 square feet at the prescribed exposure to the weather, they shall be packed
flat in straight courses in regulation frames 20 inches wide with band sticks at least 19J^
inches long, and in random-width shingles there shall be an average of not less than
18^ running inches of shingles per bundle course.
872. Dimension shingles not packed by the square may be designated by the number
of pieces per bundle.
873. When shingles are packed by the square, courses per bundle and bundles per
square shall be as follows:
Shingle size (inches)
Number
of cours-
es per
bundle »
Roof square
Number
of
bundle
Exposure
to
weather
Side-wall square
Number
of
bundles
Exposure
to
weather
Pieces
per
bundle
Random-width
24
18
16
Dimension:
24 by 6
18 by 5
18 by 6
16 by 5
16 by 6
13/14
18/18
20/20
14/14
16/16
17/18
18/18
19/20
Inches
7M
5
7H
5
5
Inches
10
6M
10
7^
6M
84
bl36
>>113
i'152
bl25
» 13/14 means 13 courses on one end, 14 courses on the other, a total of 27.
•> Including 8 cross shingles.
874. The class and grade shall be shown indelibly on each bundle of shingles.
875. A shipment is off grade when more than 4 percent of its total running inches
consist of defective shingles.
WoodBridgesandTrestles 273
Report on Assignment 2
Simplification of Grading Rules and Classification of Timber
for Railway Uses
Collaborating with Other Organizations Interested
H. Austin (chairman, subcommittee), M. W. Beach, S. Blumenthal, D. H. Dowe, W. E.
Hawley, C. J. Hogue, W. O. Nelson, J. A. Newlin, W. H. O'Brien, L. W. Smith.
Under this assignment your committee has participated actively in the revision of
the National Lumber Standards, having reviewed and commented on the revisions, and
maintained close contact with Mr. John Foley, AREA representative (and chairman) of
the Central Committee on Lumber Standards.
The revised standards have been issued as Simphfied Practice Recommendations
R-16-39, approved by the National Bureau of Standards.
To effect the desired conformity with the revised American Lumber Standards, your
committee in collaboration with Mr. Foley has prepared the revisions of the Manual
presented for adoption in the report on Assignment 1 — Revision of the Manual.
Report on Assignment 4
Specifications for Design of Wood Bridges and Trestles
R. P. Hart (chairman, subcommittee), S. Blumenthal, F. H. Cramer, S. F. Grear, G. V.
Guerin, Jr., W. O. Nelson, W. A. OUver, L. W. Smith, W. C. Schakel.
Your committee submits the following specification for consideration and construc-
tive criticism at this time. After further study and suitable revision during the current
year, it is expected the specification will be presented in 1942 for adoption as Manual
material.
SPECIFICATIONS FOR DESIGN OF WOOD BRIDGES AND
TRESTLES FOR RAILWAY LOADING
FOREWORD
The following specifications contemplate the use of sound wood piles and stress
grades of structural timbers conforming to AREA specifications. The principles of design
are based upon and conform with tests made at the U. S. Forest Products Laboratory.
Unit working stresses adopted by the Engineer for the design of any structure should
therefore conform with the stress grades of timbers to be used in the structure, making
due allowance for "Continuously Wet" or "Occasionally Wet but Quickly Dried" condi-
tions, as recommended in the Foreword to Specifications for Structural Timbers.
It should be kept in mind that wood piles and timbers have natural characteristics
not common to other structural materials. Securing timbers to meet design requirements
is not a matter of bringing together several natural materials according to a formula, but
one of selecting pieces of suitable strength from nature's supply, all according to grading
rules now well estabhshed and generally accepted. The outstanding characteristic of these
wood materials is their abiUty to absorb shock resulting from sudden application of loads.
274 Wood Bridges and Trestles
Working values for stress grades of structural timbers may be used without allow-
ance for impact up to impact of 100 percent of loads figured. The ability of timbers to
support loads is very dependent upon the duration of the stress. Tests have demon-
strated that the load required to break timbers in several years is about ts of that
required to break them as in ordinary laboratory tests. When the time is shortened still
further, as in impact loading, the load required to break a timber is correspondingly in-
creased. Approximately, this increase is 10 percent when the time is reduced 1/10 of the
previous time. Working stresses for 5-minute loading may be increased 50 percent over
those for longtime loading.
Working values for horizontal shear are maximum values. The maximum unit hori-
zontal shear at any point in the length of a beam is usually calculated as being 3/2 of
the average vertical shearing stress at that point. This assumption gives a very simple
formula and though it is greatly in error with checked beams loaded near the supports,
its continued use is recommended with certain assumptions as to the placement of live
loads and the neglecting of certain loads near the supports for the purpose of correcting
the most outstanding errors in the formula without complicating the caluculations. How-
ever, there is given a formula for use in conjunction with the ordinary shear formula
whenever the simple assumptions as to loads and their placement are not sufficiently
accurate.
GENERAL FEATURES OF DESIGN
1001. All members shall be so framed, anchored, tied and braced together as to
develop the strength and rigidity necessary for the purposes for which they are used.
1002. Piles shall be driven to the required bearing capacity in accordance with
AREA specifications for driving wood piles. Posts shall be provided with adequate
foundation to support the loads superimposed upon them.
1003. Bents shall consist of a sufficient number of piles or posts, correctly spaced,
so that no member in any bent will be overstressed under any condition of loading. For
the purpose of computing stresses in the bents their spacing shall be considered as the
distance center to center of caps thereon.
1004. Stringers shall be selected to provide:
(a) Depth, preferably, not less than ^2 of distance center to center of supports.
(b) Width, not less than Vs of the depth.
(c) Maximum deflection under design Hve load, 1/400 of the span.
For the purpose of computing stresses in stringers the span length shall be assumed
as the clear distance face to face of bearings, plus 6 inches. Stringers in a group shall be
placed to effect, as nearly as practicable, equal distribution of superimposed loads.
1005. Cross ties shall be of adequate size to distribute the track load equally to all
stress-carrying stringers. Each tie shall be designed to carry not less than Vs of the
maximum axle load. They shall be secured against bunching and the maximum space
between them, on open deck bridges, shall be 6 inches.
DESIGN LOADS
1006. The following loads shall be considered:
(a) Dead load
(b) Live load
(c) Centrifugal force
(d) Lateral force due to wind load and nosing of locomotives
(e) Longitudinal force
Wood Bridges and Trestles 275
1007. The dead load shall consist of the estimated weight of the structural member,
plus that of the track, ballast and other portions of the structure supported thereby. The
weight of unit quantities of materials shall be assumed to be as follows:
Track rails, inside guard rails, and fastenings 200 pounds per linear foot
of track
Ballast, including track ties 120 pounds per cubic foot
Timber S pounds per foot board
measure
Protective coverings Actual weight
1008. The live load per track shall consist of that Cooper's loading which will pro-
duce a loading effect equivalent to the maximum engine or train load expected to be
moved over the completed structure.
On bridges with ballasted deck the live load shall be assumed as distributed later-
ally over a width equal to the length of track ties, plus twice the depth of ballast below
the base of tie, unless deck planks are designed to effect greater distribution of the load.
For members receiving load from more than one track all tracks contributing load
shall be assumed fully loaded.
1009. The centrifugal force considered in the design of bridges supporting curved
track shall be a percentage of the specified live load, assumed to act 6 feet above the
top of traffic rails. The percentage used may be taken as 0.001175^ D, where 5 is the
speed in miles per hour and D is the degree of curve, or it may be taken from the
following suggested table:
Degree of Curve Speed in MJ*JI. Percentage
0''-20' 80 2.S
20' -40' 80 5
40'- 1° 80 7.5
Over 1 ° 65, and less 10
The effect of centrifugal force may be neglected in the design of stringers where the
track is superelevated to compensate for maximum speed of moving load or where
stringers in ballasted deck bridges are placed symmetrically about the intersection of
resultant load at the plane of top of stringers.
1010. The lateral force due to wind shall be assumed as 30 pounds per square foot
of vertical projection of structure, plus 300 pounds per linear foot of train, applied
8 feet above top of traffic rails. The wind force shall be assumed to act horizontally,
perpendicular to the center line of track.
1011. The lateral force due to the nosing of locomotives shall be considered as a
single moving force of 20,000 pounds applied at the top of the rail, in either lateral
direction, at any point of the span. The resulting vertical forces shall be disregarded.
1012. For stresses produced by wind or other lateral forces, or by a combination
of these forces with dead and live loads, the allowable working stresses other than
modulus of elasticity may be increased 50 percent, provided the resulting sections are
not less than those required for dead and live loads alone.
1013. The longitudinal force resulting from the starting and stopping of trains shall
be considered as:
(a) For open deck bridges, the larger of
(1) Force due to braking, equal to 15 percent of the live load.
(2) Force due to traction, equal to 25 percent of the weight on driving
wheels of engine.
276 Wood Bridges and Trestles
(b) For ballasted deck bridges, 10 percent of the live load on the loaded portion of
structure.
In any case the longitudinal force shall be assumed as acting 6 feet above the top
of traffic rails.
COMPUTATION OF STRESSES
1014. Except as modified herein, or at the Engineer's discretion, all stress computa-
tions shall be based upon the actual size of timbers. Where members are dapped or
otherwise framed in a manner such as to materially reduce the effective size the
minimum cross section of the piece shall be considered.
1015. The following procedure shall be used for calculating the horizontal shear on
the neutral plane in checked beams:
(a) Except as otherwise provided herein, use the following shear formula:
_ 3R
~ 2bh
in which 5 = maximum unit shear per square inch
R = Reaction in pounds
b = Breadth of beam in inches
h = Height of beam in inches
(b) Results obtained must not exceed the allowable unit shear stress.
(c) In calculating the reaction for use in the formula:
(1) Take into account any rehef to the beam under consideration resulting
from loading being distributed to adjacent parallel beams by flooring or
other members of the construction.
(2) Neglect all loads within the height of the beam from both supports.
(3) If there are any moving loads, place the largest one at 3 times the height
of the beam from the support.
(4) Treat all other loads in the usual manner
(d) If a timber does not qualify under the above recommendations, which under
certain conditions may be over-conservative, the reactions for the concentrated
loads should be determined by the following equation:
lOPiL
-(ly
[-(f)]
in which r =^ Reaction to be used as due to a Load P
L = Span in inches
a = Distance in inches from reaction to Load P
h = Height of beam in inches
(e) Allowable shear stresses for joint details shall be taken as 50 percent greater
than the values for horizontal shear given in the tables of working stresses.
1016. Timber acquires a permanent set under long continued loading. This set with a
fully loaded beam is about equal to the deflection, using the modulus of elasticity as
given in the tables. In calculating ultimate deflection under long-continued loading, this
factor should be recognized.
1017. The working stresses for compression perpendicular to grain apply to bearings
6 inches or more in length located anywhere in the length of a timber and to bearings
of any length at the ends of beams or other members. For bearings shorter than 6 inches
located 3 inches or more from the end of a timber the stresses may be increased in
accordance with the following factors:
Length of bearing (inches) J^ 1 1% 2 3 4 6 or more
Factor 1.85 1.60 1.45 1.30 1.15 1.10 1.00
Wood Bridges and Trestles 277
For stress under a washer the same factor may be taken as for a bearing whose
length equals the diameter of the washer.
1018. The working stresses for compression parallel to grain are for use on posts,
struts, etc., with an unsupported length not greater than 10 times their least dimension.
They are also for use in end bearing on compression members, as a short column or
strut is more likely to fail at the end than at any other point in its length, and the
variations in moisture content are greater at that point.
For columns of intermediate length, the Forest Products Laboratory finds that a
fourth-power parabola, tangent to the Euler curve, is a conservative representation of
the law controlling the strength. That is, from the short block to the long column in
which the strength is dependent on stiffness, there is a falling off in ultimate strength
which follows a smooth curve, very flat at first but curving sharply to become tangent
to the Euler curve at % of the ultimate crushing strength.
For columns from
I- = C into Z =. A C ;
A A3
A ^l 3\Kd)j
Where P = Total load in pounds
A = Area in square inches
P/A = Unit compressive stress
C = Safe stress in compression parallel to grain for short columns
L = Unsupported length in inches
d = Least dimension in inches
E =z Modulus of elasticity
K = The L/d at the point of tangency of the parabolic and Euler curves
at which — = — C
The value of K for any species and grade is— i/— —
For allowable unit stress L/d, 10 to K, see Table A.
The influence of defects on the compressive strength of columns of constant cross
section decreases as the length increases. When L/d equals the value of K for the species
and grade, the strength-reducing factors allowable in the grade have little influence on
the strength as a column. Beyond this length the investigation of the strength of col-
umns by the laboratory indicated that the Euler formula is quite accurate for long
wood columns with pin-end connections and that the maximum load is dependent upon
stiffness. In such columns, a factor of safety of 3 should be applied to values of the
modulus of elasticity in order to obtain safe loading.
The laboratory does not, with the present data and under ordinary conditions, find
justification for increasing the stresses on square-end columns over those for carefully
centered pin-end columns. Tests to determine the influence of end conditions are still
being made and it is probable that under special conditions higher stresses can be used.
For long columns, including a factor of safety of 3:
_P_jT^ E 0.274£
A ^ 36
m {tJ
L
For unit stress — r K to 50, see Table A.
d
278
Wood Bridges an d Trestles
O
5
iHrH
MM-*lO
OjTfCD t-
T-(.Hr-l>-(
MM-*lffl
coTfcot-
MM-*in
co-a"CD t-
OMlO
rHCO t-
o
rH
55
COCO
MtorotD
tOt-Ort
rHrtMM
NCOCOtO
CD t-O^
i-HrtMN
eqcoeoto
tOt-OrH
1-lrHMM
UJMtD
COtDrH
rHr-IM
CO
§
tO05t-T)l
OMU5 t-
MMMM
;ocot--*
OMin t-
MMMM
to cot--*
OMiO t-
MMMM
rHCOTft
t-o t-
r-lMM
t-
rHOO
OOiHtOM
CD05MU3
MMCOm
00 tH CD 00
CO OS com
MMCOCO
00 rH CO 00
«D OS CO in
MMCOCO
■<f OOOO
M5D10
MMCO
M
M
.2
too
Q
cot-
OS 00
U5CO t- t-
CO Clio 00
cc CO ^ ■*#
in cot- 1-
CO OS "5 00
CO CO "^ ^
in cot- 1-
coosmoo
CO CO "^ ^
TCint-
o«ooo
coco-*
■*
o
CO
■2
U5t-
coooo^
Mt>iOO
loioco t-
cooooth
Mt-iOO
loincDC-
coooo t-
Mt-U5 0S
miocoto
00 too
COMOO
Tl«lOCD
00
CO
■2
am
ooo
cot-os«o
MMiOOO
00 00 OS OS
OrJlTjilO
iHlO-^CO
00 00 OS OS
ocoosto
oor-imc-
t- oooo 00
TliOO
t-->*rH
!Dt-00
OS
CO
50
a;
aoo
TON
OrH
COOSMO
U5 00-«)<CO
OSOSOO
ooo 00 -H
THCOt-OS
OS OS OS OS
<Dt-00 00
lO t-OrH
00 00 OS OS
OlOrH
lOOSTjl
c-t-00
■*
OS
CO
to
NO
CCOJ
T-(rH
U5 00MM
TfCCOrH
oot-i^
^OS-^M
OOOSMCO
ososoo
OCOMOO
r-lMTl<-<J(
OS OS OS OS
CD-'J'CO
OCOtD
00 00 00
•*
CO
t-
^
eou5
ow
(MM
iHi-(
ONMOO
i-HM-*-^
T-<^U30
co-*":nD
oooo
t->OCDO
■^lOCO t-
0^ OS OS OS
lOrHOO
T(<COt-
00 00 00
M
CO
t-
IN
t-lO
TtCD
MM
iHOOOSN
10U3«! t-
CO 00 (D 00
coco c- 1-
oooo
M<DMt1"
t-t-00 00
OS OS OS OS
oosoo
t- t-00
00 00 00
CTS
t-
t-
<3
OO
oo
coco
OOOO
oooo
MMMN
oooo
oooo
oooo
oooo
oooo
ooo
ooo
OS OS OS
o
o
00
i<:
eoio
COr-lt-T)l
Mr-It- ■<(<
MrHOOtO
Tt Tj<0
t-
MM
MMMM
r-iMeo-<Ji
MMMM
MC0-*U5
MMMM
rHCO t-
NNM
M
M
"5 ~
OO
oo
oo
oooo
oooo
oooo
oooo
oooo
oooo
oooo
oooo
oooo
ooo
ooo
ooo
o
o
o
oo
oo
eoto
oooo
oooo
MC0U5CD
oooo
oooo
MCOiOCD
oooo
oooo
MC01O5O
ooo
ooo
OM«D
o
o
o
"^
2
c
3
o
o
CO
rH
O
O
M
d
o
d
o
o
o
o
OS
o
o
00
Wood Bridges and Trestles
279
Columns should be limited in slenderness to Lid = SO.
1019. For bearing stresses on surfaces at an angle to the direction of the grain, the
following (Hankinson) formula has been found to be the best for general use in timber
framing:
N = ^
P sirv^Q + Q cofQ
Note: See chart "B" on next page for graphical solution.
Where N = Unit compressive stress in a direction at inclination with the direction of
the grain.
P ^ Unit stress in compression parallel to the grain.
Q = Unit stress in compression perpendicular to the grain.
When the stress acts parallel to the grain, 0 is zero.
When the stress acts perpendicular to the grain, 0 is 90 degrees.
For sin'O and cofO, use the following table:
Sin'Q
e
Cos'e
Sin'B
e
CofO
0.00000
0
1.00000
0.00760
5
0.99240
0.58682
50
0.41318
0.03015
10
0.96985
0.67101
55
0.32899
0.06698
15
0.93302
0.75000
60
0.25000
0.11698
20
0.88302
0.82140
65
0.17860
0.17860
25
0.82140
0.88302
70
0.11698
0.25000
30
0.75000
0.93302
75
0.06698
0.32899
35
0.67101
0.96985
80
0.03015
0.41318
40
0.58682
0.99240
85
0.00760
0.50000
45
0.50000
1.00000
90
0.00000
DETAILS OF DESIGN AND APPLICATION OF GRADES
1020. Post and timber grades may be applied to material smaller than sizes tabu-
lated in grading rules by Hmiting the size of knots to the proportion of width of face
permitted on sizes given.
1021. For direct tension use the same unit stresses as for extreme fiber stress in
bending. Straight grained wood has greater resistance to tension than to any other kind
of stress. It has been difficult to design joints that will develop the full tensile strength,
but the availability of mechanical or ring-connectors now largely eUminates this difficulty.
1022. Grades of joists or beams may be used for members in longitudinal tension,
such as bottom chords or tension members of trusses, but grade limitations which apply
to the center portions of joists and beams should be applied throughout the entire length
of pieces subjected to longitudinal tension.
1023. The provisions of the joist and plank grades are such that material graded on
them may be used on edge, as joists or rafters, or flat, as scaffold plank or factory
flooring, and working stresses for these grades may be applied to such material used with
wide faces either vertical or horizontal. Joist and plank grades apply to material not
thicker than 4 inches. Material thicker than 4 inches, for use in bending, should be
graded on beam and stringer grades. In such material, with loads applied to the wide
face, the knot limitations for this face are those for the narrow face as given in the rules.
1024. Material to be used for such purposes as caps, bridge ties, etc., where strength
in bending is a factor, should be specified in beam and stringer grades, although they are
of a shape more commonly considered as of post and timber grades, as the method of
measuring knots in post and timber grades makes it impracticable to assign bending
stresses to them. Caps and bridge ties are often square or have horizontal faces wider
280
Wood Bridges and Trestles
Wood Bridges and Trestles 281
than the vertical faces, in contrast to beams and stringers, in which the narrow faces are
horizontal faces and the wide faces are vertical, and care should be exercised that knot
limitations are applied to the proper faces.
1025. In railway stringers of two-span lengths, it should be specified that grade
factors throughout the center two-thirds be limited as in the middle third or middle
half of a single span stringer, for the maximum moment will be over the center support,
and although the full positive moment will not be developed in either span as long as
there is resistance to negative moment over the center support, there may be circum-
stances in which full positive moment of resistance at the centers of the two spans will
be desirable.
1026. In material used over three or more spans, or subject to varying bending
moments, grade limitations should be apphed throughout the entire length as in the
middle third or middle half of joist and plank and beams and stringers.
1027. The strength of timbers and posts in round form is greater than would be
expected from the ordinary engineering formulas. The strength, stiffness, and horizontal
shearing value in bending of round timbers of any species may be assumed to be
identical with that of square timbers of the same grade and cross sectional area. Tapered
timbers should be assumed as of uniform diameter, the point of measurement being %
the span from the small end, but the diameter should not be assumed to be more than
lJ/2 times the small end diameter.
1028. The strength of round columns may be considered the same as that of square
columns of the same cross-sectional area. In long tapered columns the strength may be
assumed as identical with that of a square column of the same length, and of cross-
sectional area equal to that of the round timber measured at a point one-third its length
from the small end. The stress at the small end must not exceed the allowable stress for
short columns.
1029. In determining working stresses, the Forest Products Laboratory has consid-
ered both elastic limit and breaking strength. Elastic limit, however, is more variable and
less definite than ultimate strength, and the latter is taken as the more dependable
basis for the determination of safe working stresses.
1030. The factor of safety at a given working stress varies materially with the dura-
tion of the stress. At the recommended working stresses, the average timber in buildings
has a factor of safety of 6* in impact loading, 4 under five minute loads and 2^ under
long-time loading, with a minimum factor of safety of 2 on 75 percent of the pieces
under long-time loading, while about one piece in 100, of very light weight and with
maximum defects for the grade, would be expected to break at IJ^ times the recom-
mended stress under loading of approximately ten years' duration. The factor of safety
on new timbers in bridge work is about j greater than the arbove values.
* If impact stresses are neglected when these amount to less than 100 percent of the live load pro-
ducing them, the factor of safety, including such loads, will be reduced from 6 to a minimum of 3.
General Note: Detailed studies on the strength of timbers in round form are available in Reports
180 and 181 of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics on "The Influence of the Form of a
Wooden Beam on Its Stiffness and Strength."
282 Wood Bridges and Trestles
Report on Assignment 6
Recommended Relationships Between the Energy of Hammer
and the Weight or Mass of Pile for Proper Pile Driving
To Include Concrete Piles, Collaborating with Committee 8 — Masonry
H. C. Heinlen (chairman, subcommittee), G. S. Crites, C. S. Johnson, W. D. Keeney,
J. E. Myer, W. A. Oliver, W. L. Peoples.
Your committee offers as information the following redraft of the conclusions pre-
sented in its report for 1940. The revision applies to that portion of the report under
the heading of "Steam Hammers", where some limitations are recommended to serve as a
guide in the selection of pile driving equipment.
General
In determining the weight or size and capacity of the hammer to be used for any
service, due consideration must be given to the weight and spacing of the piles, the
character and condition of the soil to be penetrated, conditions of driving, and previous
experience at the site or under similar conditions. The blow should be struck by a ram
having sufficient energy to overcome the inertia of the pile and the frictional and elastic
resistance encountered, and having sufficient weight to reduce to a minimum the portion
of this energy which is unavoidably dissipated in destructive work during impact. As a
general rule, piles should be driven with the heaviest hammer that, in the judgment of
the Engineer, can be used to secure maximum penetration without appreciable damage
to the pile.
Steam Hammers
For driving concrete piles, of sizes up to 5 cubic yards in volume, the hammer shall
have sufficient weight and power to develop an energy per blow, at each full stroke of
the piston, of not less than 3,500 foot-pounds per cubic yard of concrete contained in
the pile.
The weight of the ram should be not less than one fourth the weight of the pile to
be driven.
The total energy developed by the hammer should be not less than 12,000 foot-
pounds per blow.
The energy should be developed at the normal rate of speed of the hammer and the
velocity shall not be increased beyond the equivalent of a five-foot free fall.
For concrete piles having a volume of more than 5 cubic yards, or where unusual
conditions indicate that equipment of greater capacity may be required, the choice of
equipment should be governed by previous experience at the site or under similar
conditions elsewhere.
For driving wood piles, the weight of the striking part of the hammer should be not
less than the weight of the pile to be driven.
For driving either concrete or wood piles, the minimum weight of the entire ham-
mer, the weight of the striking part, and the length of stroke should, where practicable,
be specified for each project.
Where hard driving is encountered, it may be necessary to reduce the length of
stroke to avoid injury to the pile.
Wood B r i dges and Trestles
283
Gravity Hammers
For driving either concrete or wood piles, the weight of the striking ram shall be
not less than 3,000 pounds and the drop shall be so regulated as to obtain the desired
penetration without appreciable injury to the pile.
Weights of Hammers To Be Used
In 1936 the committee canvassed a number of agencies actively engaged in driving
piles to ascertain their methods of determining proper weights of hammer to be used
in actual pile driving pra.ctice. A summary of the replies received and a comparison of
the more common pile bearing formulas with the results of available load tests were
included in the report for that year.
Your committee has tabulated the supporting capacity of piles of different weights
driven by various steam hammers in common use. The tables are based on the Engineer-
ing News or Wellington formula modified to take into account the efficiency of a hammer
blow for different weights of piles. The efficiency factor is determined by the formula
TIMBER PILES - WEIGHT PER LIN. FOOT
Pino
Average
Dla.
: Wt.
: Untreated
:
: v;t .
: Treated
Average
Dla.
: Wt .
; Untreated
: Wt .
: Treated
10"
• 26#
33#
|!
I 13J"
48#
i 60#
lOi"
29
36 j 14"
51
64
11"
32
40 '■ I4i"
55
69
lU"
35
43 i 15"
59
74
12" !
38
47
15*" ;
63
79
12^ '•■
41 i
51
16" ;
67 :
84
13" i
44 :
55
lei" :
71 :
89
CONCRETE
PILES - WEIGHT
Pl'J?
LIN. FOOT
16" OctaKonai
24"
Octag
onal
Length - Ft.
: Weight
Length
- Ft.
: V.'elght
20 - 25
218#
20
: 427#
26 - 30
280
25
444
31 - 35
223
30
452
36 - 40
228
-35
459
41-50 •
233
40
464
51-55 !
244
45
468
50
470
55 :'
474
60 J
475
284
Wood Bridges and Trestles
of A. Hilley, as given in the report of this committee for 1936, and depends upon the
ratio of the weight of the pile to that of the driving ram.
Formulas
(Engineering News)
or 5 ^
5+0.1 L
0.1
L c= Pile capacity in pounds
E = Kinetic energy of blow in ft. lb.
5 ^ Penetration in inches under one blow
Above formula provides safety factor
of 6, and assumes 100 percent
efficiency.
(A. Hilley)
1 +
+
1+-
e = Efficiency of blow
c = Coefficient of restitution :
p ^= Weight of pile and anvil
w = Weight of ram.
0.25
Tabulated blows per foot required =: 12 -f- (5 X e)
McKIERHAH-TERRY #lX-B-5 DOUBLK-ACTING PILE HAMMER
Rated energy = 19150'# at 95 blows per minute
Weieht of ram • 5000#
Weight of anvU = 820#
Pile Capacity
15-T. : 20-T. : 25-T. : 30-T. : 35-T. : 40-T.
: e
U'clght 01' Pile
Requirec" Blows per Foot
cJOO#
Ik:
18
23
29
55
: 41
: .770
1000
13
19
24
50
36
! 42
:
: .749
2000
14
21
27
34
: 41
: 48
.662
3000
IG
24
50
38
45
: 53
• .594
4000
18
26
35
42
50
:
: 58
.540
5000
19
20
36
45
54
: 64
■ .495
6000
21
51
39
49
59
69
.459
7000
22
33
42
52
63
74
.428
8000
24
35
45
56
67
79
.401
9000
25
3';
45
59
71
84
.379
10000
26
3'j
50
62
74
88
.359
11000
28
41
53
66
76
93
.340
12000
29
43
55
69
80
97
.326
13000
30
45
58
72
83
101
,311
14000
32
47
60
75
87
106 •
.299
15000
34
49
63
78
93
110 :
.288
Wood B r i d ges and Trestles
285
McKIERHAN -TERRY iyiO-B-5 DOUBLE-ACTING PILE HAMIIER
Rated energy = 13100'# at 105 blows per minute
Weight of ram a 3000#
Weight of anvil = 625#
Pile Capacity
15-T.
, 20-T.
25-T.
30 -T.
35-T,
40-T.
Weight of Pile
Requ
[red Blows per Foot
e
800#
23
31
41
51
63
76
.699
1000
24
32
42
53
65
79
.671
2000
29
38
50
63
78
94
.563
3000
34
44
58
73
90
108
.487
4000.
38
50
66
83
102
122
.431
5000
42
56
73
92
113
136
.389
6000
46
61
80
100
123
148
.356
7000
50
66
86
108
134
161
.327
8000
54
71
93
116
144
173
.305
9000
57
76
99
124
153
184
.287
10000
61
81
105
132
163
197
.268
11000
64
85
111
139
172
207
.255
12000
67
89
116
145
180
217
.243
MoKIERNAN-TERRY #9-B-3 DOUBLE-ACTING PILE HAMMER
Rated energy = 8750'# at 145 blows per minute
Weight of ram = 1600#
Weicht of anvil = 40C^
Pile Capacity
15-T. : 20-T. : 25-T. : 30-T. : 35-T. : 40-T.
Weight of Pile
Required Blows per Foot
800#
41
60
80
104
134
168
.599
1000
44
64
85
111
142
179
• .562
2000
57
82
110
143
183
230
.437
3000
68
98
132
172
220
277
.363
4000
79
114
153
199
256
.313
5000
90
128
173
226
289
t
: .277
6000
99
142
192
250
:
: .250
7000
108
156
210
273
.229
8000
117
168
226
295
.212
9000
125
179
241
.199
10000
133
190
256
:
:
: .187
286
Wood Bridges and Trestles
McKIEFiNAM-TERRY #9-B-3 DOUBLE-ACTING PILR HAMi^lER
Rated enercy = &100'// at 140 blows per minute
'. eight of ram - 1600#
Vielcht of anvil = 400#
Pile Capacity
15-T.
20-T. : 25-T.
30-T.
35-T.
40-T.
v.elRht of Pile
Required Blows per Foot
800#
46
66
89
118
153
196
.599
1000
49
70
95
126
163
209
.562
2000
63
90
123
161
210
268
.437
3000
75
108
147
194
252
.363
4000
87
126
171
225
292
.313
5000
99
142
193
254
.277
6000
109
157
214
282
.250
7000
119
172
234
.229
8000
129
186
252
.212
9000
137
197
268
.199
10000
146
210
286
.187
MoKIERNAN-TERRY #9-B-3 DOUBLE-ACTING PILE EiVMMER
.Rated. energy = 7500'# at 135 blows per minute
Weight of ram = 1600#
Weight of anvil = 400#
Plla C«D«olty 1
!
15-T. :
20-T.
•
25-T.
30-T.
35-T.
40-T.
'
WeiKht of Pile
RequJ
red Blow3 jier Foot
800# 1
50
73
100
134
176
230
.599
1000
53
78
107
143
187
244
.562
2000
69
100
137
183
241
.437'
3000
83
120
165
220
290
.363
4000
96
140
192
"256 .
.313
5000
108
158
216
288
.277
6000
120
175
• 240 :
.250
7000
131
191
262
.229
8000
: 142
• 206
283
.212
9000
:
: ISO
219
300
.199
10000
: 161
! 234
:
:
-.187
I
Wood Bridges and Trestles
287
McKIERNAM -TERRY #9-B-5 DOnBLE-ACTING PILE HAMMER
Rated energy = 6800' # at 130 blows per minute
Weight of ram = 1600#
weight of anvU - 400#
Pile Capacity
15-T.
20-T.
25-T.
; :
30-T. : 35-T; : 40-T.
Weight of Pile
Required Blows per Foot
800#
57
84
116
153
213 : 287
.599
1000
60
89
124
168
227 :
.562
2000
78
115
160
216
292 :
.437
3000
93
138
192
260
.363
4000
109
160
223
300
:
.313
5000
123
180
252
,277
6000
136
200
279
.250
7000
148
218
.229
8000
160
236
.212
9000
170
251
.199
10000
181
268
.187
VULCAN #0R SINGLE-ACTING PILE HAMMER
Rated energy = 30225'# at 50 blows per minute
Weight of ram = 9300#
Weight of anvil s 2075# (solid base)
Pile Capacity
20-T.
25-T.
30-T,
35-T.
40-T.
45-T.
50 -T,
55-T,
60-T.
Weight of Pile
Req^uired
Blows
per Foot
•
8000#
17
21
26
31
36
41
46
52
58
.514
9000
17
22
27
32
37
43
48
54
60
.494
10000
18
23
28
33
39
45
51
57
63
.471
11000
19
24
30
35
40
46
53
59
65
.453
12000
20
25
31
36
42
48
55
61
68
.436
13000
20
26
32
37
43
50
57
63
71
.421
14000
21
27
33
39
45
52
59
65
73
,407
15000
22
28
34
40
47
54
61
68
76
,393
16000
22
29
35
41
48
55
63
70
79
,380
17000
23
30
36
43
50
57
64
72
81
,370
18000
24
31
37
44
51
58
66
74
83
.359
19000
24
31
38
45
52
60
68
76
85
.350
20000
25
32
40
46
:
54
G2
70
79
88
.340
22000
26
34
41
49
56
65
" 74
83
92
,324
24000
28
36
43
51
59
68
78
87
97
,308
26000
29
37
45
53
62
71
81
90
100
.296
28000
30
38
47
55
64
74
D3
93
104
.285
288
Wood Bridges and Trestles
VULCAN #0 SINGLE-ACTING I'lLE HAMMER
Rated energy = 24375'# at 50 blows per minute
Weight of ram = 7500#
Weight of anvil = 2075#
Pile Capacity
20-T.
25-T.
30-T.
35-T.
'40-T.
:45-T.
:50-T.
:
:56-T.
:
:60-T,
t
1 ,
WelKht of Pile-
Re
lulred
Blows
per Foot
t •
:
5000#
20
:
25
31
37
: 43
: 49
56
i
• 64
i 71
!
: .547
6000
21
27
33
: 39
: 46
• 53
60
68
: 76
: .514
7000
22
28
35
: 41
: 48
:
55
63
72
: 80
: .487
8000
23
29
37
: 43
■ 51
58
67
• 75
: 84
: .464
9000
: 24
: 31
I 38
: 45
53
61
70
: 79
i 88
: .442
10000
• 25
i 32
: 40
47
56
64
! 73
i 83
: 92
: .422
11000
26
34
42
50
58
67
76
86
. 96
.405
12000
• 28
35
44
52
61
70
80
90
: 100
.387
13000
1 29
: 37
45
54
63
73
■ 83
: 94
104
: .373
14000
!
30
38
47
55
65
75
85
97
• 108
.362
15000
• 31
39
49
58
68
78
89
• 100
112
.349
16000
32
40
50
60
70
81
92
104
116
.337
17000
33
42
52
62
72
83
95
107
119
.327
18000
34
43
53
64
74
86
98
110
123
.317
19000
35
45
55
65
77
88
100
113
126
.308
20000
36
. 46
56
67
79
91
103
116
130
.300
22000
38
48
59
70
82
95
108
122
136
.286
24000
40
50
62
74
87
100
113 :
128
143
.272
26000
41
53
65
77
91
104
118
134
149 '.
,261
28000
43
55
68
80
95
108
123
140 :
156 i
.250
Wood Bridges and Trestles
289
YULCAM #1 SIMGLE-ACTING PILE HAKi,a:R
Rated energy = 15000'# at 60 blows per minute
Weight of ran - 5000#
Weleht or anvil = 360#
Pile Capacity
:15-T.:20-T.:25-T.:30-T.:35-T.:40-T.;45-T.:50-T.
Weight of Pile
Required Blows per Foot
5000#
26
36
: 47
: 58
71
: 85
: 100
: 117
.514
6000
. 28
39
; 51
: 63
77
: 92
109
: 126
.475
7000
30
! 42
54
:
• 68
82
99.
117
136
.442
8000
32
45
58
73
88
106
125
145
.414
9000
34
48
62
77
93
112
132
154
.390
10000
36
50
66
82
99
119
141
164
.368
11000
38
53
69
86
104
125
147
172
.350
12000
40
56
72
90
110
131
155
180
.333
13000
42
5S
75
94 "
114
137
162
188
.319
14000 :
44
61
79
98
119
143 !
169
197 :
.305
15000
46
63
82
103
124
149 :
176
205 :
.293
VULCAN #2 SINGLF.-ACTIUG PILE HAMMER
Rated energy = 7250'# at 70 blows pep minute
Weight of ram = 3000#
weight of anvil = 360#
Pile Capacity
15-T.
20-T. : 25-T. : 30-T.
• 35-T.
: 40-T.
'..plf.ht of Pile
Required Blows per Foot
800#
42
62
85
114
152
198
: .739
1000
44
65
89
120
159
206
.704
2000
53
78
106
143
191
249
.589
3000
62
91
124
167
222
290
.505
4000
70 .
102
140
190
252
.445
5000
78
115
157
213
283
.398
6000
86
126
172
233
.363
7000
93
137
187
253
.334
8000
100
148
202
272
.310
9000
107
158
216
291
.290
10000
115
163
230
j .272
290
Wood Bridges and Trestles
VULCAN #1800 LIFPL,=}r.KTIAL-ACTIKG PILE HAi'/j/lER
Rated energy = 3600' ;? at 150 blows per minute
Weight of ram = 1800#
ViTelpht of anvil = 135#
Pile Capacity
15-T. : 20-T. : 25-T.
VJelRht of Pile
Required Blowa per Foot
800#
126
221 :
.678
1000
135
235 :
.637
2000
174
.492
3000
211
.405
4000
246
.348
5000
280
.306
6000
.275
7000
.251
8000
.232
9000
.217
10000
.204
BROV/NHOIST liUORT STROKE EOUBLE-ACTIKG PILE HAMMER
Rated energy = 6000'# at 150 blows per minute
Weight of ram = 1600#
Weight of anvil = 150#
Pile Capacity
15-T.
20-T.
25-T.
•30-T.
35-T.
Weight of ?lle
Required Blows per Foot
800#
62
93
132
185
258
.648
1000
66
99
141
198
276
.607
2000
87
130
185
260
.463
3000
106
159
227
.378
4000
124
186
266
.323
5000
140
211
.285
6000
156
235
.256
7000
170
255
.235
•8000
• 185
278
.216
9000
198
297
.202
10000
210
.190
Wood Bridges and Trestles
291
Report on Assignment 8
Fireproofing Wood Bridges and Trestles Including the
Placing of Fire Stops
J. V. Johnston (chairman, subcommittee), M. W. Beach, H. F. Bober, C. J. Hogue,
J. E. Myer.
Your committee has given this important subject further consideration. It is certain
that so long as timber, treated or untreated, is used in the construction of these struc-
tures, there will be hazard of fire, and adequate protective measures must be taken to
prevent fires, keep them from spreading and limit the area that can be damaged.
Whether or not fireproofing pays, might be an open question. The expense incurred
in replacing a burned trestle, which caused delays in train operation, and which might
have been the cause of a disastrous wreck, can be easily determined; but it cannot defi-
nitely be said that a fireproofed bridge has actually prevented such an occurrence and
saved a certain amount of expense.
There are numerous ways of decreasing the fire hazard at trestles. The more common
methods in the order of efficiency, are as follows:
(a) Ballasted deck on trestle
(b) Metal covering over deck
(c) Bituminous mastic covering over deck with sand or limestone chips
(d) Metal covering over stringers and caps
(e) Fire retardant salts or resisting paint
The cost of these methods varies directly with the efficiency.
Your committee recommends that Paragraphs 2, 5 and 6, under the heading "Best
Method of Fireproofing Wood Bridges and Trestles" appearing on page 7-66 of the
Manual, be revised as presented below, and that Figures 1, 2, 3 and 4 be approved for
pubUcation as a part thereof.
50 ft
4 Panels or not (ess than ^5
Fill
/'Noturol Ground
Elevation
Fig. 1.— Earth Fill Break in a Long Trestle.
2. The decks of wood bridges should be protected from fires starting from hot coals
dropped from locomotives, preferably by adopting ballasted deck trestles; or by cover-
ing the deck or the stringers and caps with rust resisting sheet metal. Bituminous mastic
with sand or limestone chips may be used similarly to deflect any heated particles fall-
ing on the surfaces of the deck. The application of fire retardant salts or resisting paint
to untreated timber in open deck trestles may also be employed.
S. Water barrels with buckets should be maintained on all timber bridges, one
barrel each for structures up to SO feet long and one additional barrel for each addi-
292
Wood Bridges and Trestles
le
■0"
1-0 6ff _j
r, '1
Cover Ties
With '206a
Iv Iron
IMMC^NM
y\,.N
?inr
5-2
- ' im iw ' \
Z> /
2;- j
^
IZ-O'
X
^
c
-
0
■D
\
ft)
a
S
1^
\
4)
it:
10
■^
o
-D -
E
--JD
£
\
(U
(VJ
to
\
i.
o
c
1^ -
J_b.
, \
o
1
<•)
■n
IT
\
V
-J
—
4J
\
_l
\
p-'-
-"—I
*
_.
-
■^ E
'levation
Open Deck.
1 r-1 r-T r-T r
1
^
_-
V-
^
Bol lasted Deck Similar
L
J
w
u
20-0"
Section
open DecK
Section
OoHQS+ed OecK
6 ft- 1-0 £ft
Cover ties with*20Qalv iron
Elevation Section
Fig. 2.— Reinforced Concrete Piers and Bents as Fire Stops.
Wood Bridges and Trestles
293
A-i
tlUj; ,;1
EMM
Half-Section A-A
n^r
kJ
Half Section Elevation
Fig. 3. — Wood Bents Faced with Fire Resisting Material.
} fZ.j".g;-3"lO»'L6
JJ-l.
i^
BITUMINOUS CONCRETE OR MASTIC
C8'"?{'l87»».l0'5 LS
TIE D23 ^l
ULERS S-6.10 t2S-3'4.i
i_i
OlTUMINOUS PBIMINe CliAT
i
Fig. 4. — Application of Mastic Material to Open Deck Structures.
tional ISO feet. For creosoted structures, sand boxes with water tight covers for keeping
the sand dry are recommended, dry sand being more effective than water in extinguishing
small fires on creosoted structures.
6. On long bridges it is advisable to protect the bridge by introducing fire barriers
at intervals of about 400 feet. This will reduce the hazard by preventing loss of the
entire structure in case of fire. Such barriers for open deck and ballasted deck wood
trestles may be grouped by types of construction, as follows:
1. Earth fill within long trestles
2. Reinforced concrete piers or concrete pile bents
3. Facing bents with fire resisting materials
4. Application of mastic materials to open deck structures
Report of Committee 8 — Masonry
J. F. Leonard, Chairman,
F. E. Bates
G. E. Boyd
F. W. Capp
Maurice Coburn
t. l. condron
Hardy Cross
G. H. Dayett
Theodore Doll
G. F. Eberly
W. K. Hatt
Reuben Hayes
Meyer Hirschthal
L. H. Hornsby
M. L. Johnson
J. E. Kalinka
W. A. Kingman
J. A. Lahmer
C. P. Marsh
R. L. Mays
L. M. Morris
Roscoe Owen
0. V. Parsons
1. L. Pyle
W. M. Ray
J. L. RiPPEY
F. B. Robins
G. E. Robinson
A. N. Laird, Vice-Chairman,
C. P. Schantz
G. E. Shaw
G. R. Smiley
A. W. Smith
C. H. Splitstone
E. O. Sweetser
J. H. Titus
Jamison Vawter
L. W. Walter
C. A. Whipple
W. R. Wilson
J. J. Yates
Committee
To the American Railway Engineering Association:
Your committee presents reports on the following subjects:
1. Revision of Manual.
Progress report, embracing minor revisions in the Specifications for Portland Cement
Concrete and the Specifications for Shotcrete page 296
other revisions of the Manual are presented in the reports on Assignments 2, 6
and 14.
2. Specifications and principles of design of plain and reinforced concrete for use
in railway bridges, buildings and culverts, collaborating with Committees 1 — Roadway
and Ballast, 5— Track, 6— Buildings, 7— Wood Bridges and Trestles, 13— Water Service,
Fire Protection and Sanitation, and 15— Iron and Steel Structures.
(a) Composite columns and pipe columns.
Progress report, embracing recommended revisions of the Manual page 298
(b) Reinforced concrete box culverts.
No report.
(c) Concrete bridge deck slabs of the non-ballast type, collaborating with Com-
mittee S — Track.
No report.
3. Progress in the science and art of concrete manufacture.
Needed adjustments in field practice to use present-day cements to best advantage.
Progress report, presented as information P^g^ ^^^
4. Maintain contact with Joint Committee on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete.
The report of the Joint Committee was published as information in Bulletin 419,
Part I, for September-October, 1940, and will appear on page 27 in the Monograph
Section of the Proceedings for 1941.
5. Specifications for foundations, including excavation, cofferdam, piling, etc., col-
laborating with Committee 1— Roadway and Ballast on soil mechanics, and with Com-
mittee 7— Wood Bridges and Trestles on bearing power of wood piles and pile driving.
No report.
6. Methods and practices of hning and relining tunnels, collaborating with
Committee 1 — Roadway and Ballast.
Bulletin 422, January, 1941.
295
296 Masonry
Two reports are presented; one for lining tunnels with liner plates and shotcrete,
and the other for an alternate floor of the non-ballast type page 307
7. Review specifications for overhead highway bridges of the American Association
of State Highway Officials, insofar as they relate to masonry, conferring with that
association, and Committee IS — Iron and Steel Structures.
No report.
8. Progress in cement manufacture and testing.
A factual report is presented as information, describing the five types of Portland
cement recently adopted by the ASTM as tentative page 310
9. Specifications for culvert pipe.
The specifications for placing which were submitted last year as information are
now proposed for inclusion in the Manual page 315
10. Bibliography and review of current engineering literature pertaining to railroad
masonry work.
No report.
11. Pressure grouting.
Specifications for Solidification of Masonry Structures by Pressure Grouting are
submitted as information page 319
12. Specifications for concrete and reinforced concrete railroad bridges and other
structures.
Brief progress report, submitted as information page 321
13. Specifications for test borings, collaborating with Committee 1 — Roadway and
Ballast.
Progress report, submitted as information page 321
14. Specifications for concrete placed under water.
Specifications are submitted for adoption to replace matter now in the
Manual page 332
15. Durability of concrete.
Progress report, submitted as information page 335
The Committee on Masonry,
J. F. Leonard, Chairman.
Report on Assignment 1
Revision o£ Manual
G. E. Boyd (chairman, subcommittee), T. L. Condron, Meyer Hirschthal, L. H. Hornsby,
J. A. Lahmer, F. B. Robins, C. P. Schantz, G. E. Shaw, C. A. Whipple, J. J. Yates.
The committee recommends the following revisions to Article 102.1 appearing on
pages 8-3 and 8-4 of the Manual:
Section 1, change the ASTM designation from D75-22 to D7S-39T.
Section 2, Paragraph (a), change ASTM designation from C87-36 to C87-39.
Section 2, Paragraph (d), change the ASTM designation from C123-36T to
C123-39.
Section 2, Paragraph (e), change the ASTM designation from C117-35T to
C117-37.
Section 2, Paragraph (h), the heading of this paragraph should be in italics to con-
form to the style followed in the remaining paragraphs of this section. Also change the
ASTM designation from C87-36 to C87-39.
Masonry 297
Section 2, Paragraph (i), Subdivisions (1) and (2), change the ASTM designation
from C88-35T and C89-35T to C88-39T.
Section 2, Paragraph (j), Subdivision (2), change the ASTM designation from
D289-28T to D289-37T.
Section 2, Paragraph (k), change the ASTM designation from C29-27 to C29-39.
The committee recommends changes in the ASTM designations in Article 104, Sec-
tion 1 on page 8-4 as follows:
For Billet Steel Concrete Reinforcement Bars, from A15-35 to AlS-39.
For Axle Steel Concrete Reinforcement Bars, from A160-36 to A160-39.
For Cast Iron Pipe and Special Castings, from A44-04 to A44-39T.
The committee also recommends the deletion of the separate references to steel for
bridges and buildings in this section and the substitution of a new reference.
Present Form
Steel for Bridges A7-36
Steel for Buildings A9-36
Proposed Form
Steel for Bridges and Buildings A7-39
The committee recommends that the ASTM designation for High Early Strength
Portland Cement on page 8-5 of the Manual be changed from C74~38 to C74-39.
The committee also recommends the following revisions in this specification:
Change the tolerance for loss of ignition in the table in Section 1, from 0.25 to 0.20
and change sulfuric anhydride to sulfur trioxide.
Delete the last sentence in Section 3, reading Final set shall be attained within
10 hours.
In the paragraph on Compressive Strength, Section 9, change the ASTM designation
from C109-34T to C109-37T and delete the reference.
Delete the footnote on page 8-7.
The committee recommends that Section 5 of the Specification for Shotcrete, which
appears on page 8-96 of the Manual, be deleted and that a new section be substituted
as follows:
Present Form
5. Shotcrete shall consist of a mixture of Portland cement and sand, the fineness
modulus of which shall be between 2.25 and 2.75, in the proportion of 1 bag of cement
to 3 cubic feet of sand (dry loose measurement, diie allowance being made for bulking),
placed by pneumatic pressure through a Shotcrete machine, with proper amount of
water for hydration applied in the mixing nozzle. The cement and sand shall be pre-
mixed dry in a batch mixer and screened through a J4 i^<^^ screen before being placed
in the hopper of the Shotcrete machine. The sand as used shall have only the normal
water content, that is, from 3 percent to 8 percent of moisture.
Proposed Form
5. (a) Shotcrete shall consist of a mixture of Portland cement and sand, in the
proportion of 1 bag of cement to 3 cubic feet of sand (dry loose measurement, due
allowance being made for bulking), placed by pneumatic pressure through a Shotcrete
machine, with the proper amount of water for hydration applied in the mixing nozzle.
298 Masonry
The cement and sand shall be pre-mixed dry in a batch mixer and screened through
a % inch screen before being placed in the hopper of the Shotcrete machine. The sand
as used shall have only the normal water content, that is, from 3 percent to 8 percent
of moisture.
S. (b) Sand shall be well graded. The particles shall range in size within the limits
below, percentage by weight:
Percent
Sieve Size Retained
No. 4 0
No. 8 S-30
No. 16 15^0
No. 30 3S-SS
No. 50 6S-8S
No. 100 92-98
The fineness modulus shall be between 2.25 and 2.75.
Report on Assignment 2 (a)
Composite Columns and Pipe Columns
A. N. Laird (chairman, subcommittee), Hardy Cross, G. H. Dayett, Theodore Doll,
Meyer Hirschthal, J. E. KaUnka, J. L. Rippey, C. P. Schantz, A. W. Smith, E. O.
Sweetser, Jamison Vawter, W. R. Wilson.
The committee recommends that subject matter of Section 307, Design of Columns,
of the Specifications for Portland Cement Concrete, Plain and Reinforced, be withdrawn
and that it be replaced by new Section 307, Design of Columns.
Present Form
Reference is made to present Section 307 on pages 8-49, 50 and 51 of the Manual.
Proposed Form
307— DESIGN OF COLUMNS*
1. General
(a) The following recommendations are based largely on the results of the extensive
American Concrete Institute Column Investigation. Recognizing the presence of undesir-
able column shortening due to creep and shrinkage when small percentages of vertical
steel are used, the minimum value is set at 1 percent; furthermore, a varying factor of
safety is used, ranging, for axially loaded spiral columns, from about 3.6 for p = 0.01,
to 2.75 for p = 0.08. A similar variation from about 4.5 for p = 0.01, to 4.0 for p <= 0.04
is used with tied columns.
(b) The formula for spiral columns is based upon recognition of the fact that the
strength produced by spirals is accompanied by spalling of the column shell and excessive
column shortening, hence the spiral is utilized only as a toughening element or an insur-
ance against a sudden and complete collapse of the column. With spiral reinforcement
* Section 307 conforms substantially to Sections 851-862 inclusive, of the Report of the Joint
Committee on Standard Specifications for Concrete and Reinforced Concrete as submitted to the con-
stituent organizations, June 1940 (AREA Proceedings for 1941, Vol. 42, p. 27 of the Monograph
Section.)
Masonry 299
provided, which is somewhat stronger than the protective shell, these two elements of
strength (which cannot act simultaneously) become interchangeable, and justify the
formula which uses the gross area of column and omits any reference to the spiral. The
formulas for tied and spiral columns are thus made identical, except that the latter is
allowed 25 percent greater load-carrying capacity because of the presence of adequate
spiral reinforcement to carry part of the load if the outer shell should spall.
(c) The design of long columns, both tied and spirally reinforced, is covered by a
single equation based on the height-diameter ratio. With the test data available, no
increase in accuracy would be attained by basing the slenderness ratio on the radius of
gyration.
(d) The treatment of bending in columns is intended to correlate with the methods
for continuous beams and frames. Recent studies of creep indicate that the current
analyses of combined bending and direct stress are not accurate, and that for cases in
which the compressive stress governs the design, the theory of the uncracked concrete
section applies without serious error. The permissible combined stresses in Articles 307
(10) and (11) are based on test data; they embody the fact that permissible bending
stresses may be greater than axial stresses, and they are based on the conventional value
of n, which produces the most severe of the probable conditions that the concrete may
meet under sustained loading.
2. Limiting Dimensions
The following articles on reinforced concrete and composite columns (except Article
307 (8)) apply to a short column, for which the unsupported length is not greater than
10 times the least lateral dimension. When the unsupported length exceeds this value the
design should be modified as shown in Article 307 (8). Principal columns in buildings
should have a minimum diameter or thickness of 10 inches. Posts, bearing walls, piers,
or mullions, that are not continuous from story to story should have a minimum diameter
or thickness of 6 inches.
3. Unsupported Length of Columns
(a) For purposes of determining the limiting dimensions of columns, the unsup-
ported length of reinforced concrete columns should be taken as the clear distance
between floor slabs with the following exceptions:
1. In flat slab construction, it should be the clear distance between the floor
and the lower extremity of the capital.
2. In beam and slab construction, it should be the clear distance between the
floor and the underside of the deepest beam framing into the column in each
direction at the next higher floor level.
3. In columns restrained laterally by struts, it should be the clear distance
between consecutive struts in each vertical plane; provided that to be an ade-
quate support, two such struts should meet the column at approximately the same
level and the angle between vertical planes through the struts should not vary
more than 30 degrees from a right angle. Such struts should be of adequate
dimensions and anchorage to restrain the column against lateral deflection.
4. In columns restrained laterally by struts or beams, with brackets used at
the junction, it should be the clear distance between the floor and the lower edge
of the bracket, provided that the bracket width equals that of the beam or strut
and is at least half that of the column, and provided further that the face of the
bracket makes an angle with the face of the column of at least 45 degrees.
300 Masonry
(b) For all columns, that length should be considered which produces the greatest
ratio of length to depth of section.
4. Spirally Reinforced Columns
(a) Allowable Load. — The maximum allowable axial load, P, on columns reinforced
with longitudinal bars and closely spaced spirals enclosing a circular core is given by
formula (36).**
P = 0.225/'c^g + Asfs (36)
Wherein Ag = the overall or gross area of the column.
/'c = compressive strength of the concrete, as found by tests of standard 6 by
12-inch control cylinders,
/s = nominal working stress in vertical column reinforcement, to be taken at
40 percent of the minimum specification value of the yield point; viz.,
16,000 pounds per square inch for intermediate grade steel and 20,000
pounds per square inch for hard grade steel.
Ae =^ PgAg.
pg = ratio of the effective cross-sectional area of vertical reinforcement to the
gross area, Ag.
(b) Longitudinal Reinforcement — Amount and Spacing. — The ratio Pg should not be
less than 0.01 nor more than 0.08. The minimum number of bars should be six, and the
minimum diameter of bar should be 5^ inch. The center-to-center spacing of bars within
the periphery of the column core should not be less than 2^ times the diameter for round
bars or 3 times the side dimension for square bars. The clear spacing between individual
bars or between pairs of bars at lapped splices should not be less than IJ^ inch or IJ^
times the maximum size of the coarse aggregate used.
(c) Splices in Longitudinal Reinforcement. — Where lapped splices in the column
verticals are used, the minimum amount of lap should be as follows:
1. For deformed bars — with concrete having a strength of 3,000 pounds per
square inch or above, 24 diameters of bar of intermediate grade steel and 30
diameters of bar of hard grade steel. For bars of higher yield point, the amount
of lap should be increased in proportion to the nominal working stress. When the
concrete strengths are less than 3,000 pounds per square inch the amount of lap
should be one-third greater than the values just given.
2. For plain bars — the minimum amount of lap should be 25 percent greater
than that specified for deformed bars.
Where changes in the cross-section of a column occur, the longitudinal bars
should be sloped for the full length of the column, or offset in a region where
lateral support is afforded by concrete capital, floor slab, metal ties, or reinforcing
spirals. Where bars are offset, the slope of the inclined portion from the axis of
the column should not exceed 1 in 6, and the bars on each side of the offset
should be parallel to the axtS of the column.
Welded splices or other positive connections may be used instead of lapped
splices. Welded splices should preferably be used in cases where the bar diameter
exceeds 1% inch. An approved welded splice should be defined as one in which
the bars are butted and welded and that will develop in tension at least the yield
point stress of the reinforcing steel used.
** To be logical the area of the steel should be subtracted from A^ in the formula. However, the
effect of the small area of concrete displaced by the reinforcement has been taken into consideration in
arriving at the coefficient 0.225 applied to /' .
Masonry 301
(d) Spiral Reinforcement. — The ratio of spiral reinforcement, p', should not be less
than the value given by Formula (37).
/''=0.4s[-^-l]i;^ ^^^^
Wherein p' = ratio of volume of spiral reinforcement to the volume of the concrete
core (out to out of spirals).
Ag/Ac'=^ ratio of gross area to core area of column.
/'s = useful limit stress of spiral reinforcement to be taken as 40,000 pounds per
square inch for hot rolled rod of intermediate grade, 50,000 pounds per
square inch for hard grade and 60,000 pounds per square inch for cold
drawn wire.
Spiral reinforcement should consist of evenly spaced continuous spirals held firmly
in place and true to line by at least three vertical spacer bars. For columns up to 18-inch
core diameter, the minimum diameter of spiral bars should be % inch. For columns larger
than 18-inch core diameter, the minimum diameter of spiral bars should be ^ inch.
Anchorage of spiral reinforcement should be provided by IJ^ extra turns of spiral rod
or wire at each end of the spiral unit. Splices, where necessary, should be made in spiral
rod or wire by welding or by a lap of 1^ turns. The center to center spacing of the
spirals should not exceed one-sixth of the core diameter. The clear spacing between
spirals should not exceed 3 inches nor be less than 1^ inches or 1^ times the maximum
size of coarse aggregate used. The column reinforcement should be protected everywhere
by a covering of concrete cast monolithically with the core, for which the thickness
should not be less than 1^ inches nor less than IJ^ times the maximum size of the
coarse aggregate, nor should it be less than required for fire protection and weathering.
The reinforcing spiral should extend from the floor level in any story to the level of the
lowest horizontal reinforcement in the slab, drop panel, or beam above. In a column
with a capital, it should extend to the plane at which the sectional area of the capital is
twice that of the column.
(e) Limits of Column Section. — For columns built monolithically with concrete
walls or piers, the outer boundaries of the column section should be taken as a circle
1% inches outside the column spiral or as a square the sides of which are 1J4 inches
outside the spiral. In case two or more spirals are used in such a column the outer
boundary should be taken as a rectangle the sides of which are at any point at least
lyz inches outside of the spirals. For these types of spirally reinforced columns the value
of Ag thus defined should be used in both Formulas (36) and (37).
(f) Equivalent Circular Columns.— ks an exception to the general procedure of
utilizing the full gross area of the column section, it should be permissible to design a
circular column and to build it with a square, octagonal, or other shaped section of the
same least lateral dimension. In such case, the allowable load, the gross area considered,
and the required percentages of reinforcement should be taken as those of the circular
column.
5. Tied Columns
(a) Allowable Load. — The maximum allowable axial load on columns reinforced with
longitudinal bars and separate lateral ties should be SO percent of that given by For-
mula (36). The ratio, pe, to be considered in tied columns should not be less than 0.01
nor more than 0.04. The longitudinal reinforcement should consist of at least four bars,
of mirximum diameter of Y$ inch placed with a clear distance from the column face of
not less than 1^ inches plus the thickness of the tie, provided that when nearer a
corner than 4 inches this covering shall be increased to 2 inches. Splices in reinforcing
bars shall be made as described in Article 307 (4c).
302 Masonry
(b) Lateral Ties. — Lateral ties should be at least % inch in diameter and should be
spaced apart not over 16 bar diameters, 48 tie diameters, or the least dimension of the
column. When there are more than four vertical bars, additional ties should be provided
so that every longitudinal bar is held firmly in its designed position.
(c) Limits of Column Section. — In a tied column which for architectural reasons
has a larger cross section than required by considerations of loading, a reduced effective
area Ag not less than one-half of the total area may be used in applying the provisions
of Article 307 (5a), but the longitudinal reinforcement should be distributed over the
full column section.
6. Composite Columns
(a) Allowable Load. — The allowable load on a composite column consisting of a
structural steel or cast iron column thoroughly encased in concrete reinforced with both
longitudinal and spiral reinforcement, should not exceed that given by Formula (38).
P = 0.22SAcf'c + fsAs + Mr (38)
Wherein Ac= net area of concrete section Ag — As — At.
Aa= cross-sectional area of longitudinal bar reinforcement.
At= cross-sectional area of the steel or cast iron core.
/r = allowable unit stress in metal core, not to exceed 16,000 pounds per square
inch for a steel core; or 10,000 pounds per square inch for a cast iron core.
The remaining notation is that of Article 307 (4).
(b) Details of Metal Core and Reinforcement. — The cross-sectional area of the metal
core should not exceed 20 percent of the gross area of the column. If a hollow metal
core is used it should be filled with concrete. The amounts of longitudinal and spiral
reinforcement and the requirements as to spacing of bars, details of spUces, and thick-
ness of protective shell outside the spiral should conform to the limiting values specified
in Article 307 (4b, c and d). A clearance of at least 3 inches should be maintained
between the spiral and the metal core at all points except that when the core consists
of a structural steel H-column, the minimum clearance may be reduced to 2 inches.
(c) Splices and Connections. — Metal cores in composite columns shall be accurately
milled at sphces and positive provision shall be made for the alinement of one core
above another. Transfer of loads to the metal core should be provided for by use of
bearing members such as billets, brackets, or other positive connections; these should be
provided at the top of the metal core and at intermediate floor levels where required.
Ample section of concrete and continuity of reinforcement should be provided at the
junction with beams and girders. The column as a whole should satisfy the requirements
of Formula (38) at every section; in addition to this, the reinforced concrete portion
should be designed to carry, in accordance with Formula (36), all floor loads brought
onto the column at levels between the metal brackets or connections. In applying For-
mula (36) to a hollow core filled with concrete, the area of the concrete within the core
should not be included in the area defined as Ag. At the column base, provision should
be made to transfer the load to the footing at safe unit stresses in accordance with
Article 308 (8). The base of the metal core should be designed to transfer the load
from the entire composite column to the footing, or it may be designed to transfer the
load from the metal section only, provided it is so placed in the pier or pedestal as to
leave ample section of concrete above the base for the transfer of load from the reinforced
concrete section of the column by means of bond on the vertical reinforcement and by
direct compression on the concrete.
(d) Allowable Load on Bare Metal Core.— The metal cores of composite columns
should be designed to carry safely any construction or other loads to be placed upon them
prior to their encasement in concrete.
Masonry 303
7. Combination and Pipe Columns
(a) Conibinatioti Columns; Steel Columns Encased in Concrete. — The allowable
load on a structural steel column which is encased in concrete at least 2^ inches thick
over all metal (except rivet heads) reinforced as hereinafter required, should be computed
by Formula (39a).
P = Arf'r r 1 + -^1 (39a)
L 100/1 rj
Wherein ^r = cross-sectional area of steel column.
f'r = allowable stress for unencased steel column.
Ac = total area of concrete section, = Ao — Ar.
The concrete used should develop a compressive strength, /'c, of at least 2,500 pounds per
square inch when tested according to the provisions of Article 202 (7). The concrete
should be reinforced by welded wire mesh having wire not smaller than No. 10 gage,
spaced in vertical direction not more than 4 inches, and in the horizontal direction not
more than 8 inches. This mesh should extend entirely around the column at a distance
of 1 inch inside the outer concrete surface and should be lap-spliced at least 40 wire
diameters and wired at the splice.
Special brackets should be used to receive the entire floor load at each floor level.
The steel column should be designed to carry safely any construction or other loads to be
placed upon it prior to its encasement in concrete.
(b) Pipe Columns. — The allowable load on columns consisting of steel pipe filled
with concrete should not exceed that given by Formula (39b).
P = 0.22S/'c4p + f'rAc (39b)
The value of /'r should be that given by Formula (39c)
f'r = r 18,000 — 70-^1 F (39c)
Wherein /'r := allowable stress in the steel pipe section.
h = unsupported length of column.
R = radius of gyration of steel pipe section.
p, tensile yield point of pipe material
~~ 45,000
If the yield point is not known, the factor F shall be taken as 0.5.
If the concrete strength /'c is not known it shall be assumed at 2,500 pounds per
square inch.
8, Long Columns
(a) The maximum allowable load P' on axially loaded reinforced concrete or com-
posite columns having a length, h, greater than 10 times the least lateral dimension, d,
is given by Formula (39d).
/>' = P r 1 .3 _ .03 Al (39d )
Wherein P = the allowable axial load on a short column as given by Formulas (36)
and (38).
(b) The maximum allowable load F on eccentrically loaded columns in which
h -=r d exceeds 10 is also given by Formula (39d) in which P is the allowable eccen-
trically applied load on a short column as determined by the provisions of Articles 307
(10) and (11). In long columns subjected to definite bending stresses, as determined in
Article 307 (9), the ratio h ^ d should not exceed 20.
304 Masonry
9. Bending Moments in Columns
The bending moments in the columns of all reinforced concrete structures should be
determined on the basis of loading conditions and restraint and should be provided for
in the design. When the stiffness and strength of the columns are utilized to reduce
moments in beams, girders, or slabs, as in the case of rigid frames in general, the need
for recognizing column moments is obvious; in other forms of continuous construction
where column moments are unavoidable, they should also be provided for in the design.
In building frames, particular attention should be given to cases of unbalanced floor
loads on both exterior and interior columns and of eccentric loading due to other causes.
Wall columns should be designed to resist moments produced by: (a) Loads on all
floors of the building, (b) loads on a single exterior bay at two adjacent floor levels, or
(c) loads on a single exterior bay at one floor level. Resistance to bending moments at
any floor level should be provided by distributing the moment between the columns
immediately above and below the given floor in proportion to their relative stiffnesses
and conditions of restraint.
10. Combined Axial and Bending Stress
(a) In reinforced concrete columns subjected to bending moments, the recognized
methods of analysis should be followed in calculating the stresses due to combined axial
load and bending. The maximum fiber stress in compression and (in the case of large
eccentricities of loading) the tensile stress in the vertical bars will govern the design.
The gross area of both spiral and tied columns should be used in the computations.
(b) For preliminary designs it will usually give satisfactory results to compute the
combined fiber stress in compression on the basis of an uncracked section of the column
using Formula (39e).t
y _f L^+"fJ (39e)
A^ 1+ {n—l)p.
Wherein e = eccentricity of resultant load, measured from the gravity axis,
c = distance from gravity axis to extreme fiber in compression.
R =■ radius of gyration of equivalent concrete section.
M =: as given in Article 301 (4).
Other terms as in Article 307 (4).
The term — ;;- may be replaced by the value i>e -h- t for rectangular columns and
R"
Se -^ t for round columns without appreciable error {t ■= overall depth of section). This
design may then be analyzed by more accurate methods to insure that allowable stresses
are not exceeded.
11. Allowable Combined Axial and Bending Stresses
(a) For spiral and tied columns, eccentrically loaded or otherwise subjected to
combined axial compression and flexural stress, the maximum allowable compressive fiber
stress, /c, is given by Formula (39f).
1 + ^
f ^ f ^1_ (39f )
1 + C^
t This will result in a fairly accurate design if the eccentricity is less than J^ the overall column
width, and the value of p n is 0.3 or more.
Masonry 305
Wherein the notation is that of Articles 307 (4) and (10), and in addition, /a is the
average allowable stress on an equivalent axially loaded concrete column, and C is the
ratio of /» to the allowable fiber stress for members in flexure. Thus, /» — -^ " ' ■'"^^
l+{n — l)p,
for spiral columns, and 0.8 of this value for tied columns.
r J*
OASf'c
(b) The allowable tensile stress in the longitudinal reinforcement may equal that
specified for flexural members, provided however that splices in the tensile steel at or
near the section of maximum column moment are capable of developing fully the yield
point strength of the reinforcement.
12. Wind or Earthquake Stresses
When columns are subject to wind or earthquake stresses in addition to combined
axial load and bending, the column section need not be increased unless the allowable
stress given by Formula (39f) is exceeded by more than one-third.
Report on Assignment 3
Progress in Science and Art of Concrete Manufacture
Needed Adjustments in Field Practice To Use Present Day Cements
to Best Advantage
C. P. Marsh (chairman, subcommittee), F. W. Capp, R. Hayes, L. M. Morris, W. M.
Ray, G. E. Shaw, C. H. Splitstone, L. W. Walter, C. A. Whipple.
In considering this subject the subcommittee has limited its studies and this report
to the types of Portland cement for which ASTM specifications have been published,
and has assumed that study and report on the use of calcium-aluminate cement, masonry
cements and blended cements were matters outside of its assignment.
The new ASTM specifications which bear the title Tentative Specifications for Port-
land Cement, ASTM Serial Designation (C-1SO-40T) cover five types of cement which
are intended to embrace all of the engineering uses of Portland cement. While these
specifications are only tentative and do not supersede current standards for Portland and
high early strength Portland cements (C9-38 and C74-39, respectively), it is anticipated
that some engineers may wish to take advantage of the wider range in types which they
afford. The following comments are offered as an aid in selecting the type of cement
which is best adapted to a particular structure or group of structures.
Type I. — This cement, except for some differences in requirements and the incorpora-
tion of the autoclave test for soundness, is the same as those called for by the current
ASTM standard specification C9-38 and by the federal specification SS-C-191a.
This type of cement is adapted for general concrete construction where the special
properties specified for types II, III, IV and V, are not required. Owing to the fact that
this cement is more finely ground and in general has a higher lime content than the
normal Portland cement of some 12 to IS years ago, it develops strength and heat of
hydration more rapidly and the total heat of hydration in any period is greater. These
changes cause heat to be generated more rapidly and produce higher temperatures in the
concrete. Due to the higher temperature, larger temperature differentials within the mass
306 Masonry
and a greater loss of moisture are encouraged, which in turn aggravate the tendency to
crack. Consequently, what was considered good practice in placing concrete 12 or 15 years
ago must be revised in respect to limiting the temperature of the concrete when placed
and the rate of placing, and in providing ample moisture for curing during the first few
days after placing. Because the strength develops more rapidly the curing period may be
shortened somewhat from the seven days usually specified. If an ample supply of mois-
ture is assured a Hmit of five days is recommended.
Type II. — This cement is adapted for use in general construction where the special
properties specified for types III, IV and V, are not required, and when the chemical
and physical test requirements prescribed for this type are desired. In rate of hardening,
this cement is intermediate between that of Type I and the low heat cement of Type IV,
and is similar to the cement used by the Tennessee Valley Authority in dam construction.
It is recommended particularly for structures of considerable size where low heat
cement is not necessary but where the use of cement of moderate heat of hardening will
tend to minimize temperature rise and the resulting tendency to shrinkage cracking, as
in the case of large piers, heavy abutments, heavy retaining walls, etc., when such struc-
tures are placed in warm weather. In cold weather, when the heat generated during
hardening is of advantage. Type I cement may be preferable.
Type II cement, because of greater sulphate resistance as compared with Type I, is
recommended for places where added precaution against sulphate attack is a factor of
importance, such as in mine and drainage structures where the sulphate concentrations
are not unusually severe. Where the sulphate concentrations are severe, Type V cement
is recommended, as noted below.
Type II cement is suitable for concrete roads and architectural concrete structures.
It can be used equally as well as Type I for many other structures for which no
preference as between the two types is justified. It is recommended that the curing
period when using Type II cement, be not less than seven days when an ample supply
of moisture is assured.
Type III. — This is a high early strength cement. The requirements for this type are
in most respects the same as those in the present ASTM Specifications for High Early
Strength Portland Cement, C74-39, and in even closer agreement with those in the
Federal Specifications for High Early Strength Portland Cement, SS-C-201. This type is
recommended where high strength concrete at early periods is desired, which can be
obtained more satisfactorily or more economically by the use of a high early strength
cement than by resorting to richer mixes.
Owing to the quicker hardening, the heat due to hydration develops rapidly in the
early period. The total heat evolved is also greater, and because of this greater care
must be taken to avoid temperature cracks. Where Type III cement is used the curing
period should be not less than three days.
Type IV. — This is a low heat cement which has not been covered previously by
ASTM Specifications, although cement of this type has been used by the Bureau of
Reclamation and other government bodies under specifications having similar require-
ments. Type IV cement is a slow hardening cement which should not be used for gen-
eral work. It is recommended for use only in extremely large masses of concrete where
the temperature rise resulting from the heat generated during hardening is a critical
factor. Because of the special characteristics of this cement, it will not be generally
available.
It is doubtful that its use would be found necessary in railroad construction. As it
gains strength slowly, the curing period should be prolonged to four weeks.
Masonry 307
Type V. — This is a special cement intended to provide a very high degree of sul-
phate resistance. Like Type IV this cement will not be generally available, and because
of its slow hardening characteristics, should never be considered for any but the special
purpose for which it is intended.
Its use is recommended only in structures exposed to severe sulphate action, such
as is encountered in some of the western states having soils or waters of high alkali
content. The slow hardening of this cement requires a longer period of moist curing at
normal temperatures.
Report on Assignment 6
Methods and Practices of Lining and Relining Tunnels
Collaborating With Committee 1 — Roadway and Ballast
I. L. Pyle (chairman, subcommittee), G. E. Boyd, Maurice Coburn, G. F. Eberly, W. A.
Kingman, Roscoe Owen, O. V. Parsons, G. R. Smiley.
The following specifications are submitted as information with the object of pre-
senting them later for adoption and publication in the Manual.
SPECIFICATIONS FOR LINING RAILWAY TUNNELS WITH
METAL LINER PLATES AND SHOTCRETE
I GENERAL
101, Scope
These specifications cover the Hning of new tunnels and the relining of old tunnels
through ordinary formations which involve no special features.
102. Metal Lining
The side walls shall consist of metal Uner plates, not less than % inch in thickness,
secured between I-beams used as columns for supporting wall plates and arches.
The arch shall consist of liner plates alone or, when necessary, supplemented with
ribs of I-beams, T-shapes or flat bars, supported on H-beams of the required size used
as a wall plate.
II DESIGN
201. Interior Dimensions
The interior dimensions of the clear space provided for single and double track
tunnels shall not at any point be less than the tunnel clearance recommended by the
AREA, pages Cl-4 and Cl-5 of the Manual.
202. Floor and Ballast Walls
In all new tunnels, a concrete floor and ballast walls for ballast track section, or a
floor for solid track section, shall be installed in accordance with AREA Specifications
for Lining Railway Tunnels with Plain Concrete, page &-103 of the Manual.
203. Foundations for Side Walls
A concrete footing shall be provided for the side walls. The concrete shall be made
and placed in accordance with the AREA Specifications for Portland Cement Concrete,
Plain and Reinforced.
308 Masonry
The bottom of the concrete footing, in hard, durable material, shall be at least
6 inches below the bottom of the gutter for ballast track sections and 6 inches below
the intersection of the surface of the floor and the side walls for solid track sections.
In other material, it shall be carried to suitable foundation.
204. Side Wall and Arches
Side walls and arches shall consist of metal liner plates, properly supported and a
protective covering of shotcrete not less than 3 inches thick, measured from the inside
face of the liner plate.
The space between the liner plates and the face of the excavation shall be (a) firmly
packed with durable stone, rammed into place and the voids filled with grout, or (b) en-
tirely filled with "pea gravel" placed pneumatically and the voids filled with grout.
205. Refuge Niches
Refuge niches shall be at least IS inches deep, 3 feet 6 inches wide and 7 feet high.
Niches should be spaced approximately 100 feet apart and staggered with the opposite
side so that there will be a niche every SO feet in the tunnel. The bottom of niches shall
be at the elevation of base of rail for ballast track sections and at the intersection of the
surface of the floor and the side walls for solid track sections.
206. Drainage Openings
Rectangular tile drains, 3% inches by S inches, shall be installed as necessary in the
rear of the fining, with outlets through the side walls to provide adequate drainage.
Weep holes shall be placed through the side walls at intervals of 20 feet unless
drainage conditions require them to be placed at shorter intervals. The weep holes
should be of pipe not less than 4 inches in diameter and placed on a slope of 4S degrees.
The outer end of the outlets or weep holes shall be not less than 12 inches above the
bottom of the gutter. Sub-drains shall be provided under the floor as necessary. Round
tile drains 4 inches in diameter, or openings of similar area, shall be installed in each
10 feet of ballast walls to provide drainage for the section of the floor between the ballast
walls.
Ill SHOTCRETE
301. Specifications
The shotcrete for the lining shall be made and placed in accordance with the AREA
Specifications for Shotcrete, page 8-95 of the Manual, together with the additional
provisions given herewith.
302. Cement
Portland cement shall conform to the requirements of the AREA Specifications for
Portland Cement, page 8-9 of the Manual.
303. Aggregate
Aggregate shall consist of fine granular material composed of hard, strong, durable
mineral particles that are free from injurious amount of saline, alkaline, organic or other
deleterious substances.
Aggregate shall be well graded. The particles shall range in size within the hmits
below, percentage by weight and shall have a fineness modulus which shall be between
2.2S and 2. 75:
Masonry 309
Percent
Sieve Size Retained
No. 4 0
No. 8 5-30
No. 16 15^0
No. 30 35-55
No. 50 65-85
No. 100 92^98
304. Steel Reinforcement
Shotcrete shall be reinforced by galvanized electric welded wire fabric 3X3 inch
mesh No. 10 A.S.W.G. Sheets shall be securely and properly fastened together and wires
stretched tight.
305. Curing
The shotcrete lining shall be kept wet for at least 7 days after placing.
Revision of the Manual
Your committee recommends changes in the Specifications for Lining Railway Tun-
nels with Plain Concrete, adopted in 1936 and appearing on page 8-103, for the purpose
of including an alternate for solid floor track section, with center drain, along with the
present standard for ballast section.
Change the title of Section 202 from its present form to:
202. Floor and Ballast Walls for Ballast Track Section
Add the following new section:
203. Floor for Solid Track Section
The track rails shall be supported on creosoted tie blocks 8 inches by 10 inches by
2 feet 6 inches, spaced 19^ inches on center, embedded in the concrete floor, with a
double-shoulder tie plate fastened to the tie block with suitable lag screws. Superelevation
shall be provided for curve track by increasing the thickness of the tie blocks under the
high rail.
The concrete floor shall extend at least 1 foot 4 inches below the bottom of the tie
blocks. The surface of the floor shall slope }i inch in 12 inches from the center of the
drain, 7iJ inches below the top of the tie block for double track and 4 inches below
the top of tie block for single track, up to the side walls. (See supplement to Figures 835
and 836.)
Make the necessary changes in the remaining section numbers.
Change the first paragraph in present Section 203 (new No. 204) to read as follows:
The depth of the side walls, in hard, durable material, shall be at least 6 inches below
the bottom of the gutter for ballast track section and at least 6 inches below the inter-
section of the floor surface with the side walls for solid track section. In other material,
the side walls shall be carried down to stable foundation and at least to below the
frost line.
Change the last sentence of the first paragraph of present Section 205 (new No. 206)
to read as follows:
The bottom of the niches shall be at the elevation of the bottom of the track ties for
the ballast track section and at the elevation of the intersection of the floor surface
with the side walls for the solid track section. (Figures 835, 836 and supplement.)
310
Masonry
Super- Elevafion to be provided
bY increasing thickness of tie
block under high rail on curves.
Necessary drains and
catch basins to be provided
at ends of tunnels.
Tic blocks to be creosoted.and
prebored for spikes and log screws.
•i*
^A
Section
Single Tpack ,5olid Floor..
. . 1 .
[«-t-6"-«j- f-6"->j« Z'-b^l'-9
a"
3 C
C I;
1-0
. 8x lo'" 1"- fe" Tie Blocks- 19'/1 cc.
Double 5hoolder tie plate with
Z-Log Screws - 2. Cut Spikes
Section
Double: Track 5olid Floovz..
Supplement to Figures 835 and 836.
^1
Report on Assignment 8
Progress in Cement Manufacture and Testing
C. P. Marsh (chairman, subcommittee), F. W. Capp, Maurice Coburn, L. M. Morris,
L. W. Walter.
Supplementing the report presented last year, the committee reports as follows:
At the June, 1940, meeting of the American Society for Testing Materials, that
society adopted "Tentative Specifications for Portland Cement, (C1S0-40T)", which are
in effect a tentative revision of, and are intended to replace, when adopted, the present
Standard Specifications for Portland Cement (C9-38), and for High Early Strength
Portland Cement (C74-39).
These new specifications of the ASTM provide for five types of Portland cement,
as follows:
Type I. — For use in general concrete construction when the special properties
specified for types II, III, IV and V are not required.
Type II. — This cement is adapted for use in general concrete construction
when the special properties specified for types III, IV, and V are not required,
and when the chemical and physical test requirements prescribed for this type are
desired.
Masonry 3n_
Type III. — For use when high early strength is required.
Type IV. — For use when a low heat of hydration is required (Note).
Type V. — For use when high sulphate resistance is required (Note).
Note — Attention is called to the fact that cements conforming to the requirements for
type IV and type V are not usually carried in stock. In advance of specifying their use pur-
chasers or their representatives should determine whether these types of cement are, or can be,
made available.
The specifications for these five types of cement correspond closely with the five
federal specifications given in the table accompanying the committee's report of last year
as printed in the Proceedings for 1940, Vol. 41, page 383.
They are related as follows:
Type I — Federal, Portland
Type II — Federal, moderate heat of hardening Portland
Type III — Federal, high early strength Portland
Type IV — Boulder dam low heat Portland
Type V — Federal, sulphate resisting Portland
The chemical and physical requirements are shown in tables I and II.
It will be noted that the table of physical requirements includes an autoclave sound-
ness test. At its June, 1940, meeting, the American Society for Testing Materials adopted
as tentative a Method of Test for Autoclave Expansion of Portland Cement (ClSl^OT).
While the present ASTM Standard Specifications for Portland Cement contain no
requirement for fineness, the new tentative specifications contain a requirement for fine-
ness as determined by the turbidimeter for types I, II, IV and V cements. The society
adopted tentative methods for this test in 1939 under the serial designation C11S-38T.
During the past year, investigations by 7 laboratories of mortars for the plastic
mortar cube test for compressive strength and studies by 30 laboratories of various
types of test for volume change and soundness, have been carried on under the spon-
sorship of working committees of ASTM Committee Cl on Cement. The working com-
mittee on the plastic mortar tests reported that none of the mortars covered by the
investigation showed sufficient superiority over that specified in the Tentative Method of
Test for Compressive Strength of Portland Cement Mortars (C109-37T) to warrant a
change in type of mortar and recommended that this specification be retained as tenta-
tive for another year in order that the committee might study suggestions for improve-
ment resulting from a study of the effect of different types, capacities, etc., of testing
machines, and in order to investigate the high frequency vibration method for moulding
cubes suggested by the National Bureau of Standards. The working committee on volume
change and soundness reported:
1. That for 206 (94 percent) of 221 cements tested, the autoclave expansion
of neat bars at 14 days was either approximately the same or was less than the
expansion of companion bars at 1 day.
2. That the method used in moulding the 1 X 1 X llJ4-in- neat bars did not
affect the 1-day autoclave expansion appreciably.
3. That sound autoclave pats may be obtained with cements which show
autoclave expansions up to 4 or 5 percent.
4. That pats in the ASTM steam test were reported as sound for nearly all
of the cements except those having excessively high autoclave expansions at 1 day.
(The committee commented that "the results confirm those of many other tests
in showing the inadequacy of the standard pat test as a test for soundness of
cement".)
312 Masonry
Chemical and Physical Requirements of Proposed Tentative Speclfications fok
Portland Cement — 1940
Chemical Limits:
Portland Cement of each of the five types shown in Section 1 shall conform to the requirements prescribed
in Table I.
Table I- — Chemical Requirements
Ty^e I Type 11 Type III Type IV* Type V*
Magnesium oxide (MgO) Max., percent 5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 4.0
Sulfur trioxide (SO3) max., percent 2.0 2.0 2.5 2.0 2.0
Loss on ignition, max., percent 3.0 3.0 3.0 2.3 3.0
Insoluble residue, max., percent 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75 0.75
Silica (Si02) min., percent 21.0 24.0
Alumina (AI2O3) max., percent 6.0 4.0
Iron Oxide (FeaOa) max., percent 6.0 6.5 4.0
Ratio of AI2O3 to FejOs 0.7 to 2.0 0.7 to 2.0
Tricalcium silicate (3 CaO.Si02)t max., percent-- 50 35
Dicalcium silicate (2 CaO. Si02)t min., percent - _ 40
Tricalcium aluminate (3 CaO. A]203)t max. percent 8 15 7 5
* See Note, Section 1.
t The expressing of chemical limitations by means of calculated assumed compounds does not necessarily
raiean that the oxides are actually or entirely present as such compounds.
The percentages of tricalcium silicate, dicalcium silicate, and tricalcium aluminate shall be calculated
from the chemical analysis as follows:
Tricalcium silicate=
(4.07 X percent CaO)— (7.60 x percent Si02)
—(6.72 X percent AI2O3)— (1.43 x percent Fe203)— (2.85 x percent SO3)
Dicalcium silicate=
(2.87 X per cent Si02)— (0.754 x percent 3 CaO. Si02)
Tricalcium aluminate=
(2.65 X percent AI2O3)— (1.69 x percent Fe203)
Oxide determinations calculated to the nearest 0.1 percent shall be used in the calculations. Compound
percentages shall be calculated to the nearest 0.1 percent and reported to the nearest 1 percent.
Physical Requirements:
Portland Cement of each of the five types shown in Section 1 shall conform to the requirements prescribed
in Table II.
Table II — Physical Requirements
Type I Type II Type III Type IV* Type V*
Fineness, specific surface sq. cm. per g.:
Average value, min 1,600 1,700 1,800 1,800
Minimum value, any one sample 1,500 1,600 1,700 1,700
Soundness:
Autoclave expansion, max., percent 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50
Time of setting (alternate methods)**
Gillmore test:
Initial set, min., not less than 60 60 60 60 60
Final set, hr., not more than 10 10 10 10 10
Vicat test:
Initial set, min., not less than 45 45 45 45 45
Final set, hr., not more than 10 10 10 10 10
Tensile strength, psi.;t
The average tensile strength of not less than
three standard mortar briquets composed of 1
part cement and 3 parts standard sand, by
weight, shall be equal to or higher than the
values specified for the ages indicated below:
1 day in moist air 275
1 day in moist air, 2 days in water 150 125 375
1 day in moist air, 6 days in water 275 250 - 175 175
1 day in moist air, 27 days in water 350 325 t 300 300
Compressive strength, psi.:t
The average compressive strength of not less
than three mortar cubes composed of 1 part
cement and 2.75 parts fine testing sand, by
weight, shall be equal to or higher than the
values specified for the ages indicated below:
1 day in moist air 1,300
1 day in moist air, 2 days in water 1,000 750 3,000
1 day in moist air, 6 days in water 2,000 1,500 800 1,000
1 day in moist air, 27 days in water 3,000 3,000 f 2,000 2,200
* See Note, Section 1.
** The purchaser should specify the type of setting time test required. In case he does not so specify, the
requirement of the Gillmore test only shall govern.
f The purchaser should specify the type of strength test required. In case he does not so specify, the re-
quirements of the tensile strength test only shall govern. The strength at any age shall be higher than the
strength at the next preceding age. Tests at 28 days on Types I and II cement may be waived at the option
of the purchaser. If, at the option of the purchaser, a 28-day test is required on type III cement, the strength
at 28 days shall be higher than at 3 days.
Masonry 313
5. That ratios of the strengths of autoclaved neat and standard mortar
briquettes to the 30-hour strengths of companion moist-cured briquettes showed
a general trend toward lower values as the autoclave expansion of the cement
increased.
Prior to 1936, the ASTM specifications did not permit the use of grinding agents
or plasticizers in the manufacture of Portland cement. The decrease in strength which
resulted from their use was probably the reason they were not permitted to be used.
In recent years there has been an increasing realization that other qualities of con-
crete, such as plasticity, prevention of bleeding, resistance to the action of frost and
corrosive waters, have been neglected and in attempting to effect improvement in these
qualities the use of additions to Portland cement during manufacture has been
re-examined. Some of these additions are primarily manufacturing aids. We believe that
this development is of sufficient importance to justify a report at this time.
Comments upon some of these additions follow:*
Stearic Acid. — This is an effective grinding agent. The addition of about 0.1 percent
of it improves grinding efficiency from 15 to 25 percent. It is effective in preventing ball
coating. It is a fair plasticizer, introduces considerable air into mortar and reduces
bleeding.
Stearic acid is one of the best waterproofing agents, but for effective watertightness
not less than one percent must be used. Mortars containing interground stearic acid are
lower in strength than similar mortars not containing stearic acid. The reduction will
amount to about 10 percent when small amounts of 0.1 percent or less are used and may
amount to as much as 30 percent when 1 percent is used.
Materials which are less refined than stearic acid but have essentially the same
properties are tallow and crude packing house grease.
To a lesser extent, tankage flakes may be placed in the same category. They have
been found to be even more effective than stearic acid or the greases in contributing to
fatness and water retention to mortar. The strength reduction resulting from the use of
tankage flakes is greater than that obtained with the greases and the improvement in
grinding efficiency is less.
Metal soaps of Stearic Acid. — This group consists of calcium stearate, aluminum
stearate and magnesium stearate. The behavior of these materials is similar to that of
stearic acid except that larger amounts are required to produce the same result.
Vegetable and Animal Oils. — In this group may be placed fish oil, hydrogenated fish
oil, oleic acid, and cottonseed oil foots. These materials are effective grinding agents,
0.1 percent being sufficient to improve grinding efficiency from 10 to 20 percent. They
are moderate plasticizers which introduce air into the mortar or concrete and reduce
bleeding. They have not been found to be as effective waterproofers as the greases.
Rosin. — This has been found to be one of the most effective of all the grinding
agents, 0.1 percent being sufficient to improve grinding efficiency from 20 to 30 percent.
Rosin is also one of the most effective of plasticizing or fattening agents and will prac-
tically eliminate bleeding in workable concrete. It introduces a large amount of air
into the mix, and once introduced the air tends to remain until the mix has hardened.
The water retention of mortar containing rosin is high. Mortars containing rosin also
show greatly improved resistance to freezing and thawing.
* The information presented on additions to Portland cements is based on an unpublished paper by
Mr. L. A. Wagner, chief research chemist, Missouri Portland Cement Company, presented at the
meeting of ASTM Committee CI on Cement held on March 18 and 19, 1940.
314 Masonry
A decrease in strength results from the introduction of rosin into the cement. How-
ever, because of improved plasticity, the water requirement of a mix containing rosin is
decreased, which partially offsets the strength reduction brought about by the decrease
in mortar density.
Vinsol resin, which is a processed wood rosin, exhibits essentially the same prop-
erties as gum rosin except that it is not so potent either as a grinding agent or as a
plasticizing agent. Owing to commercial reasons, (cheapness and powdered form) this
is the form of resin most used.
Paraffin Wax. — ^This material was found to have no value either as a grinding
agent, plasticizing agent or waterproofer.
Waste Sulphate Liquor and Sulphonated Sludge. — ^Waste sulphate liquor is a by-
product of the paper industry and is marketed by one manufacturer as Raylig. Sul-
phonated petroleum sludge is a by-product resulting from the sulphonation of petroleum
in the manufacture of white oils. The Standard Oil Company of Indiana markets this
material under the trade name of XGA soap oil. Both are effective grinding and plasti-
cizing agents, about 0.1 percent of Raylig and 0.25 percent of soap oil being required
for effective results. That a larger amount of soap oil is required is probably due to the
fact that it contains about 50 percent water. These materials introduce a large amount
of air into the mortar or concrete and reduce bleeding. However, the air is not retained
to as large an extent as in similar mixes containing rosin.
Coal and Carbon Black. — Soft coal has long been known as a grinding agent and
has been used by cement producers to clean out grinding mills in which the balls have
been badly coated. Carbon black is somewhat more effective than coal as a grinding
agent. These materials have little, if any, plasticizing value and do not reduce bleeding.
It has also been reported that mortars containing these materials do not stand up well
under freezing and thawing.
TDA. — This is a proprietary product, a combined catalyst and dispersing agent. It
is a mixture of triethanolamine salts and highly purified soluble calcium salts of modified
lignin sulphonic acids. According to the ASTM it is not harmful when used as an addi-
tion to Portland cement. It is reported to be a powerful grinding aid and has a marked
effect in increasing the durability of concrete as measured by freezing and thawing.
Bentonite (finely divided clay) and Hydrated Lime. — These materials do not have
any value as grinding agents but are often recommended as plasticizers. Bentonite is an
effective plasticizer but for a given consistency it requires more water in the concrete mix
and this reduces the strength. The addition of 3 percent of Bentonite has been found to
greatly reduce the resistance to freezing and thawing.
Additions of dry hydrated lime were found to contribute little, if any, to the
plasticity of mortar mixes. However, aged lime putty showed greater plasticity and
fatness in mortar than the other materials tested.
Inert Fillers. — Inert fillers, such as limestone dust, various forms of silica, clays,
slags, and fly ash are widely used as plasticizers in mortar and concrete. These materials
are generally added in amounts of 10 to 25 percent by weight of the cement. If these
materials are interground with Portland cement, the resulting products are more prop-
erly classified as blended cements and are considered to be outside the scope of this
report.
I
Masonry 315
Report on Assignment 9
Specifications for Culvert Pipe
Theodore Doll (chairman, subcommittee), A. N. Laird, J. A. Lahmer, R. L. Mays, J. L.
Rippey, F. B. Robins, E. O. Sweetser, Jamison Vawter.
The following specifications were presented as information last year, and the com-
mittee now recommends that they be adopted for publication in the Manual.
SPECIFICATIONS FOR THE PLACEMENT OF CONCRETE
CULVERT PIPE
1. Scope
These specifications cover the placement of concrete culvert pipe for railway culverts.
2. Bedding
The pipe shall be placed on a cushion of earth or other finely granular material,
or on a cast-in place concrete cradle, as illustrated in Figs. 1, 2, and 3. The surface on
which the pipe rests shall be so shaped that the reaction will be distributed as nearly
uniformly as possible over a horizontal width of not less than six-tenths of the outside
diameter and all possibility of concentration of the reaction at or near the vertical
diameter eliminated. If pipe having a projecting bell is used, the surface on which the
pipe rests shall be shaped to fit the bell, as well as the barrel of the pipe. The acceptable
methods of beddmg are illustrated in Figs. 1, 2, and 3, and the Engineer shall specify
which method is to be used, depending on the superimposed load and the strength of
the pipe.
3. Foundation and Camber
(a) If the material under the bedding cushion or cradle is sufficiently firm to
maintain the culvert on the established line and grade, cambering of the pipe line will
not be required.
(b) If the foundation is such that it may be expected to yield a limited amount,
which can be estimated with reasonable accuracy, the culvert shall be placed with suffi-
cient camber to ensure that it will not have a sag at the end of the settlement. The
camber shall be constructed by laying approximately one-half of the length of the
culvert at the upstream end horizontally, or on a grade equal to about half of the
average grade of the culvert, and the remainder on a sufficient grade downstream to
provide the necessary camber or additional grade required. No section of pipe shall be
placed higher than the one at the upstream end.
(c) If the foundation is soft or spongy, an adequate support shall be supplied by
excavating the unstable soil and backfilling with firm material, by laying a timber mat
on the unstable soil, or by such other means as may be specified or approved by the
Engineer.
(d) If the foundation is muck, or similarly yielding material, the pipe shall be
bedded above a continuous platform supported on piling, or by such other means as
may be specified or approved by the Engineer.
4. Backfill and Embankment
The filling around and over the culvert shall be placed in accordance with one or
more of the methods outlined in Figs. 4 to 9, inclusive, as specified by the Engineer. The
316
Masonry
//-
1. Mk=Bc + 4-'
-£4ri-h
■73-
~m.^^
0;^i?/N/\Rr Bedding
■m-fper ft. ofH, hut
noi /ess than^'
F'<s.i
p;v?z^5"^^^7?r^
■£'arif'^ /^oroey/^/u i^/jw'i
-£an^^ accurate hf s/ja/pecf to fit jv/'/je-
■m.=^ per ft. of H, t;i/t-
/;ot k^5 t/!<^ri 8"
/i/ff.'
-/*//>}.' ^, /i)(/t/rot /ess /^an 6
Pro yide c ushion if
concrete. I's c<3st
before pipe is phced
^Co/^crsfe., cc(st /'n p/ace.
'i' ~x.-'l^~'iBottorrj of concrete, /n
^arxf rr7<ftar/a/-
CotYc/r£T£. C/^/iDL£: ^£:Dj:)//i<^
Ft^.3
filling shall in all cases be placed alternately on each side of the culvert, in approxi-
mately equal layers, and necessary care shall be taken to avoid displacing the pipe. Rock
fill shall not be dumped over the culvert without a sufficient cushion of earth to prevent
breakage.
5. Jacking Pipe Through Fills
Pipe used for jacking through fills shall be without projecting bells. The tongue
shall preferably be at the downstream end. A ring of tarred or bitumen-coated rope
shall be placed around the tongue of each pipe section at the joints, to prevent the
Masonry
317
7^05/r/i/£ 7^/?oj'£cr/o/v Ca/yD/r/o/i
Z£^0 P?i'OS£CT/0/Y Co/yD/T/Ofi
-'/Yafcra/ 0roc/ncf
compaotscf
'^/O <y/^ fyV/y
O^D/zy/j/rr Z)/rcj^ CoAfD/r/0/y
res,!
entrance of water during construction and to form an annular space for sealing with
mortar from the inside after the jacking has been completed.
Jacking frames shall be so constructed as to avoid breaking the pipe or forcing it
out of alinement. The pipe shall preferably be jacked upgrade to provide drainage at
the heading during excavation. Satisfactory means shall be provided for maintaining the
lead pipe in the correct grade and direction. If the line shows signs of developing exces-
sive resistance to movement, jacking shall be carried on continuously until the jacking
of the entire culvert has been completed.
318
Masonry
^
//^////////////-i///0//0////lTo^ o,
!»:
1
'■■ — ^
I
&-/y4^(//'a/ (^rocncf
Afoj)/n£p Z)/TCM Cor/XJ/T/o/Y
/7<?.r?
f3^
f^T^riSyi^OSscf Yo^ of £^/7T Ac^fi/r^rfery^-y
\
r~/^/'/7a/ Top of
/
A^
/v>y/ S/^e^
S^'concZ S^ep
•-^
ft. !>- ^
Ca/rr/j/e^ec/ ^;^c//
/^z.7-j^/r/Y/}r£ /^ojp/F/Ej} D/rcf/ Co/ip/r/o/^
/^;?.f
6. Constructing Culverts in Tunnel
When it is necessary to place pipe culverts by tunneling, plans shall be prepared for
the construction procedure and timbering.
7. Joints
(a) Bell and spigot pipe shall preferably be bedded with the bell end upstream.
The interior surface of the bell shall be thoroughly cleaned and wetted, and the lower
portion filled with a stiff mortar of sufficient thickness to make the inner surfaces of
the abutting sections flush. The spigot end of the next section shall also be cleaned and
Masonry 319
wetted, and fitted into the bell so that the sections are closely matched. The annular
space in the bell shall then be filled with mortar and the inner surface of the pipe brushed
smooth at the joint.
(b) Tongue and groove pipe shall preferably be laid with the groove upstream.
A shallow excavation shall be made underneath the pipe at the joint, and filled with
stiff mortar into which the next section of pipe is laid. The groove end of the first pipe
shall be cleaned and wetted, and a layer of mortar applied to the lower half of the
groove. The tongue end of the next section shall also be cleaned and wetted, and a layer
of mortar applied to the upper half of the tongue. The tongue shall then be fitted into
the groove and shoved in place so that part of the mortar is squeezed out, and the sec-
tions closely matched. The inner surface shall then be brushed smooth at the joint.
(c) Joints in pipe that is jacked in place shall not be sealed with mortar untQ the
jacking of the culvert has been completed.
The committee recommends that the subject be continued under the following
designation: "Maintain contact with ASTM Committee C-13, Concrete Pipe."
Report on Assignment 11
Pressure Grouting
W. M. Ray (chairman, subcommittee), F. W. Capp, Maurice Coburn, G. F. Eberly,
W. A. Kingman, Roscoe Owen, O. V. Parsons, I. L. Pyle, G. E. Robinson, C. H.
Splitstone.
Your committee offers the following specifications as information with the intention
of recommending their adoption and publication in the Manual next year.
SPECIFICATIONS FOR SOLIDIFICATION OF MASONRY
STRUCTURES BY PRESSURE GROUTING
1. Drilling
Before undertaking a grouting project, it may be advisable to drill holes of a
minimum diameter ol 1% inches to develop the conditions and extent of the required
operation, these holes to be used later in the appHcation of grout. The number of such
holes shall be sufficient to permit observation and insure the filling of all voids and shall
be approved by the Engineer.
2. Description
Grout. — The grout shall consist mainly of neat Portland cement and water in pro-
portions varying usually according to local requirements from a minimum of S gallons
to a maximum of 12 gallons of water per sack of cement. Operations shall be started
with a definite water-cement ratio, introducing SO percent of the water into the mixer
before the dry ingredients, and the remaining water during mixing. If required by the
Engineer in charge, fluidity must be controlled by tests through a standard flow cone.*
* Standard flow cones described by Portland Cement Association, 33 West Grand Avenue, Chicago,
111. See Concrete for Railways, Vol. 3, No. 1, page 9.
320 Masonry
3. Materials
(a) Cement. — The cement shall be finely ground Portland cement of which not less
than 90 percent shall pass a No. 200 sieve, as coarse particles may prevent the desired
penetration, and shall in other particulars comply with AREA Specifications for Portland
Cement (AREA Manual, page 8-9— Same as ASTM Designation C-9-38).
(b) Sand. — Sand may be added, at the direction of the Engineer, where satisfactory
penetration can be secured in varying proportions up to 1 : 1 mix by volume. All sand
should pass a No. 28 mesh sieve and have large proportions of fines passing SO and 100-
mesh sieves, and shall in other particulars comply with AREA Specifications for Fine
Aggregate (Manual page 8-1, 2).
(c) Water. — The water shall comply with requirements for mixing water, for Port-
land Cement Concrete, AREA Manual page 8-2.
(d) Admixtures. — No admixture shall be used unless approved by the Engineer.
4. Apparatus
The apparatus shall consist of a mixer discharging to a receiver supplied with a
suitable agitator from which the grout may be discharged.
(a) By Gravity. — Grout may be deposited directly through an open funnel or spout
or may be conveyed up to SO feet through a 2J<^-inch fire hose.
(b) By Pneumatic Pressure on the Receiver. — For this method an air tight re-
ceiver, equipped with an air driven agitator, shall be suppUed. The grout mixed eithei
in a mechanical mixer or by hand shall be delivered to the receiver and air pressure
applied to expel the contents through suitable transmission pipes to the point of applica-
tion through sealed connections at the drill holes. When used in cold weather, the entire
apparatus should be heated to maintain the deUvery temperature of grout up to 80
degrees F. A shotcrete gun may be remodeled readily for this pressure operation.!
(c) By Pump. — When pumps are used for ordinary quantities and conditions, effi-
cient hand pumps are available which have the advantage of direct control of pressure
and quantities applied. Grout may be drawn into the cylinders of a reciprocating pump
and. propelled directly into the discharge pipe. Delivery shall be as nearly continuous as
possible, which is best attained by a rotary pump, satisfactory types of which have been
developed.
5. Pressures
Required pressures may vary widely depending on the application desired and the
character of the structure and shall be strictly under the direction of the Engineer in
charge. The range of probable requirements is as follows:
(1) Small unit masonry jobs — gravity to 30 lb. per sq. in.
(2) Structural repairs by drill holes 30 to SO feet deep — gravity to 100 lb. per sq. in.
6. Payment
Including furnishing, operation and maintenance of all equipment and supplying
all materials required.
(1) Lump sum price for equipment moved to and from the job.
(2) Drilling diameter holes at per Hneal foot.
(3) Grout cement in place at per sack.
(4) Sand cubic yards in place at per cubic yard.
t Engineering News Record, June 22, 1939, pages 61 and 62.
Masonry 321
Report on Assignment 12
Specifications for Concrete and Reinforced Concrete Railroad
Bridges and Other Structures
C. H. Splitstone (chairman, subcommittee), F. E. Bates, Hardy Cross, G. H. Dayett,
Meyer Hirschthal, L. H. Hornsby, M. L. Johnson, J. E. Kalinka, J. A. Lahmer,
A. N. Laird, C. P. Marsh, J. L. Rippey, G. E. Robinson, C. P. Schantz, G. E. Shaw,
G. R. Smiley, A. W. Smith, J. H. Titus, W. R. Wilson, J. J. Yates.
Your committee reports progress as follows:
A skeleton outline for the specifications has been prepared and the subject matter
is being developed by comparing the present specifications, topic by topic, with those of
25 or 30 railroads and public bodies, utiHzing the material therein insofar as it is found
to be of value in specifying modern concrete construction. Of special value in this pro-
cedure is the report of the Joint Committee on Specifications for Concrete and Rein-
forced Concrete. This is the most comprehensive and up to date work on the subject
available to the committee, which is giving it corresponding weight in its work.
It is the purpose of your committee to separate the subject matter as between
specifications and recommended practice, as has been done by the Joint Committee.
The greater part of the specifications has been developed and a start has been made on
the recommended practices.
Report on Assignment 13
Specifications for Test Borings
Collaborating with Committee 1 — Roadway and Ballast
W. R. Wilson (chairman, subcommittee), G. H. Dayett, Theodore Doll, R. Hayes, W. A.
Kingman, R. L. Mays, Roscoe Owen, O. V. Parsons, C. H. Splitstone. Jamison
Vawter.
The following report is submitted as information. The table on page 323 and the
Specifications for Test Borings are presented with the intention of submitting them in
1942 for adoption and publication in the Manual.
To be of any value, subsurface exploration must determine the location and thick-
ness of each stratum of soil encountered for the required depth of the bore, and also
classify the type of soil in each strata.
The following are the methods which will furnish such data and suitable samples
of the types of soil encountered:
Test Pits
The best method for determining subsurface conditions is to dig a test pit. With a
test pit it is possible to examine soil conditions in the natural state and to locate accu-
rately any strata of running sand. The ground water elevations can also be more exactly
determined than by any other means. Undisturbed samples of plastic soil can be secured
for laboratory analysis. Due to the difficulty of controUing the water, the cost of remov-
ing the soil and the heavy sheeting required to protect the walls, test pits are not
practical in most cases. Exploration of the site by other methods may indicate the need
for test pits to solve adequately the foundation problem.
322 Masonry
Augers
Auger borings can be used for shallow depths and in cohesive soils. Where soil con-
ditions are found by other methods to be uniform, a check of the uniformity can be
made by auger borings at intermediate points between test borings spaced relatively far
apart. Samples are difficult to obtain in granular soils or where ground water is en-
countered. The cost is high for deep auger borings. Samples taken from the auger are
disturbed and in plastic material care must be taken in classifying the samples so secured.
Dry Sample Borings
Dry sample boring is the method most used for underground exploration in soil.
The term "dry sample" is the common name for this process. This name is misleading
in that, when taken in wet soils or below the ground water line, the sample is not dry.
The method of procedure is to sink a hole by means of wash boring, i.e., where
water under pressure goes through a wash pipe equipped at the lower end with a chop-
ping bit. The wash pipe is churned up and down and rotated, thus loosening the soil
at the bottom of the hole, the loosened soil then being carried out of the hole by the
upward flow of the wash water. The casing is driven as the boring progresses. The
nature of the soil carried to the surface by the wash water has been completely changed
due to the action of the chopping bit and the wash water, therefore, it is valueless in
determining the characteristics of the strata encountered. "Dry samples" are taken
whenever the characteristics of the soil, as indicated by the wash water and the feel
of the wash pipe, change. They are taken by pumping out the loosened soil in the hole,
removing the string of wash pipe and substituting a sampling spoon or open piece of
pipe for the chopping bit. The wash pipe and sampling bit are then lowered in the hole
and driven into the soil. The spoon is removed and the sample taken from it, identified,
placed in a container, completely labeled and retained as part of the record. The ordi-
nary sample so obtained has been disturbed but it contains the same proportions of
grains as does the strata sampled. To determine the consistency of the strata, a record
is kept of the weight of hammer and number of blows required to drive the spoon for
one foot. A casing as small as two inches in diameter may be used with corresponding
samples 1^ in. in diameter.
Undisturbed sampling is the term used for the method of obtaining undisturbed
samples of plastic soil for laboratory investigation, however, it is impossible to obtain
completely undisturbed samples. Many types of sampling spoons have been used with
varying degrees of success. The minimum size of sample that can be investigated in the
laboratory is 4^4 in- The method of boring the test hole is the same as for dry sample
boring. Due to the large size of casing required for undisturbed samples and the care
with which they must be taken, the cost of such investigation is high.
Core Borings
To secure samples of rock or boulders it is necessary to take core borings. The
term core boring refers to the securing of samples of rock by means of rotary drilUng
tools equipped with special cutting tools. The cutting tools are of three types, namely;
black diamond, shot drills and toothed steel cutters. The nature of the rock to be sam-
pled and the size of core required will determine the type of cutting tool to be used on
the particular job. Cores % in. in diameter can be made with a diamond drill but the
smallest commercial size is 1^ in. Cores more than four inches in diameter are seldom
made with diamond tools. Shot drill cores less than two inches in diameter are difficult
to make. Cores up to 52 in. in diameter have been taken. Steel toothed cutters have
323
TABLE I - METHODS OF UNDEROROUITD EXPLORATION AND SAMPLING *
Conmon Nam©
Materials In
Method of
Method of
Approx. Cost
Value for-
of Method
Which Used
Advancing the
Hole
San^ling
per ft.
Founda-
tion
Purposes
Wash Sample
All soils. Can-
Washing inside
Samples re-
♦0.50 to »1.25
per ft. 2 l/2"
Almost
Borings
not penetrate
a driven cas-
covered from
valueless
boulders or
ing.
the wash
casing.
and dan-
rock.
water.
gerous
beoause
results
are de-
ceptive.
Dry Sample
All soils. Can-
Washing inside
Open end pipe ♦0.65 to Jl .75
Most re-
Boring
not penetrate
a driven cas-
or spoon
per ft, 2"
and 2 l/2"
liable of
boulders or
ing.
driven into
inexpen-
rock.
soil at bot-
tom of bore
hole.
casing.
sive
methods.
Data on
compao-
tion of
soil ob-
tained by
measuring
penetra-
tion re-
sistance
of spoon.
"UndiVtairbeof Samples obtained
; Usually wash-
Special sam-
JH.OO to J12:00 Used prii-
Sampling
only from oo-
ing inside a
pling spoon
per ft.
marily to
hesive soils.
6" Basing.
designed to
6" casing.
obtain
Augers
recover large
samples
may be used.
samples.
of oom-
pressible
soils for
labora-
tory
study.
Auger Bor-
Cohesive soils
Augers rotated
Samples re-
$0.75 to $2.00
Satis-
ing.
and oohesionless
; until filled
covered from
per ft.
factory
soils above
with soil and
soil brought
1 l/2" auger.
for high
ground water
then removed to
up on augers.
way ex-
elevation.
surface .
ploration
at shal-
low
depths .
Well
All soils.
Chum drilling
Bailed sample
?5.nO to J15.00 "Clay
Drilling
boulders, and
with power
of churned
per ft.
socket"
rook.
machina .
soil or sam-
ples from
"clay sock-
et".
6" to 8" hole.
samples
are dry
samples.
Bailed
samples
are value-
less.
jCocimon Name Materials in
Method of
Method of
Approx. Cost
Value for
of Method
Which Used
Advancing the
Hole
Sampling
per ft.
Founda-
tion
Purposes
Rotary
All soils.
Rotating bits
Samples re-
Samples
Drilling
boulders, and
operating in a
oovcred from
are of no
rock.
heavy circula-
ting liquid.
circulating
lio.uid
value.
Core
B(7Ulders, sound
Rotating coring
Cores cut and
^ $3-50 to $35.60 Best- -
BorLngs
rock and froren
tools: diamond
recovered by
per ft.
method of
soils.
shot, or 8t««l-
tooth cutters.
tool s .
1-1/8" to 36"
determin-
ing char-
acter and
condition
of rook.
Test Pits
All soils. In
Hand digging in
Samples taken
1 $10.00 and up
Soils can
pervious soils
sheeted or lag-
by hand from
depending on
be inspec-
below ground
ged pit. Power
original po-
plan size.
ted in
water level
excavation oo-
sition in
depth, vmter
natural
pneuffiotio
casionally used
. ground.
and soil con-
condition
caisson or
dition.
and posi-
loviering of
tion.
ground water
is necessary.
¥
1. Test rods, sounding rods, jet problngs, geophysical methods, oto„aro nof
included in this table, because no soil samples are obtained.
2. The approximate costs per foot of the various methods vary between wide
limits because of the lar,;e number of factors which govern the cost. A few
of those factors arei character of soil, depth of hole, number of obstruotions
encountered, total footage of boring or drilling at given site, aooessibilily
of site, etc.
From Exploration of Soil Conditions and Sampling Operations, , by H. A. Uohr,
Second Edition, February 19l*0, Publication Ho. 269, Grftduato School of EMgl-
neorlng. Harvard University.
324 Masonry
proved successful only in certain of the softer types of rock. The size of cores so taken
is the same as for the diamond drill.
Miscellaneous Methods
Various other methods are used for drilling holes in the earth. These methods are
valueless for exploration work in that samples are not taken, or if taken, are so changed
that it is impossible to identify the class of soil from them. Some of these methods are:
Wash borings, well drilling and rotary drilling, such as is used for oil wells.
Test rods, sounding rods and jet probings are useful means for determining the
elevation of rock or boulders but they do not give any indication of the kind of rock
or the type of soil overlying the rock. Care must be used in forming conclusions from
the results of such soundings.
Geophysical methods of exploration have been developed for prehminary explora-
tion of large areas. These methods are the electric resistivity method and the seismo-
graphic method. The results of exploration by these methods when used for design and
construction must be checked by test borings, hence these methods are not practical for
ordinary exploration for specific projects.
The accompanying table is a summary of the present methods of underground
exploration and sampling.
Field Identification of Soils
Pages 1-6.1 to 1-6.5 of the Manual, present a discussion of physical properties of
earth materials, including descriptions necessary for the identification of soils of the sizes
of sand and finer. The following notes, submitted as information, supplement the material
given and will assist in making the proper identification of the soil encountered in test
borings.
Fill is man-made deposits of natural soils and waste materials. The classification of
fills should be made to show the predominating material, such as clay fill ; cinder fill, etc.
Trouble may result from placing a foundation on fill if it overlies other material, hence
care should be taken to explore the underlying soils.
Inorganic silt or rock flour is a fine grained inorganic earth, consisting of grains which
will pass through a 200-mesh sieve. It is a treacherous soil and the source of trouble
as a foundation material. In the wet state it is often misclassified as soft clay. When wet,
it can be molded or rolled in the fingers without breaking, but it crumbles as it drys
slightly. The material that dries on the hands can be easily dusted off. A small pat of
wet inorganic silt placed in the palm of the hand and shaken in a horizontal plane will
become wet and shiny. When compressed between the fingers the water disappears from
the surface and the surface appears dull. If water does not appear on the surface, the
material is lean clay.
Organic silt and organic clay are silts and clays with a content of visible organic material
or of organic colloids. These materials will be compressible, plastic and pervious. They
are identified by their color — dark grey or black. They often have a perceptible odor of
decomposition. When molded, they exhibit a soft feeling, very different from the feel of
inorganic silt or clay.
Sand, Gravel and Boulders
Fine Sand can be classified as that of which the greater portion will pass a No. 65
mesh screen.
Masonry 325
Medium Sand is that of which the greater portion will pass a No. 28 mesh screen
and be retained on a No. 65 mesh screen.
Coarse Sand will pass a J4-in. diameter screen and be retained on a No. 28 mesh
screen.
Gravel will be retained on a %-m. diameter screen and its size ranges to six or eight
inches.
Small Boulders range in size from 8 in. to ^ cu. yd. in volume.
Large Boulders are more than ^ cu. yd. in volume and may contain as much as
15 to 20 cu. yd.
Compactness of Granular Soils. — Compact sand or gravel requires the use of a pick for
its removal. It offers considerable resistance to the progress of earth boring tools. Loose
sand or gravel can be excavated by shoveling. Rapid progress with earth boring tools is
possible.
Suspension of Granular Soils. — Any fine granular soil the grains of which are of nearly
uniform size may be subjected to a flow of water through it in such a manner as to
cause each particle of soil to be suspended in the water. Such a condition is called
quicksand and is a granular phenomenon and not a type of soil.
Classification of Clay. — Clay may be classified in part by color. Locally the color classi-
fication will have a bearing on its consistency and assist the designer in determining its
safe bearing load.
Hard clay cannot be remolded by the use of the fingers and requires a pick to
excavate.
Medium clay can be remolded by applying considerable pressure with the fingers and
can be excavated with a spade.
Soft clay can be easily remolded with the fingers and can be readily excavated with
a shovel.
Hardpan is a compacted mixture of clay, sand or gravel, difficult to remove with a
pick and often requiring pneumatic tools or explosives for excavation. It should be
identified as hardpan and the description of the soil composition should also be given.
Shale is highly consolidated clay, the minerals of which have been essentially un-
altered since being deposited. In slate the original clay minerals have been altered. When
water is added to shale the mass will become plastic. When shale has been dried it can
be easily shattered by a light blow or by hand. In slate there will be no change.
For further information regarding identification of Soils see:
Exploration of Soil Conditions and Sampling Operations, by H. A. Mohr,
Second Edition, Feb. 1940, Publication No. 269, Graduate School of Engineering,
Harvard University.
Description and Identification of Soil Types, by P. C. Rutledge, pages 124
to 129 incl., Proceedings of Purdue Conference on Soil Mechanics and Its Applica-
tion, Purdue University, July 1940.
Records
The importance of making a complete record of all the information regarding the
test boring cannot be too highly stressed. The boring report to be of value should furnish
the following information.*
1. The starting grade of each boring. The grade should be referenced to a
definitely established datum. This is just as important as is an established datum
* From Exploration of Soil Conditions and Sampling Operations, page S.
326 Masonry
plane for a contour survey. In many instances actual construction is undertaken
several years after the borings have been made. During the interval the area might
have been filled or it might have been leveled off. Then, too, as is constantly the
case, years after the borings have been made, alterations or additions are under-
taken. If the starting grades are given with respect to an estabhshed datum the
borings are of permanent value. Otherwise they are of no value after a short
period of time.
2. A true cross-section of the ground showing the depth below the starting
grade to the top of each stratum or the thickness of each stratum. It seems
needless to advise that the report should identify the soils encountered in consecu-
tive order starting at the surface.
3. The results plotted to scale and to true elevation.
The engineer knows the type of the proposed structure, its weight, the num-
ber of points of support and their spacing, the loads it will transmit to the soil
and the elevation of the basement floor or the lowest elevation of some controlling
requirement. With these data, a line drawn across the boring report at the con-
trolhng elevation, will often give at a glance the answer on the proper type of
foundation to use. In most instances a few hours' study, which may include esti-
mates of the cost of two or three types of foundations, will determine the answer.
Occasionally, however, a difficult and interesting problem is encountered and a
great deal of time and study are required before the proper solution is arrived at.
4. Ground water level. If there is any indication of an unusual water con-
dition it should be noted. The usual indication of a porous stratum is a loss of
wash water. The voids in the porous stratum may be completely filled with water
and the loss be caused by a positive hydrostatic head in a downward direction. On
the other hand the voids may contain no water and the loss of wash water can
still be from the same cause. If there is a question of the true condition, the bore
hole should be bailed for a definite answer. Every iota of evidence pertaining to
water conditions should be noted as construction work below water level is the
bane of a builder's existence.
5. Some indication of the compactness of granular soils and the degree of
hardness of plastic soils. To record "compact sand" or "loose sand" or "hard clay"
or "soft clay" is not explicit. Those are relative terms and will have a different
meaning with different individuals. A positive resistance basis to penetration under
an applied weight, or blows of a constant height of fall of a given weight, should
be established and used.
6. A proper soil classification of every stratum encountered. The practice of
designating the different soils by various types of cross-hatching or letters or
numbers or by any other legend merely confuses the one attempting to interpret
the report, and introduces unnecessary chance for error in translating from the
original report or notes to the unreadable and then back again. Anyone studying
a boring report does so to learn what the ground conditions are. This purpose
can be accomplished easily and intelligently when the report shows the classifica-
tion written in the proper location. Boring reports should never be made or shown
otherwise.
7. Every indication of the presence of boulders, rip rap, and obstructions of
every kind.
8. A record in full of every trial or uncompleted boring in the same manner
as completed borings are reported.
Masonry
327
9. A plot plan showing the location of each boring referenced to definite
survey lines. The boring numbers should be marked on the plan.
10. Identification as to owner, engineer or architect, location, date and job
number. The report should be filed so that it may be easily located for future
reference.
TTtZ" NO/?T/iJi. SOam /?/J/L/?0/7D CO.
Office of C/iief ^n^/nser- Chicago, J//.
TEST DOPING DATA
3r/'c/ae/^o. ^^74 ^ HrM Disfr'ict EasUm Division
TE3T mole: no,,A__
Station or M.P-f- Sia.AC,8->-JJ°
Rt or If. of <L
23 s ff_ Lt
Bor/ngs mads At/ X Y ^- Co.
Inspector l^m. Jone.5
Bass of /fhi/ r/cK 222. ''■y
Date started 4-a-w Time y/<9-^
Dafe Comfikfed 4-S-4-0 f/,7}e '^so P
/^(Tround Line £/ey. 2JO.i>
28-^'
J7'-0
P^
CAiWcm of
Fine Pii-fy So" J •■ ^^
Inside Diam. of Cas/'ng
" " " Spoon
h^eighf of Hammer
Drop of Hommsf-
??
2"
30"
Sa/npk
no.
f/r/rr i^//ou/
C/a-
4c^
'J
DRY ^/^MPU DflTf^
Ele\^.of
boft of
spoon
^2
no. of
hlotys
per f^.
4^-3"
/OO"
/&'-i>"
ZO-f
2<9-<h'
Tofal
penefrotim
of spoon
Le/>giHiaf
■sample
obfa/ned
/&■
/5
/6'
/3-
4-i
S"
Harjpan, C/at/ f /fS
pisivr^el
/.imffjfonf
limssfone
Tape of Core Dr/'//
Cors Dla/77. /o
Ji/UA^^^.^.%^
goWcmaf Tcj* Mo/n
RcM/iir/rs: ^ , . / j^
Wifer .dcoJ af /tiS' ieAi-^ yroond !* *oors offer fejt ^oj com/>/afe4
t$' af easing Oje<f
CORE D/^Tf^
Sonipk
no
Ehvaflon
Core
necoi^erifd
/fafe of Boriiy
ff. psr /foor-
Top
daft
4C
?/-/i)'
37-0'
2-/0 ■
r
«7
37-0
4^-f
^■.2-
-^
•SAsef -^ of 6
A Sample Page of Test Boring Data.
328 Masonry
The foreman should be furnished a notebook printed especially for recording his
findings. The blank spaces to be filled in will keep him from forgetting items of impor-
tance. The illustration shows a sample page of test boring data as recorded in such a
notebook.
When making a report do not elaborate. State the positive facts found. For in-
stance, if the boring is stopped abruptly by an impenetrable object, stop the report at
the top of that object. To identify it as bed rock is an unwarranted assumption, as a
small boulder in hard pan will stop progress with earth boring tools. The only way to
identify such an object is to drill it with core tools and reclaim a sample. Any boring
report definitely identifying material below the bottom of the bore hole should raise
suspicion.
Usually, when a boring is stopped abruptly and the work is not too deep, efforts
are made to determine if a boulder or ledge rock stopped the tools. Additional borings
are made at distances of four or five feet from the location of the original boring. If all
borings at that location are stopped at about the same elevation, it is often assumed
that bed rock has been encountered. Regardless of the number of trials and the results
obtained, nothing has been definitely proved regarding the nature of the material that
stopped the tools. By no hne of reasoning can anyone justify a positive identification
of the material below the bottom of the bore hole.
SPECIFICATIONS FOR TEST BORINGS
I SCOPE
These specifications cover the procedure for making borings through soil and rock to
determine their characteristics for foundation purposes.
The specifications are written to cover a variety of methods of exploration, but
only those methods will be used which are consistent with the information it is desired
to obtain on a particular job.
II GENERAL
1. Number and Location of Test Holes
The number and location of the test holes shall be as indicated upon the drawings.
Additional test holes may be required to delimit erratic soil areas should radical
soil changes be disclosed by the original borings.
2. Plant
All plant, equipment and methods to be used shall be approved by the Engineer
before the work is begun. However, approval of the equipment shall not be construed
as including approval of the performance thereof or that additional equipment and
methods will not be required to perform the work satisfactorily according to the
specifications.
3. Depth of Borings
At locations where the rock stratum is at such a depth that it is not practical to
reach it, the boring shall extend below the proposed foundation, or foot of piles, to such
a depth as will adequately determine the characteristics of the underlying materials.
Where the borings reach rock, all borings shall be carried at least 5 feet into solid
rock. If cores indicate that the rock is seamed or broken, or in thin layers, all borings
shall be carried to the depth considered necessary.
Masonry 329
4. Permits
All permits shall be secured by the owner or contractor before the work is started
and as provided by the contract.
Ill EXPLORATION METHODS
1. Test Pits
Where required, test pits will be made to bedrock or to such depth as ordered.
Excavation shall be by hand methods and excavation materials of each class shall be kept
in separate piles as far as practicable. Ordinarily, samples of the formations shall be
taken progressively from the natural formation where requested by the Engineer and
placed in quart jars and properly labeled.
2. Hand Augers
Hand augers may be used for test borings of moderate depth in plastic materials, in
granular materials above the ground water line or in granular materials containing suffi-
cient clay to make them cohesive. The auger shall be not less than 2 inches in diameter.
The strata shall be determined by the samples secured when the auger is pulled from the
ground.
3. Dry Sample Borings
(a) Casings. — Casings for penetrating soil shall be not less than 2 inches inside
diameter. Casing for penetrating rock shall be not less than 2J/2 inches inside diameter.
Water may be used to facilitate the driving of the casing.
(b) Procedure. — Where required, dry sample borings will be made to bedrock or to
such a depth as ordered to obtain samples suitable for determining accurate soil profiles
and furnishing material for certain laboratory tests not requiring large-diameter
undisturbed samples.
Dry samples shall be taken at every change of formation, and in any case at inter-
vals not exceeding 5 feet. Continuous samples may be required through thinly stratified
formations. Samples may be taken with a solid spoon from which the sample may be
pushed with a piston or with a split spoon where the formation is such that part of the
sample will not adhere to each half of the spoon when separated. Core retainers will be
used with the sampler when necessary to hold the sample.
The use of water for cleaning out the casing between samples will generally be
allowed, but when the moisture content of the material below the casing, of which a
sample is desired, might be altered by introducing a head of water in the hole, the
casing must be cleaned dry by means of augers, a drive pipe, or other method.
(c) Dry Samples. — Dry samples of the material penetrated shall be at least 1J4
inches in diameter and obtained by pushing a sample spoon of approved design not less
than one foot below the bottom of the casing into the material. If a sample is not
obtained the first time, the spoon shall be driven again to a depth of two feet below
the bottom of the casing. Should the material be so incohesive that the second driving
of the spoon fails to secure a sample, a spoon with a flapper valve shall be driven as
specified above. Should this last procedure fail to secure a sample, an auger or sand trap
shall be used until the required sample is obtained. Data shall be recorded and samples
marked and preserved as specified in Sections IV and V.
(d) Determination of Grozmd Water Level. — Where required the elevation of the
ground water level shall be accurately determined by the following procedure, or equal.
Immediately after taking the last sample from the boring, the casing shall be pumped
dry and then withdrawn a vertical distance of 2 feet from the maximum penetration,
330 Masonry
and allowed to stand for 30 minutes before measuring the level to which the water has
risen. If the water fails to rise in the hole within 30 minutes the casing shall be with-
drawn one foot higher and allowed to stand for 10 minutes. If the water fails to rise
the second time, and the casing is in material which may be impervious, the casing shall
be withdrawn until its bottom is one foot higher than the elevation at which such
material was first encountered and the hole. allowed to stand for another 10 minutes.
If water still does not appear and the boring has penetrated one or more layers of
impervious material above the elevation at which the casing stands, the casing shall be
withdrawn above each succeeding impervious strata as specified above until the water
rises in the hole or no more impervious strata are above the bottom of the casing.
If the boring is located where the ground water level may be influenced by a tidal
body of water, a record of the exact stage and direction of the tide at the time of taking
the elevation of the ground water shall be made.
During the above described determination of ground water level an accurate record
shall be made of the times and elevations of each successive withdrawal of the casing
and also of the elevation to which water rose in the hole.
(e) Determination of Running Sand. — At any time that sand, coarse or fine, is en-
countered, the following test shall be made to determine if the water content and the
pressure upon the material is sufficient to cause it to run. Upon striking sand, a sample
of the material shall be obtained by the dry sample method. The casing shall then be
driven into the sand 2 feet below the elevation at which the sand was encountered and
carefully washed out to the bottom. The hole shall then be allowed to stand 10 min-
utes, and the elevation at which the sand then stands in the casing measured. The water
in the casing then shall be removed sufficiently to produce an unbalanced hydrostatic
condition at the bottom of the casing and the elevation of the top of sand measured.
3. Core Borings
(a) Plant. — Drilling into bed rock shall be done with a diamond, shot or other
approved bit which will obtain a core from the rock penetrated of not less than 1%
inches in diameter.
(b) Starting Core Bit. — Before starting the core bit in the hole, the chopping bit
shall be used to break up all disintegrated rock and the casing seated firmly on hard
rock by driving and washing out.
(c) Procedure. — The core bit shall be started in the hole and the hole drilled to a
depth of 5 feet. The drill shall then be withdrawn, the core removed, labeled and stored
as specified in Article 2, Section V. After the core is recovered the drill shall be replaced
in the hole, and another 5 feet of depth drilled, the drill withdrawn, the core removed as
noted above. Drilling shall continue in this manner until the required depth has been
reached.
IV RECORDS
The following data shall be recorded on a permanent form.
1. General
(a) Date.
(b) Names of railroad, engineer, contractor and inspectors.
(c) Location and identifying number of test boring and reference to survey data.
(d) Ground elevation at hole and base of rail elevation.
Masonry 331
2. Borings — Dry Sample
(a) Elevation of top of each different material penetrated.
(b) Diameter and description of casing.
(c) The elevation of the bottom of spoon at start of driving for each sample.
(d) The elevation to which the spoon was driven.
(e) The weight and drop hammer used to drive the spoon and number of blows
required to drive it one foot, for each sample.
(f) The length of sample obtained.
(g) The distance from the bottom of the spoon to the lower end of the sample
when the spoon is not fiDed to the bottom, and any other circumstances of
obtaining the sample.
(h) The stratum represented by the sample.
(i) The weight, number of blows and drop of hammer used to drive the casing to
each successive elevation,
(j) The sou shall be described in accordance with the following classifications:
1. Kind: Top soil, fill, loam, clay, sand, gravel, etc.
2. Color: Light, dark, blue, red, etc.
3. Moisture: Dr>-, moist, wet, ver>' wet, etc.
4. Consistency: Loose, medium, compact, stiff, etc.
(k) Elevation of groimd water.
(1) Elevation of running sand and thickness of strata.
3. Borings — Core
(a) Elevation of bottom of casing when seated on rock according to Article 3 (b)
Section HI.
(b) T>T)e of core drill, including size of core.
(c) Length of core recovered for each 5-foot length drilled.
(d) Elevation of bottom of core hole.
(e) Elevation of each change in tjpe of rock.
(f) The rock shaU be described in accordance with the following classification:
1. Shale, slate, limestone, sandstone, etc.
2. Condition: Broken, fissured, laminated, soHd, etc.
3. Hardness: Soft, medium, hard, ver>- hard, etc.
(g) Rate at which each 5-foot section was bored in feet per hour.
V SAMPLES
1. Dry Samples
All dr\- samples shall be immediately placed in suitable air-tight, wide-mouthed,
clear-glass jars of sufficient size to hold a section of the sample intact. These jars shaU be
permanently and clearly labeled to show the date, number of the test hole, elevation at
which taken, and kind of material. These samples shall be carefully preserved as a part
of the record.
When undisturbed samples are required for investigation in a laboratory, e.\treme
care must be taken in the recovering, sealing and handling of such samples so that they
are delivered to the laboratorj- in as good condition as when taken.
2. Cores
A label shall be placed on each piece of core more than 6 inches in length, stating
the number of the hole, the original length of the piece and the original elevation of the
top of the run. The pieces of core shall be placed in the order in which they were
332 Masonry
removed from the core barrel in a S-foot narrow box. The box shall be securely labeled
showing the number of the test hole. These cores shall be carefully preserved as a part
of the record.
VI INSPECTION
No drilling shall be done except in the presence of the Engineer or his Inspector.
No more than two drilling crews working in the same vicinity at the same time shall be
covered by one inspector. The Inspector shall establish bench marks for the determina-
tion of the required elevations, check the log of the boring to determine that the infor-
mation designated in Section IV is being obtained ; and see that all soil samples and cores
are properly boxed and stored in a suitable place or shipped to the designated destination.
VII CLEANING SITE
After completing the work, the casing shall be withdrawn, the plant and other
material removed and all holes closed as directed by the Engineer.
Report on Assignment 14
Specifications for Concrete Placed Under Water
T. L. Condron (chairman, subcommittee), F. E. Bates, G. E. Boyd, F. W. Capp, I. L.
Pyle, G. R. Smiley, J. J. Yates.
In its study of "underwater concrete" or "depositing concrete under water", your
committee has gathered a mass of information from engineers in all parts of the United
States who are experienced in this particular use of concrete. From the information
received and from the definite recommendations of these engineers, the committee has
prepared the following section of a specification for underwater concrete.
Accordingly, your committee recommends that Section 206, Depositing Concrete
Under Water, paragraphs 1 to 6, inclusive, pages 8-26 and 8-27, of the Specifications
for Portland Cement Concrete, Plain and Reinforced, be withdrawn from the Manual,
and that the following Section 206 — Special Requirements for Concrete To Be Deposited
Under Water, paragraphs 1 to 13, inclusive, be adopted as a substitute therefor.
It is also recommended that Sections 212 and 213 be renumbered 207 and 208, and
that Sections 207, 208, 209, 210 and 211 be renumbered 209, 210, 211, 212 and 213,
respectively, for greater clarity and easier reference.
The method of "pumping concrete" when deposited under water, has not been in-
cluded in the requirements embodied in the proposed Section 206, as the committee has
not obtained sufficient information or evidence of the successful and economical applica-
tion of that method to warrant specific reference to it. The three methods included in
the proposed Section 206 seem adequate at this time.
206. SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS FOR CONCRETE TO BE DEPOSITED UNDER
WATER
1. General
(a) The methods specified in Section 204, for Depositing Concrete in Air, shall be
used except when the space to be filled with concrete contains water which cannot be
removed in some practical way. In such cases, and when authorized by the Engineer,
Masonry 333
concrete shall be deposited under water in accordance with the following paragraphs of
this section.
(b) The methods, equipment and materials proposed to be used, shall be submitted
first to the Engineer for his approval before the work is started. The methods used shall
be such as will prevent the washing out of the cement from the concrete mixture, mini-
mize the segregation of materials and the formation of laitance, and prevent the flow of
water through or over the new concrete until it has fully hardened.
2. Capacity of Plant
Sufficient mixing, transporting and placing equipment shall be provided to insure
that the depositing of all underwater concrete for each predetermined section or unit of
the work to be done, shall be continuous until completion.
3. Standard Specifications
The materials, proportions and methods to be used in making concrete to be deposited
under water shall all conform to the requirements of the AREA Specifications for
Portland Cement Concrete, Plain and Reinforced, except as modified or supplemented
by the following paragraphs.
4. Cement
Not less than 6 sacks, or 564 pounds of cement per cubic yard of concrete shall
be used.
5. Coarse Aggregates
Preference will be given to gravel rather than crushed material. The maximum size
of aggregate preferably shall be 2 inches and shall not exceed 3 inches. The coarse aggre-
gate shall be well graded, the weight of the coarse aggregate shall be not less than one
and one-quarter, nor more than twice that of the fine aggregate.
6. Mixing
The cement and aggregates shall be mixed for a period of 2 minutes with sufficient
water to produce a concrete having a slump of not less than 6 inches nor more than
8 inches for concrete placed by tremies, and not less than 3 inches nor more than
6 inches for concrete placed by bottom dump buckets or for concrete placed in sacks.
7. Caissons, Cofferdams or Forms
Caissons, cofferdams or forms shall be sufficiently tight to prevent loss of mortar or
flow of water through the space in which the concrete is to be deposited. Pumping will
not be permitted while concrete is being deposited, nor until 24 hours thereafter.
8. Leveling and Cleaning the Bottom to Receive Concrete
(a) The surface of the bottom, whether of clay, rock, or other material, shall be
leveled as directed by the Engineer, before depositing concrete under water.
(b) Where the bottom on which concrete is to be deposited under water is, or is
likely to be, covered with silt, such material shall be removed down to solid material
before any concrete is placed. The method to be used to clean the bottom of silt or
similar material, shall be subject to the approval of the Engineer.
(c) Before starting to deposit concrete under water, the condition of the bottom shall
be examined and reported upon to the Engineer by a competent diver, and shall be
approved by the Engineer.
334 Masonry
9. Continuous Work
Concrete shall be deposited continuously until it is brought up to the required
elevation. While depositing, the top surface shall be kept as nearly level as possible, and
the formation of laitance planes avoided.
10. Methods of Depositing
One of the following methods of depositing shall be used:
(a) Tremie. — When concrete is to be deposited under vi^ater by means of a tremie,
the top section of the tremie shall be a hopper large enough to hold one entire batch of
the mix or the entire contents of the transporting bucket, when one is used. The tremie
pipe shall be not less than 8 inches diameter and shall be large enough to allow a free
flow of concrete and strong enough to withstand the external pressure of the water in
which it is suspended, even if a partial vacuum develops inside of the pipe. Preferably
flanged steel pipe should be used, of adequate strength to sustain the greatest length and
weight required for the job. A separate lifting device shall be provided for each tremie
pipe with its hopper at the upper end. Unless the lower end of the pipe is equipped with
an approved automatic check valve, the upper end of the pipe shall be plugged with a
wadding of gunnysacking or other approved material, before delivering the concrete to
the tremie pipe through the hopper, which plug will be forced to and out of the bottom
end of the pipe by filling the pipe with concrete. It will be necessary to slowly raise the
tremie in order to cause a uniform flow of the concrete, but the tremie shall not be
emptied so that water enters above the concrete in the pipe. At all times after the
start of placing the concrete and until all concrete is placed, the lower end of the
tremie pipe shall be below the top surface of the plastic concrete. This will cause the
concrete to build up from below instead of flowing out over the surface, to avoid forma-
tion of laitance layers. If the charge in the tremie is lost while depositing, the tremie
shall be raised above the concrete surface, and unless sealed by a check valve it shall
be replugged at the top end, as at the beginning, before refilling for depositing concrete.
(Note: Experience has shown that tremie concrete can be placed as above specified,
so that it will build up the flow as much as SO feet horizontally from the discharge end
of the tremie with a slope of less than 3 feet in 50 feet.)
(b) Bottom Dump Bucket. — Where concrete is to be deposited under water by
means of a bottom dump bucket, the bucket shall be of the type that cannot be dumped
until after it has rested, with its load, on the surface upon which the concrete is to be
deposited. The bottom doors shall be so equipped as to be automatically unlatched by
the release of tension on the supporting line or cable of the bucket, and the bottom doors
shall then open downward and outward as the bucket is raised. The top of the bucket
shall be fitted with double, overlapping canvas flaps, or other approved covers, to cover
the contained concrete and to protect it from wash when it enters the water and as the
bucket descends to the bottom. The bucket, preferably should be so designed that the
hinged bottom doors will operate inside of a steel skirt, which skirt will surround the
bucket while the bottom doors are shut and will extend below the bucket as the bottom
doors open and hence minimize turbulence and motion while the concrete is being de-
posited. The bucket shall be submerged slowly until it is completely under water. The
normal line speed after that shall not exceed 200 feet per minute. After the bucket has
reached the surface on which the concrete is to be deposited, it shall be raised slowly
for the first 6 or 8 feet while the concrete is being deposited.
(c) Placing Sacks of Concrete. — Where a relatively small amount of concrete is to
be placed that does not warrant the equipment required for either tremie or open bottom
bucket methods, concrete may be placed under water in sacks or bags. In such case the
Masonry 335
space shall be filled with sacks of concrete carefully placed by hand in header and
stretcher formation, so that the whole mass becomes interlocked. Sacks used for this
purpose shall be made of jute or other coarse material, free from deleterious materials,
and shall be filled about two-thirds full of concrete and the sack openings securely tied.
11. Soundings
During the time that concrete is being deposited underwater soundings shall be
continuously taken to the surface of the deposited concrete and recorded. The surface
of the deposited concrete shall be maintained relatively level over the area being covered.
12. Removing Laitance
Upon completing a unit or section of underwater concrete, any laitance or silt col-
lecting on the upper surface of the same shall be removed and the concrete surface
thoroughly cleaned, if additional concrete is to be deposited on that surface.
13. Concrete Seals
Under favorable conditions it will be possible to place underwater concrete of a
limited thickness in the bottoms of caissons or cofferdams and so completely seal the
structures that after the concrete has set, all water can be pumped out. In such cases,
if it is economical to do so, the water shall be pumped out, the exposed surfaces cleaned
and the balance of the concrete deposited in air.
Report on Assignment 15
Durability of Concrete
L. M. Morris (chairman, subcommittee), F. W. Capp, Maurice Coburn, M. L. Johnson,
J. E. KaUnka, C. P. Marsh, I. L. Pyle.
Introduction
The purpose of this report on the durability of concrete is to give the members of
the Association a summary of the present status of knowledge on this very important
subject.
In reviewing the literature of the last ten years relating to durability of concrete,
one cannot but be impressed with the enormity of the subject and how little is really
known definitely and with finality. This condition, of course, results from the many
variables which enter into the production of good concrete. These numerous variables
may be classified under six main elements: Cement, water, aggregate, time, temperature,
and the methods of mixing and placing.
This discussion, necessarily, cannot possibly be complete, but an effort has been
made to summarize some of the more important ideas on the subject from recent litera-
ture. Papers by McMillan,'" Scholer,' Carlson," Bates,' Voss' and Young'* have been
used principally. These and other references used are shown in the bibliography at the
end of the paper.
Your committee has endeavored (B) to discuss the various major factors affecting
durability from the standpoint of materials and manufacture; (C) to outline the prin-
cipal defects in concrete which lead to disintegration; (D) to consider the most impor-
tant weathering actions and other disintegrating forces affecting durability; and (E) to
discuss various tests for predicting durability.
336 Masonry
The variables involved and the many divergent opinions make it impossible to
express the relative importance of the numerous contributing factors, and, therefore, no
significance should be attached to the order in which the various items are discussed.
B. Major Factors Affecting Durability from the Standpoint of
Materials and Manufacture
The major factors affecting the durability of concrete from the standpoint of
materials and manufacture can be outlined very briefly in three items:
1. Nature of the aggregates
2. Nature of the cement
3. Watertightness of the concrete
1. Nature of the Aggregates
Consideration of the first item — Nature of the Aggregates — discloses an amazing
number of conflicting ideas, but from the mass of literature several properties emerge
which form, at least, bases for discussion: Chemical composition, size, gradation, shape,
surface characteristics, porosity, strength, soundness, elastic properties, thermal expan-
sion, volume constancy under wetting and drying, and specific gravity.
The chemical composition of the aggregate is considered important in that it either
provides minerals which are complementary to the process of cementation, are inert to it,
or detract from its efficiency. Aggregates such as limestone appear to aid in the process
of cementation, quartzes and dense igneous rocks of high silica content are practically
inert, while some cherts, micas, feldspars and the like are thought to have eventually
deteriorating effect under certain exposure conditions. There seems to be some evidence
to support the contention that certain combinations of cement and aggregate cause
unsoundness in the resulting concrete. Whether this is due to some unusual chemical
action between the particular materials or whether due to other causes, is not known.
As to the maximum size of aggregate, the evidence seems to be rather definite that
.neither very large nor very small aggregate is best. Not only are the harmful effects of
bleeding magnified when aggregates are large, but internal cracking due to volume
change is also worse. A lesser overall volume change is found with the use of large
aggregates, but at the expense of greater internal stresses and cracking. Thus it appears
that some moderate maximum size aggregate is best, but it is difficult to say exactly
what this size may be. In all probability, it will not be the same for all materials. The
maximum size of aggregate must be adapted to the structure in which it is used.
Likewise, there appears to be an optimum gradation of aggregate. The general
result of most methods of proportioning aggregate is that the combined aggregate is
made as coarse as possible within the range of proper workabiUty. This result can be
obtained in several ways. Present indications are that the best gradation is such that the
sieve analysis plots as a smooth curve, but even this does not fully define the gradation.
There is no general agreement on the particular smooth-curve gradation which is best.
Washed sand, as we know it in many localities, is almost entirely devoid of fines. This
is considered to result in particle interference, unless excesses of cement are available.
Particle Shape and Surface Characteristics
The effect of particle shape and surface characteristics of aggregate on durabiUty
remains in the controversial stage. The shape of particles undoubtedly has considerable
bearing on the density of the mix. It seems to be the consensus that an excess of thin.
Masonry 337^
flat or elongated pieces will materially decrease the workability for a given water-cement
ratio and hence adversely affect durability. Smooth, rounded particles undoubtedly help
workability. Surface texture may have a marked effect on the strength of bond with
the cementing matrix. Some maintain that the surfaces should be rough. Others argue
that the aggregate should have sufficient porosity to help in removing excess water from
the cement paste. Some view the problem as chiefly a matter of mechanical anchorage,
sometimes due to roughness, and often resulting from adhesion caused by suction of the
paste into the surface pores of the aggregate. Some types of seemingly smooth aggregate
may therefore bond more strongly than those with a rougher surface texture. On the
whole, the shape and surface texture of aggregate particles have a marked effect upon
the concrete-making properties, particularly with respect to water, cement requirement
and workabiUty, all being important factors from the standpoint of durabihty.
Strength of aggregate is, of course, very important for durable concrete; however,
soundness is even more important. Since the aggregates form nearly three-quarters of
the mass of hardened concrete, they are of necessity an important consideration in the
production of durable structures. Aggregates which disintegrate under the influence of
weathering agencies cannot be expected to endure indefinitely, even though protection
be afforded by a durable cement paste.
Elastic Properties
The elastic properties of aggregates vary widely and the elastic properties of the
resulting concrete will follow rather closely the properties of the aggregate of which it
is chiefly composed. The thermal coefficient of expansion of aggregates Hkewise varies
widely, and again the chief variable in concrete as to its thermal deformations is found
in the aggregate rather than in the cement. The engineer is usually in ignorance of
what particular aggregate will be used and he designs for average conditions. But it
must be borne in mind that these properties may constitute very important factors in
determining the satisfactory life of a concrete structure. This is particularly true if the
structure, hke a pavement, requires the building of expansion joints to relieve such
deformations. If adequate provision is not made, the resultant high stresses develop a
type of failure often mistaken for material disintegration.
Volume constancy under wetting and drying is another important quality for aggre-
gates. Just as low thermal expansion is desirable in an aggregate from the standpoint of
induced stresses, low volume change due to wetting and drying is important in reducing
internal stresses.
While specific gravity has no direct effect on the properties of normal freshly mixed
concrete, a natural or crushed stone aggregate with a specific gravity of less than 2.50
should be investigated thoroughly before it is used in concrete. Some of the adverse
properties often associated with low specific gravity are porosity, softness and high
absorption, any of which may lead to breakdown under weathering action.
2. Nature of the Cement
If we are left with a feeling of inadequate accurate knowledge by the preceding
survey of those properties of aggregates which result in durable concrete, we are
brought up against an almost blank wall of ignorance when we try to list those prop-
erties of cement which will without question produce durability. However, from the
present very incomplete technology of cement, certain properties stand out as bases for
discussion of this most essential element in the concrete mix: Chemical composition,
fineness, cement-water combination, bleeding characteristics and plastic properties, cement
content, strength, soundness, resistance to aggressive waters, volume change characteristics,
and heat of hydration.
338 Masonry
Cements of different chemical compositions, of course, perform quite differently as
regards strength development, heat of hydration and other properties. This is reflected in
the new ASTM tentative specifications covering five types of cement: Normal, moderate
heat of hardening, high early strength, low heat and sulphate-resistant.
The different properties of these various cement compositions probably do affect
the durabihty of the resulting concrete to various degrees; however, there are few aspects
of this problem upon which the experts agree. It is now rather generally accepted that
high tricalcium aluminate in a cement produces concrete having lower resistance to sul-
phate waters and sea water than cement with low percentages of this compound. The
effects of the principal compound compositions — tricalcium silicate, dicalcium silicate,
tricalcium aluminate and tetracalcium alumino-ferrite — on strength, volume change, re-
sistance to freezing and thawing tests, resistance to sulphate solutions, heat of hydration
and other properties, are known to a considerable degree. A summary of this phase of
the subject can be found in the 1940 report of the Masonry committee, AREA Pro-
ceedings, Vol. 41, page 378.
It is now known that the compound compositions, as at present calculated from the
oxide analyses, may be greatly altered by the heat treatment of the clinker after burning,
principally in that if the chnker is cooled quickly, a large percentage of "glass" may be
formed. At times, the "glass" thus formed may constitute the third in amount, con-
stituent of Portland cement. Unfortunately very little is yet known concerning the
influence of "glass" on cement properties. Uncertainty also remains as to the nature of
the role of the so-called minor oxides, such as MgO, Na20, K^O, FeO, TiOo, Mn203 and PsOs,
which will average a total of about four percent for the cements of the entire country,
but in some cases will amount to six percent.
The influence of "glass" and the minor oxides renders the usual calculation of com-
pounds from the oxide composition, a questionable procedure; however, in lieu of more
adequate tests for physical properties, this method serves a useful purpose, provided it is
used with discretion.
Properties of Compounds
It is desirable to summarize the setting properties attributed to each of the pi-incipal
cement compounds. Tricalcium aluminate reacts rapidly, attaining all its physical effect in
about 24 hours. Its total heat of hydration is approximately 200 calories per gram and
practically all of this is evolved in 24 hours. The tetracalcium alumino-ferrite evolves
about half this heat and requires roughly one month to do so. The tricalcium siHcate in
about one month evolves all its total heat of 120 cal. per gram, while the dicalcium
silicate has generated but little heat at the end of 7 days and requires a year to develop
all of its total heat of approximately 60 cal. per gram.
From such data it is possible to estimate roughly the heat of hydration of any
cement from its chemical analysis. For instance, if the cement is high in alumina and
lime and low in silica and iron oxide, it will contain predominately tricalcium aluminate
and tricalcium silicate and hence will generate a large amount of heat.
Likewise, many tests have been made to determine the physical properties of the
four main compounds, as previously mentioned. As a result, many data are at hand for
use in predicting the physical characteristics of a hydrated cement from a chemical
analysis of the non-hydrated material. From such data we know that tricalcium alumi-
nate and tetracalcium alumino-ferrite develop so little strength that the alumina and
iron oxide may be ignored in this respect. Tricalcium silicate, and consequently a high-
lime low-silica cement, attains the greater part of its strength in a month ; while
dicalcium silicate, unless extremely finely ground and in the presence of other materials
Masonry 339
which act somewhat catalytically, at the same age has developed hardly a tenth of the
strength of the other silicate. By the end of a year, however, the strength of the two
types of silicates shows little difference.
While the previous discussion on cement and its compounds bears indirectly on
durability, direct evidence of relative durability of the various types of cement is more
limited. In his Marburg lecture before the ASTM last June, Bates* said:
Here our data are much more meager than in the case of strength or heat of
hydration. But they do show such a trend that we may conclude that many
of the commercial cements would be improved as to durability if the alumina and
iron oxide were reduced to a minimum that in some cases would cause manufac-
turing difficulties. The relative value of the two silicates in respect to durability
is known with less assurance. Possibly if all concrete, regardless of whether made
of a high or low-silica cement, could be protected for six months and ideally
cured, it would be found that thereafter the two silicates would deport themselves
alike in regard to permanency.
Before leaving the subject of cement composition, it should be stated that the use
of Portland-puzzolan cement is increasing. Puzzolanic material possesses the property
of combining with lime in the presence of moisture to form stable cementitious com-
pounds, and for this reason it is claimed to have a "healing" effect with the progress of
time, especially with the high lime content cements. Federal Specification SS-C-208
covers cement of this type.
Fineness
As regards the fineness of cement, there are many varying ideas. The physical
properties mostly affected by fineness are time of set and strength. Many believe that
fineness is intimately related to volume changes during hardening. Too finely ground
cements are believed to require undue amounts of water and, consequently, undue
shrinkage and cracking may result. Others feel that the coarse particles of the less finely
ground material may hydrate later and cause disruptive expansion. Some question
whether the very fine particles do not hydrate so promptly during mixing and placing
that they confer nothing to the strength and may tend to be concentrated in any laitance
formed or on surfaces against forms where they rather promptly cause map cracking or
crazing, or unsightly weathering. R. W. Carlson' reasons as follows:
Regarding the fineness of cement, there appears to be a limit for best results.
It was reasoned at one time that the main effect of finer grinding was to facilitate
hydration. In other words, a lean mix with a very fine cement was considered
to be about equal to a richer mix with a coarser cement. But recent studies of
thin sections of concrete reveal a significant difference not acknowledged before.
It has always been known that a large percentage of the grains of fine cement
hydrate completely. In the case of the coarser cement, the numerous unhydrated
cores of cement grains become the solid cores for the many little cells of unstable
hydration products. The uninterrupted dimensions of the gel appear actually to be
less in the case of the coarser cement because of the stabilizing cores. In concrete
subject to drying, therefore, at least a part of the advantages of finer grinding
may be offset by a greater degree of internal cracking. The actual optimum fine-
ness of cement must be dependent on composition, because only one compound
(dicalcium siHcate) can be relied upon not to hydrate completely under ordinary
conditions. It is somewhat ironical that a good cement could not be made from
340 Masonry
this compound alone, even though it has wonderful long-time cementing ability
and low heat of hydration. Besides having insufficient early strength, it produces
nothing but gel upon hydrating and therefore it causes great drying shrinkage
Neither could any all-purpose cement be made from any other one compound in
Portland cement. Even the most desirable compounds, the calcium silicates, have
an optimum proportion one to the other.
Cement in combination with water serves two functions: To make the mixture
workable and to properly set and harden the finished concrete. Both functions are im-
portant and have a bearing on durabihty. There seems little question but that different
cements have different plastic properties, depending somewhat upon fineness of grinding,
possibly chemical composition and upon other properties not yet known. Certain admix-
tures such as some of the grinding and plasticising agents (TDA, Vinsol resin and others)
have marked influence upon the plasticity of the resultant mixture as well as increasing
the resistance to freezing and thawing. Closely related to plasticity and workability are
the bleeding characteristics of a concrete mixture. Different cements have different bleed-
ing characteristics, and there is reason to think that this is intimately associated with
the problem of durability.
Bond Between Mortar and Aggregate
Many concrete failures consist of loss of bond between the mortar and the coarser
aggregate. The sufficiency of this bond is apparently in some way closely associated with
that property of the cement which gives plasticity to the mixture, and which prevents
bleeding. On the other hand, there is also reason to beUeve that the abiHty of a concrete
mixture to lose its water may be advantageous; for example, in the use of absorbent
molds and vacuum concrete. Evidently, in these methods the evil effects of bleeding,
which is a form of segregation, can be almost wholly, if not completely, offset by the
proper manipulation of the mass before final set occurs. An important difficulty pointed
out by Pearson in this connection in a paper given at the ASTM 1940 Symposium on
Cement,^'' is that with concrete mixtures of low bleeding characteristics, the use of over-
wet consistencies is not easily recognized because plainly visible segregation is not appar-
ent, and yet serious segregation may occur with this kind of a mix in the usual placing
and finishing operations.
The subject of admixtures is fast becoming very important in its prospect for marked
improvement in the workability and durability of concrete. Bates in his' Marburg lec-
ture before the ASTM last June stated, in effect, that with cements as they are now
produced, there seems to be no brighter prospect of improving these cements throughout
their entire useful Hfe in concrete than by the use of admixtures, such as grinding agents
and plasticisers, in their manufacture.
In the 1940 symposium of ASTM Committee Cl on Cement, Wagner^* presented
an unpubHshed discussion on this subject, in effect, as follows:
The fact that most of these agents — grinding, wetting, dispersing, foaming,
plasticising — or what have you, introduce air into the concrete mix has long been
taken as prima facie evidence that the resulting concrete would be less durable
than similar concretes not containing air. Recent studies in many laboratories
reveal, with few exceptions, that concretes plasticised with foaming agents are far
more durable than similar unplasticised concretes. Probably the best explanation
of this very interesting phenomenon yet given may be found in Power's report on
bleeding.^^
Masonry 341_
Reduced to its simplest terms, it appears that when concrete is placed it
immediately proceeds to take itself apart. Water works its way upward, cement
and aggregate settle until the larger pieces of aggregate bridge upon one another,
after which the cement particles and finer sand continue to settle away from the
undersides of the bridged aggregate. The spaces beneath the aggregate from which
the cement and fine sand have settled become filled with water, producing the
condition known as "water gain". Furthermore, some of the trapped pockets of
water find outlets to the surface and in rising produce threadlike passages before
the cement has time to set. When it does set, the mass is solidified in an in-
homogeneous condition, with many water pockets and threadUke capillaries leading
to the surface. These remain as excellent entrance points for water and consequent
weathering action at later periods in the Ufe of the structure.
With a foaming agent present, however, the concrete is intermixed with
countless uniformly distributed tiny air bubbles. The buoyant effect of these
air bubbles is sufficient to retard the settling of the aggregate. These are present
in such countless numbers that they retard even the movement of the sand grains
and cement particles. Settlement of these particles is restrained; formation of
water pockets and capillaries is reduced or ehminated. The concrete cannot take
itself apart because the instant the tiniest grain of cement or aggregate starts to
move it bumps into an air bubble and is halted. The concrete must remain in a
homogeneous mass until it hardens.
When the concrete has hardened it is true that it still retains the countless
air bubbles and because of the reduced density of the mass its strength may be
somewhat reduced. However, the bubbles are not interconnected and each has
a shell of hardened cement paste. Water cannot re-enter such concrete with the
same ease that it can re-enter an unplasticized concrete. Perhaps the air bubbles
even serve a useful purpose of providing expansion chambers which may relieve
some of the pressure of frost action.
Another view of this most important and live subject was presented by Swayze at
this same symposium"* in relation to water-repellant additions, such as mineral oils,
animal fats and oils, and natural resins, in effect, as follows:
We believe that the high resistance of concrete to freezing and thawing, when
these admixtures are present, is not due to the water-repellent nature of the ad-
mixture, but instead to the influence of the fat or resin on the microstructure of
the cement gel formed on hydration of the cement. We believe that in normal
concrete the gel capillaries must be considerably larger in size than with treated
cements. The presence of air voids is not believed to be the real cause of higher
durabihty, but only an incidental characteristic produced by the admixtures under
consideration. The basic reason underlying the action of the admixtures in pro-
moting greater resistance apparently is their effect on concrete permeabiUty.
From considerations of permeability, resisting to freezing and thawing, and shrink-
age, Swayze"' concludes that of the three classes of admixtures considered, the natural
resins, such as Vinsol resin, offer the greatest promise for improvement of concrete
durability.
As to the cement content, neither very rich concrete nor lean concrete is best. Neat
cement disintegrates far more rapidly in freezing and thawing tests than does concrete.
And yet, very lean concretes do not withstand this durability test as well as do mod-
erately rich concretes. The conclusion appears to be that there is some intermediate
mixture with some moderate cement content that is best. Just as the inert portions of
342 Masonry
hydrated cement dilute the gel beneficially, so does sound aggregate beneficially dilute
the cement paste. Unfortunately, it is difficult to say what proportions are best because
we are not yet certain about what constitutes a dependable test for durability. From
later discussion we shall see that minimum cement content is desirable from the stand-
point of shrinkage and heat evolution, but higher cement content is ordinarily required
to obtain good workability with low water-cement ratios. Hence, we see that minimum
cement content and low water-cement ratio are opposing factors which must be balanced
in obtaining placeable concrete. This much, however, can be said. The quantity of
cement cannot safely be reduced below a certain limit even though the strength resulting
from the leaner mixtures may be adequate for the load requirements of the structure.
In this connection we should not forget that with present day cements it is now
taking less cement to produce concrete of a certain 28-day compressive strength than it
did with former cements, with the result that durability as indicated by such strength
tests is not the same today as then. Therefore, impermeability and durability must
govern cement content rather than strength requirements.
Age-Strength Relation
The age-strength relation which a cement will develop is very important from the
standpoint of durability. While reasonable early strength is desirable in most work, long-
continued strength and soundness are even more important. The discussion given above
under cement composition is pertinent in this connection. For many years cements which
satisfactorily passed the usual steam test were considered to be sound, but cases of
delayed expansion brought the subject to the fore again recently with the result that the
autoclave test has been adopted. It seems to be the consensus that cement which will
meet the new tentative autoclave test will be a more durable cement.
The knowledge in regard to the action of aggressive waters such as sulphates and
sea water is limited. As previously indicated under "cement composition", cements of low
tricalcium aluminate content are considered to be more resistant to these waters. The
newly adopted ASTM tentative specification provides for a cement of this type; how-
ever, there are cases of higher alumina cements which have given good performance
under exposure to such sulphate action. Other factors not yet known are undoubtedly
involved in this question.
Portland puzzolan cements are finding considerable favor for their greater resist-
ance to sulphate action ; however, these cements vary in performance depending on the
particular puzzolanic addition used in manufacture.
There is considerable evidence that alkalies (NaeO and K2O), averaging about 0.75
percent for cements of the entire country, produce a swelling effect with subsequent
disintegration when used with aggregates containing certain minerals.
The volume change characteristics of a cement due to changes in temperature,
changes in moisture content, and freezing and thawing are of great importance in relation
to durability; however, these characteristics are so tied up with the characteristics of
the other components of concrete that discussion of this item will be given later under
"weathering actions". Suffice it to say at this point that there is reason to believe that
the shrinkage of concrete is affected by the cement used. If the actual loss of water and
consequent shrinkage which does occur should approach the ultimate which might occur,
if completely dried out, variations in cement might produce concretes of significantly
different qualities as regards shrinkage and durability. In all except rather unusual con-
ditions of exposure, concrete sections of any appreciable size will reach their ultimate
possible shrinkage due to water loss so very slowly, that maximum drying shrinkage
will never occur.
Masonry 343
Heat of hydration characteristics were briefly discussed under "chemical composi-
tion". This property of cement has assumed great importance in the construction of
mass concrete, such as dams, to avoid cracking. For this purpose, low heat and mod-
erate heat of hardening cements have been developed. Lately this latter type of cement
has come into use for other work, such as for pavements. Its use is rapidly expanding and
is reflected in the Type II cement adopted recently by the ASTM as a tentative standard.
Certain Portland-puzzolan cements have also come into use for mass concrete construction.
3. Watertightness of the Concrete
Of course, many of the quality factors for aggregate and cement already discussed,
have a definite relation to watertight concrete; however, under this heading we shall
consider mainly the important role of the water-cement ratio, the mix, methods of con-
crete manufacture and strength. Most of these items are so well known that it would
seem almost useless to mention them; however, it is safe to say that a majority of our
troubles in obtaining durable concrete have their origin in the neglect of these funda-
mental constructional procedures.
Watertightness, as all students of the problem will agree, is the most important
requirement for concrete to meet the destructive effects of weathering. Concrete behaves
as do the natural rocks under exposure to the various weathering agencies. It is par-
ticularly susceptible to the freezing and thawing of entrapped moisture and to the
solvent action of percolating water.
Requirements Defined
The requirements for water tight concrete can be very simply stated as "impervious
aggregates incorporated in a cement-water paste which is itself impervious". One most
important property of the cement-water paste which we have not discussed is the water-
cement ratio. The effect of the water content on the strength of concrete is now uni-
versally recognized. The earh' experimental work of Abrams showing a fairly definite
relation between the compressive strength of plastic concrete and the water-cement ratio,
for given materials and conditions, has been widely confirmed. The influence of the water
content on the watertightness of concrete is not as thoroughly established experimentally,
but the relation is fundamental and various investigations have shown the important
effect of a proper water-cement ratio, proper cement content, plastic and workable con-
sistency, and thorough curing for watertight or impermeable concrete. These same items
have also been found to be of great importance for resistance to sulphate waters. For a
given set of materials and conditions, most authorities agree that the water-cement ratio
is the most significant factor affecting the strength, impermeability and the durability of
hardened concrete.
A most important item which is intimately associated with water-cement ratio is
that the concrete must be plastic and workable. It is very important to have the proper
amount of cement paste for impermeable and workable concrete. Since the water which
passes through a concrete member must find its way between the aggregate particles and
through the cement paste, it is evident that if the entire space is not filled with paste,
there is little to resist the passage of water. In order that the space between the aggre-
gate particles be completely filled, it is essential that concrete mixtures be of plastic con-
sistency so that the material can be worked readily into the forms and completely
incorporate the reinforcement.
To obtain a plastic consistency there must be sufficient paste to actually float the
aggregate particles; otherwise the concrete will be harsh and result in honeycombing,
bleeding and laitance, all of which are detrimental to durable concrete. Thus, we see
344 Masonry
that the water-cement ratio is a major influence on the watertightness of concrete in two
important respects; first, through its influence on the imperviousness of the paste, and
second through its influence on workabiUty.
Of course, the design of the concrete mix involving not only the water-cement
ratio, but the cement-aggregate ratio, aggregate gradings, maximum aggregate size, etc.,
is extremely important, but evidently cannot be covered in this resume.
Method and Time of Mixing
The method and time of mixing have a most important bearing on obtaining a
uniform and workable concrete, and deserve more attention than they ordinarily receive.
Thorough mixing is essential to durable concrete. Some of our older concrete structures
which are making such an excellent showing as to durability even under adverse condi-
tions, were constructed with the old-fashioned method of ramming and tamping concrete
into place. The mixture was neither plastic nor workable in the modern sense, but in the
type of construction in which it was used, reinforcing, forms, and other details were
such that it was possible to force the concrete into position and compact it properly.
The result was a low water-cement ratio, a minimum of voids, and a high degree of
impermeability. The speeding up of concrete operations, mechanical mixing, spouting
and flowing into place from a common point brought a whole train of evils in their
wake. Much as the cement and cement industry has changed, the changes in our methods
of mixing, handling, placing, and finishing concrete have been even greater, and all of
these are elements which enter into the durabiUty of the resultant concrete structure.
On many jobs we are using too short mixing time; we are using methods which
cause agglomerations of cement and water in the mixer; we are placing concrete in
ways that cause segregation, that condition probably more responsible for concrete dis-
integration than any other factor; we have changed to watertight forms of steel or
plywood which with excesses of cement and water may accentuate segregation; we are
using vibrators in ways which may increase segregation and thereby vitiate whatever
else may be advantageous in their use; and finally we are treating newly exposed sur-
faces in such a way as to cause excessive surface strains. Segregation is inherent in con-
crete, inasmuch as a coarse aggregate with a specific gravity of about 2.65 cannot remain
suspended in a cement-sand-water mortar of about 2.2, if excessive vibration is allowed.
Time, temperature and moisture are elements which enter into the hardening of a
concrete mixture. It is difficult to separate the three, but without doubt, the proper
relation of time and temperature with moisture plays a primary part in developing a
durable concrete. If satisfactory temperatures and curing precautions for the proper
hydration of cement are not maintained for sufficient time to permit proper hardening,
it is almost certain that the full strength and durability of the concrete will never be
developed.
As already indicated under the discussion of cement strength, the compressive strength
of concrete can never, of itself, safely be taken as a measure of impermeability or dura-
biUty, for while it is true that for a given set of materials and conditions, the greater
the strength the better the impermeability and watertightness, it is far from true that a
certain degree of watertightness will exist in all concretes of the same strength regardless
of aggregate, cement content and other variables.
C. Principal Defects in Concrete Which Lead to Disintegration
Although the preceding discussion of the various factors affecting the durability of
concrete from the standpoint of materials and manufacture has served to indicate a
large number of the known underlying causes for concrete disintegration, it will clarify
Masonry 345
the situation if we list the principal resultant defects in concrete which lead to disinte-
gration under weathering action.
Of course, in this enumeration of defects we are not considering those most impor-
tant structural items, such as inadequate provision for drainage, defective construction
joints, unequal settlement of foundation, or failure to provide for volume changes due
to shrinkage or temperature variables. These design features are fundamental and failure
to make proper provision may result in subsequent conditions of cracked concrete and
percolating water which will result in early disintegration no matter how good the
inherent quality of the concrete.
Some of the more important defects or defective conditions are:
1. Unsound or faulty materials — any of the components of the concrete.
2. Segregation, resulting mainly from undersanded or harsh poorly designed
mixes, improper placing, and overworking.
3. Excess water in the mix.
4. Water gain in placement, or bleeding.
5. Laitance at joints or work planes.
6. Improper or insufficient curing.
7. Cracks from whatever cause: Structural; improper curing; volume change
due to drying shrinkage, temperature variations, repeated wetting and drying, and
freezing and thawing of entrapped moisture. All cracks from whatever cause per-
mit easy ingress of water with subsequent leaching, corrosion of steel and con-
crete, and accelerated disintegration when simultaneously exposed to freezing and
thawing action.
8. Scaling, due to improper finishing, use of chlorides in ice removal, freezing
during construction, bleeding, etc.
9. Improper embedment of reinforcement resulting in corrosion of steel, with
consequent cracking or spalling of the surrounding concrete.
D. Principal Weathering Actions and Other Disintegrating Forces Affecting
the Durability of Concrete Other Than Design Loads and Abrasion
Of all the disintegrating forces to which concrete is subjected, the most important,
of course, is natural weathering action. Natural weathering forces involve four principal
actions:
1. Freezing and thawing of entrained moisture.
2. Volume changes due to several causes.
3. Solution action of normal percolating water.
4. Action of aggressive waters.
In regard to the first two phases of weathering action R. W. Carlson^ has presented
a very interesting analysis, from which the following is quoted:
The destruction of concrete by weather is a type of fatigue action. Changes
in temperature and moisture cause alternations of stress which the concrete must
be able to withstand easily if it is to endure. Some parts of a concrete structure
are being stressed and restressed repeatedly due to continued changes in tempera-
ture and moisture. The following explanation of the causes of these stresses is
admittedly meager, but it may provide a suitable background for later discussions.
Firstly, temperature change causes stress, even when the change is uniform
throughout a body of concrete. Whenever the temperature changes, the different
constituents of the concrete tend to expand or contract by different amounts,
346 Masonry
causing highly localized stresses that may in turn cause invisible, internal cracks.
In general, cement paste tends to expand and contract with temperature much
more than does the aggregate. When the temperature change is not uniform
through the concrete, additional stresses are caused by one part of the concrete
tending to expand or contract more than another. The latter stresses may be more
extensive and are likely to result in visible cracks.
Change in moisture content, especially loss of moisture, readily causes stress
and cracking in concrete. The gel, which is the main cementing material that
forms upon hydration of the cement, tends to contract greatly, while the other
constituents tend to remain more or less constant in volume. If the gradation of
particle sizes in the fresh concrete has been such that the gel has formed as a
very thin skeleton surrounding inert grains of unhydrated cement and fine aggre-
gate, the gel may not be damaged by the volume change. The mortar may then
tend to contract as a unit. The contraction of the mortar is in turn restrained by
the larger particles of aggregate and it is believed that the mortar is generally
cracked between large particles of aggregate in concrete which has been allowed
to dry in ordinary air. If the concrete is well proportioned, however, the internal
cracks are likely to be extremely small, probably less than one-thousandth inch
wide, and susceptible of being healed in time. A few remarks about this healing
may be appropriate before proceeding to the consideration of other volume
changes. The possible healing of fine cracks seems to justify the otherwise waste-
ful common practice of using fairly rich mixes and coarse cement, rather than
lean mixes and extremely fine cement, so that there is always an abundance of
unhydrated cement left in reserve. Unfortunately, the unhydrated cement is not
readily available except as the cracks by chance open up the grains and expose
the interiors to further hydration. The addition of a moderate amount of puz-
zolanic silica to concrete would seem to be better than to depend on unhydrated
cement if heahng of internal cracks were to be a major consideration. The puz-
zolanic silica, and the Hme necessary for its gelation, would always be available
and the healing of cracks would seem to be facihtated.
A third major cause of volume change is the freezing of water in the pores of
concrete. The expansion of the water upon freezing causes localized expansions
somewhat analagous to the localized contractions of the gel upon drying. It is
believed that water in the majority of pores in the gel of good concrete does not
freeze, because the pores are of molecular dimensions. On the other hand, water
in large, visible pores usually drains before freezing occurs and thus causes little
damage. The dangerous pores seem to be those of intermediate size, probably
invisible, such as are abundant in the gel of poor concrete and in many aggregates.
In a recent series of freezing and thawing tests involving a number of variables,
the most resistant concrete proved to be that which when mixed contained more
than 10 percent of air voids. The air voids were produced by adding less than
0.1 percent of a wetting agent to the cement before mixing. Attempts were made
to saturate the specimens before freezing, and although it seemed that the con-
crete was more nearly saturated than concrete in service, there was some doubt
about the saturation. This result, therefore, is only offered to show that visible
voids are not necessarily detrimental.
No discussion of voids in concrete would be complete without reference to
bleeding. Undoubtedly the control of bleeding offers a means of improving dura-
bility. The pores on the undersides of aggregate particles that result from bleeding
are Hkely to be of all sizes, including those that are damaging. Furthermore, the
Masonry 347
lack of bond to the undersides of aggregate particles has other bad effects. This
subject has been treated so well in the paper by Powers that reference is made
to that paper rather than to discuss the subject fully here.
When cement hydrates, the calcium siUcate gel that forms, substantially fills
the spaces originally occupied by the mixing water. Attempts have been made
again and again to make sizable specimens of such gel in the laboratory, for the
purpose of measuring their properties. Invariably such specimens crack exten-
sively soon after being exposed to ordinary air and they usually crumble upon
a single drying. But hydrated cement is not all gel. The gel is interspersed largely
with grains of unhydrated cement and crystals of calcium hydroxide, both of which
are relatively volume constant. Thus, as a result, larger specimens of neat cement
can be made without cracking, because the gel has been diluted with the grains
and crystals. The gel is still a problem, because, unless the water-cement ratio is
extremely low so as to keep the gel skeleton Ught, ordinary drying will cause plenty
of cracking even in specimens only a few inches thick.
The solution action of normal percolating water on concrete is many times not rec-
ognized due to its being obscured by frost action. Water alone will destroy concrete
through its solvent action on certain elements of the cementitous binder, but more im-
portant, water is the medium through which many other enemies of concrete carry on
their attack. Sea water, sulphate-bearing waters, acid waters, and bog waters are merely
waters carrying impurities that render their destructive action more severe, and all act
through the intimate contact that the water has with the concrete through absorption
into its pores. The solvent action of water is not confined to leaking joints or cracks, as
porous concrete is particularly susceptible to such action.
The solvent action of water is regularly found wherever concrete has been in contact
with soft pure water for any length of time or where drainage conditions are such that
rain water runs over the surface of concrete. While this etching action is not serious, it
indicates that if we give a quantity of this same water a chance to penetrate the concrete,
serious impairment may result.
Investigation of supposedly normal waters that have proved most corrosive to con-
crete, revealed the interesting fact that, whereas the hydration products of cement are
soluble in any water, those that are most destructive are relatively pure waters carrying
so little CaO in solution that they are lime-hungry, having an acid reaction as indicated
by a hydrogen-ion concentration below 7.
Effects of Certain Salts
The addition of certain salts to water will increase its destructive action. Sea water
and sulphate-bearing waters are the more important cases, and in both, the salts involved
are principally the sulphates of magnesium, sodium and calcium. The action of these
compounds on the concrete appears to be both chemical and mechanical. The chemical
action is partly corrosive and partly an interference with the normal processes of hydra-
tion, while the mechanical action, due to the disruptive effects of the by-products of the
chemical reactions forming compounds within the cementing matrix of the concrete,
results in an expansive process similar to freezing water.
The foregoing discussion may appear unduly alarming in regard to the solution
action of normal and aggressive waters. With the exception of thin concrete sections
subjected to high heads of water, the permeabihty of properly controlled concrete is
sufficiently low to be of little practical concern. It is the cracks, improperly prepared
constructions joints, porosity and other imperfections which make permeability and the
solution action of water an important problem. The white deposit or "efflorescense" so
348 Masonry
commonly seen on concrete surfaces is the result of leaching with subsequent carbonation
and evaporation.
It is clear that watertightness and low volume change will result in reduced leaching
effects. The use of sulphate-resisting cement such as the tentative specification recently
adopted by the ASTM, will materially reduce the corrosion of concrete by alkali waters.
Attention has been lately directed toward "Portland-puzzolan" cements as effective in
producing concrete with improved resistance to sulphate and acid waters.
Aside from the natural weathering forces discussed above, there are several other
important disintegrating actions which should be mentioned, such as the delayed expan-
sion of unsound materials, corrosion of embedded steel, exposure to chemical wastes,
corrosive atmosphere of certain industries, dehydration in stacks and fire hazard. Some
of the factors involved in these various deteriorating forces have been covered previ-
ously in this report, while others are of so specialized a nature that it is not considered
desirable to discuss them further in this summary.
Exposure Conditions Vary
One important aspect in connection with weathering action which we are prone to
forget is the extreme variation in exposure to which different structures may be subjected.
Two structures otherwise identical and located not far apart may be showing radically
different degrees of deterioration due to the fact that one is so located with respect to
the terrain that it is continually subjected to the action of water seepage, while in the
case of the other structure the drainage is such that the concrete has never been subjected
to this condition. In fact, conditions of exposure can vary widely even in the same
structure due mainly to differences in drainage and the action of percolating water.
We are all, of course, cognizant of the varying exposure conditions throughout the
country due to temperature variations. In this connection it should be remembered that
while concrete, when saturated with water, may resist one freezing or several, yet the
continued repetition of this action will in time destroy it. Further, only a few degrees
of frost are required to cause freezing of the contained moisture in the surface layer. It
would seem, therefore, that the effects of frost should be more severe in those sections of
the country that have the greatest number of alternate freezings and thawings, and
while this is not subject to statistical proof, it seems to be borne out in a general way by
observation. It certainly is a fact that as soon as one enters those sections having more
than a few annual frosts, the evidence of frost action is almost as common as in districts
further north.
E. Tests for Predicting Durability
In view of the many variables involved in the production of good concrete, the
engineer has been led to develop various tests in an effort to predict durability under
different conditions of exposure. As already indicated, it does not seem that a simple and
reliable procedure for testing concrete for durability has yet been found.
A brief resume of the principal tests which have been suggested and used for pre-
dicting durability, both for hardened concrete and for its component parts, is given below:
1. Accelerated Freezing and Thawing
There seems to be fair agreement among engineers that some type of accelerated
freezing and thawing test constitutes probably the most dependable criterion for dura-
bility. However, there is as yet no general agreement on test methods. An analysis of
freezing and thawing tests in comparison with varying exposure conditions develops so
many variables that engineers have been hesitant in setting up standard test procedures
Masonry 349
until research is more complete on the subject. Space permits naming only a few of these
variables: Degree of water saturation, effect of previous drying, velocity of cooling, type
and size of specimen, freezing temperature, duration of cold, and manner of thawing.
The ASTM has a specification (C4-24) covering a freezing and thawing test method for
drain tile. In 1938 ASTM adopted a tentative method (C137-38T) for soundness of
aggregates by freezing and thawing, and in 1939 a freezing and thawing test (C67-39T)
for brick was adopted as tentative.
In measuring the results of freezing and thawing tests, various methods have been
used, such as mere visual examination, loss in weight, and decrease in strength. Lately,
certain experimenters have found flexural strength tests to be more indicative of deteriora-
tion than compressive strength tests. All such strength test procedures, however, require
a large number of specimens. Another method which seems to offer promise, but which
is, as yet, in the experimental stage, is the use of sonic vibration in predicting change in
modulus of elasticity and theVeby the degree of deterioration of the specimen being tested.
From the present state of knowledge, it would appear that some procedure of
freezing and thawing, combined with cycles of wetting and drying, and possibly cycles
of heating and cooling above average outside temperatures, will constitute a reasonable
solution of this problem. However, it appears self-evident that no one test procedure
could possibly be indicative of the many varied conditions of natural weathering ex-
posure. A great amount of research work is in progress on this important subject and it
is hoped that some reasonably reliable and simplified procedure may result from these
efforts.
2. Sodium Sulphate and Magnesium Sulphate Tests for Soundness of
Aggregates
The ASTM has a tentative specification (C88-39T) which has been the basis for
most salt crystallization testing for several years. The disruptive salt crystallization tests
have been used in this country as an accelerated measure of resistance to freezing and
thawing and not as an indication of the resistance to actual salt crystallization action
as occasioned near the surfaces of exposed concrete due to percolating solutions. The use
of this test in this country on other kinds of structural products seems to have had as
its object the latter purpose in many cases rather than a simulation of freezing and
thawing action. Likewise, English and Continental investigators have stressed these tests
from the latter standpoint. Relatively little attention is apparently paid to salt crystal-
hzation as a natural agency of disintegration in freezing climates, although the Bureau of
Reclamation emphasizes this action in its Concrete Manual.^'
The evidence is rather clear that these tests detect obviously unsound particles of
the nature of those which cause pitting in concrete surfaces, such as shales, ochers, soft
sandstones, "water-lime", certain argillaceous sandstones and Hmestones, certain cherts,
etc. However, it is also recognized that these tests may cause the disintegration of cer-
tain sedimentary rocks, particularly those having fairly high absorption, which have
shown good service in concrete. The sodium sulphate test has been in use for many
years, while the magnesium sulphate test has recently found favor with various experi-
menters due to its lesser sensitivity to temperature change and greater severity of attack.
There does not seem to be any consistent agreement between various authorities as to
the existence of definite relationships between the two sulphate tests and accelerated
freezing and thawing tests. The conclusion seems to be that these salt tests are useful
in detecting unsound aggregates, but the results have to be interpreted with discretion,
giving due weight to actual experience with similar aggregates in concrete structures.
Most aggregate specifications incorporate clauses to this effect.
350 Masonry __^
3. Steam and Autoclave Test for Soundness of Cement
As previously mentioned the ASTM has adopted the autoclave test in its new
tentative specifications for Portland cement. The older steam test is considered as satis-
factory for detecting free lime which is not in the hard-burned state, but it will not
detect hard-burned free lime or crystalline magnesia, to which constituents most authori-
ties attribute delayed expansion of some concrete structures. The more severe autoclave
test will detect these two constituents and for that reason is favored as providing a
more durable cement.
4. Permeability Tests
PermeabiUty tests of concrete have been used in various research projects with
specimens made up in the form of a bomb or disk, and the quantity of input or output
water measured. Such methods would seem from theoretical considerations to give a reli-
able indication of probable durability ; however, examinations of existing structures and
data from permeability tests are not so convincing. Most of the evidence of lack of ade-
quate watertightness in most structures seems to indicate that the distress shown has been
largely due to segregation in handhng and placing rather than to a fundamental defect
in the mix. Tests of any properly cured concrete which was so designed that a plastic
workable mix was secured, show very little permeability even under high pressures.
Based on these results it is questionable whether this type of permeability test is of
such significance as to justify its inclusion in a general concrete specification.
5. Simulated Aggressive Water Tests
Many research projects have been made which included the performance of mortar
and concrete specimens under the simulated action of various aggressive waters, such as
sulphate, acid and sea waters. However, no general specification covering these proce-
dures has been adopted. There is little doubt that this type of test, if properly conducted,
is very effective in predicting the durability of concrete under the action of the particular
aggressive water used.
6. Water Absorption
This is an old test which has been used for many years on various masonry and
other materials. The test is generally made at normal temperatures, but sometimes it is
made in boiling water. The ASTM has test methods covering water absorption tests on
various concrete products such as drain tile, pipe, masonry units and brick.
The absorption test is considered to indicate the general durability of concrete with
reference to weathering action. If water does not readily enter the pore spaces of a
concrete, it will, in general, be less affected by freezing and thawing, the possibility of
percolating or aggressive water action is much reduced, and volume change due to
variations in water content is decreased.
7. Fire Tests
The methods of determining fire resistance as described in ASTM Specifications
C 19-33 are applicable to concrete and are beheved to be dependable for concrete as a
material. They are not readily adaptable for studying particular samples of concrete,
but are adapted to testing specific portions of a structure such as columns, beams or
walls which may be built of the concrete to be tested.
8. Strength
The fact that strength has been mentioned last does not mean that it is not im-
portant; however, many engineers feel that in recent years too much importance may
Masonry 351
have been attached to early strength and too little thought given to long-continued
strength or durability.
While the preceding tests are the principal ones used to date in attempting to pre-
dict durability of concrete or concrete materials, several other tests have been proposed
and used by various investigators. Some of the more prominent of these methods are:
1. Heat tests, involving alternate heating and cooling of concrete specimens,
sometimes combined with alternate wetting and drying. This type of test has
never gone any farther than the research stage.
2. Sugar solubility test on Portland cement to detect underburned and pre-
hydrated cements, as proposed by the late Thaddeus Merriman.^ This test has
received only limited acceptance. Merriman believed it to be indicative of a
cement which would give durable hydration products.
3. Sodium sulphate test on Portland cement, made on slabs of neat cement,
to determine sulphate resistance. This test was used by Merriman, but has attained
only limited acceptance.
4. Water, or "floe" test, on Portland cement, proposed by Ira Paul.* This
test has as yet received little acceptance. It gives very different results on different
cements, which is believed to have some connection with durability.
5. The autoclave test on Portland cement chnker, recently proposed by Paul.
This test is considered to have possibilities.
F. Conclusion
The committee desires to warn against undue alarm at the foregoing enumeration
of the many ills to which concrete may be heir under various exposure conditions. Our
purpose is to widen the appreciation of concrete technology and thereby hasten the day
when all concerned will give proper attention to those precautions which are necessary
in securing durable concrete. When we consider the various unfavorable conditions under
which many of our concrete structures have been completed in years past, we must agree
with Bates* by paraphrasing the closing remarks of his Marburg lecture last June in
regard to the many uncertainties still remaining as to the true nature of Portland cement,
by saying that the many uncertainties still remaining regarding the production of durable
concrete in no way detract from the proved findings of its tremendous use and that "the
results are startlingly satisfactory".
Lacking any generally accepted test for predicting durability of concrete, it behooves
the engineer and constructor to make full use of proved methods for producing durable
concrete as given in various authoritative publications, probably the latest one of which
is the Joint Committee Report on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete, published in June,
1940.'^
To indicate only the high points in this procedure:
1. Use materials — cement and aggregates — which by test and experience have
proved durable under the expected exposure conditions.
2. Select a water-cement ratio which will give a paste of a high degree of
impermeability and resistance to expected exposure.
3. Use such proportions as will produce a plastic and workable mixture.
4. Mix and place the concrete in a manner to insure a homogeneous mass
without segregation.
5. Provide thorough curing.
352 Masonry
Bibliography
1. McMillan, F. R., The Factors Affecting the Durability of Concrete, Portland Cement
Association pamphlet, published in 1928.
2. Scholer, C. H., Studying the Durability of Concrete, Journal ACI, May-June, 1936.
3. Carlson, R. W., Remarks on Durability of Concrete, Journal ACI, April, 1939.
4. Bates, P. H., Portland Cement, Theories (Proven and Otherwise) and Specifications,
Marburg Lecture, Proc, ASTM, 1940, pp. 469-500.
5. Voss, W. C, The Microstructure of Concrete vs. Strength, Pit and Quarry, January,
1939.
6. McMillan, F. R., Study of Defective Concrete, Journal ACI, May, 1931.
7. Young, R. B., More Lessons from Concrete Structures in Service, Journal ACI, May,
1931.
8. Young, R. B., Frost Resistance Concrete, Journal ACI, April, 1940.
9. Hirschthal, M., Maintenance and Repair of Concrete Structures in Railroad Con-
struction, Journal ACI, Jan.-Feb., 1937.
10. Mattimore, H. S. and Rahn, G. A., Research on Concrete Disintegration, Proc. ASTM,
1935, Part II, page 410.
11. Marshall, S. W., Durability of Pavement Concrete — Experience in Pennsylvania,
Journal ACI, April, 1939.
12. Welden, E. C, Durability of Pavement Concrete — Experience in Connecticut, Journal
ACI, April, 1939.
13. Lawton, E. C, Durabihty of Concrete Pavement — Experiences in New York State,
Journal ACI, June, 1939.
14. Tremper, B., The Effect of Acid Waters on Concrete, Journal ACI, Sept., 1931.
15. Stanton, T. E. and Meder, L. C, Resistance of Cements to Attack by Sea Water and
Alkali Soils, Journal ACI, Mar.-Apr., 1938.
16. Tuthill, L. H., Resistance of Cement to the Corrosive Action of Sodium Sulphate
Solutions, Journal ACI, Nov.-Dec, 1936.
17. Lyse, Inge, Effect of Brand and Type of Cement on Strength and Durability,
Journal ACI, Jan.-Feb., 1935.
18. Snader, D. L. and Various Railroad Bridge Engineers, "How Permanent is Concrete",
Railway Age, July 17, 1937 and Sept. 18, 1937.
19. Blanks, R. F., Vidal, E. N., Price, W. H. and Russell, F. M., The Properties of
Concrete Mixes, Journal ACI, April, 1940.
20. Davis, R. E., Kelly, J. W., Troxell, G. E. and Davis, H. E., Properties of Mortars
and Concretes Containing Portland-Puzzolan Cements, Journal ACI, Sept.-Oct.,
1935.
21. Carlson, R. W., Drying Shrinkage as Affected by Many Factors, Proc, ASTM, 1938,
Part II, page 419.
22. Willis, T. F., and De Reus, M. E., Thermal Volume Change and Elasticity of Aggre-
gates and their Effect on Concrete, Proc, ASTM, 1939, page 919.
23. Powers, T. C, The Bleeding of Portland Cement Paste, Mortar and Concrete,
Journal ACI, 1939.
24. Symposium on Cement, ASTM, Committee C-1 on Cement, held at Washington,
D. C, March, 1940. (Unpublished Papers).
25. Report on Significance of Tests of Concrete and Concrete Aggregates, ASTM, Separate
Pamphlet, Committee C-9, 1935.
26. Symposium on Weathering Characteristics of Masonry Materials, Proc, ASTM, 1931,
Part II, page 715.
27. Concrete Manual, Bureau of Reclamation, U. S. Dept. of Interior, published March,
1939.
28. Joint Committee Report on Standard Specifications and Recommended Practice for
Concrete and Reinforced Concrete, AREA Proc. 1941, Vol. 42, page 27. (Bulletin
419, Sept.-Oct., 1940)
Report of Special Committee on Waterproofing
of Railway Structures
J. A. Lahmer, Chairman, J. P. Gallagher F. P. Turner
F. E. Bates A. C. Irwin L. W. Walter
G. E. Boyd L. H. Latfoley H. T. Welty
C. H. Chapin F. J. Pitcher C. A. Whipple
A. C. Copland G. E. Robinson O. G. Wilbur
Committee
To the American Railway Engineering Association:
Your committee reports on the following subjects:
1. Revision of Manual.
Change heading of Section 203 to read:
203. Asphalt for Saturant and Mopping Below Ground
Add following paragraph immediately below heading of Section 203:
Asphalt for saturant below ground shall meet the requirements of Section 202.
Change first paragraph of Section 207 to read:
1. Fabric shall consist of high-grade cotton cloth saturated thoroughly and uni-
formly with asphalt specified in Section 202 or either type of coal tar pitch specified in
Section 204.
These revisions do not change the meaning of the specifications and are recom-
mended for the purpose of avoiding ambiguity.
2. Waterproofing of railway structures.
A study is being made of the Specifications for Woven Cotton Fabrics Saturated
with Bituminous Substances for Use in Waterproofing, ASTM Designation D 173-40T,
and of the Specifications for Coal-Tar Pitch for Roofing, Dampproofing and Water-
proofing, ASTM Designation D 4SO-38T, in comparison with AREA specifications and
it is probable that agreement will be reached after additional information is received with
reference to certain requirements.
Progress has been made toward harmonizing differences between ASTM Specifica-
tions for Asphalt for Dampproofing and Waterproofing, ASTM Designation D 449-3 7T
and corresponding requirements in AREA Specifications for Membrane Waterproofing.
Two of the larger oil companies have informed your committee that they are prepared
to furnish waterproofing asphalt which will meet all requirements of AREA specifications.
The ASTM committee on bituminous waterproofing and roofing materials has indicated
that during the coming year it will endeavor to obtain cooperation of the Federal
Specifications Board, the American Association of State Highway Officials and the AREA
in an effort to adopt uniform specifications for waterproofing materials.
The Special Committee on Waterproofing of
Railway Structures,
J. A. Lahmer, Chairman.
Bulletin 422, January, 1941.
353
Report of Committee 15 — Iron and Steel Structures
R. A. Van Ness, Chairman,
James Aston
F. E. Bates
R. N. Brodie
A. W. Carpenter
C. H. Chapjn
O. F. Dalstrom
R. P. Davis
R. L. Eason
Herbert Ensz
W. G. Grove
G. A. Haggander
F. S. Hales
Shortridge Hardesty
C. S. Heritage*
Otis E. Hovey
j. b. hunley
Jonathan Jones
A. R. Ketterson
A. M. KNOVi'LES
B. R. Lefeler
H. S. Loeffler
F. M. Masters
C. H. Mercer
C. T. Morris
O. K. Peck
F. J. Pitcher
Albert Reichmann
0. E. Selby
T. C. Shedd
1. L. Simmons
C. E. Sloan
J. E. Bernhardt, Vice-
Chairman,
G. L. St ale Y
H. C. Tammen
G. H. Tinker
G. H. Trout
F. E. Turneaure
F. P. Turner
T. M. von Sprecken
C. E. Webb
E. Weidemann
H. T. Welty
C. D. Williams
A. R. Wilson
W. M. Wilson
Committee
Died August 31, 1940.
To the American Railway Engineering Association:
Your committee reports on the following subjects:
1. Revision of Manual.
Report on revision of Specifications for Steel Railway Bridges and of Rules for
Rating Existing Iron and Steel Bridges page 356
Report on Instructions for Maintenance Inspection of Steel Bridges, with recom-
mendation for inclusion in the Manual page 358
2. Specifications for fusion welding and gas cutting for steel structures, collaborating
with ASTM Committee A-1 on Steel, and the American Welding Society Conference
Committee on Bridges.
No report.
3. Non-ballast type metal-floor steel bridges.
Final report, submitted as information page 363
4. Design of expansion joints involving iron and steel structures.
No report.
5. Relation between fatigue of metal and bridge design.
No report.
6. Review specifications for overhead highway bridges of American Association of
State Highway Officials insofar as they relate to steel construction, conferring with that
association.
No report.
7. Progress in design of bridge details.
No report.
8. Rigid frame design.
No report.
The Committee on Iron and Steel Structures,
R. A. Van Ness, Chairman.
Bulletin 422, January, 1941.
3SS
356 Iron and Steel Structures
Report on Assignment 1
Revision of Manual
O. E. Selby (chairman, subcommittee), R. N. Brodie, O. F. Dalstrom, Herbert Ensz,
Shortridge Hardesty, O. K. Peck, G. H. Trout, F. E. Turneaure, C. E. Webb, H. T.
Welty.
The following revisions of the Specifications for Steel Railway Bridges are
recommended:
301 (b) p. 15-10
Delete the words "shoes and pedestals" in the first line.
425 p. 15-15
Add a paragraph to read:
For stringers, the gage of the outstanding legs of the connection angles over the top
one-third of the stringer depth shall be not less than the quantity j/ —
L rr: length of stringer span, in feet
t = thickness of angle, in inches
432 p. 15-16
Revise to read:
Stiffeners at Points of Bearing
432. There shall be stiffeners at the points of bearing of plate girders and at the
points of bearing of concentrated loads on the girders.
There shall be stiffeners at the corresponding points of rolled beams if the reaction
or the concentrated load, as the case may be, exceeds the value given by the formulas:
R = safe reaction
W = safe concentrated load
t := thickness of web, in inches
d ^ unsupported depth of web, in inches
B = distance over which reaction is applied
Bi = half of distance over which concentrated load is applied
3 d'
f = safe unit resistance of web to buckling ^= 15,000 — T":?
° ' 4 r
The section of the stiffeners shall be such that the unit bearing stress on the combined
effective bearing areas of the stiffeners and the web will not exceed that allowable.
Even though the web of the beam is sufficient to meet the requirements of the fore-
going formulas, the flanges shall be stiffened, if necessary, to give effective distribution.
The stiffeners shall extend as nearly as practicable to the edges of the flange angles
or the beam flanges and shall be connected to the web by enough rivets to transmit the
stress. Such stiffeners shall not be crimped. Only the part of the stiffener section beyond
the fillet of the flange angle or of the beam flange shall be considered effective in bearing.
Iron and Steel Structures 357^
504-5-6 p. 15-20
Revise to read:
Preparation of Holes
504. Holes shall be cylindrical and perpendicular to the member. They shall be
clean-cut, without torn or ragged edges.
Holes in material not more than % inch thick used for lateral, longitudinal or sway
bracing, lacing, stay plates, diaphragms, inactive fillers, and stiffeners not at bearing
points, may be punched full-size, except that holes through assembled material shall not
consist of both reamed holes and holes punched full-size. Holes in material more than
% inch thick used for such parts shall be sub-punched and reamed or sub-drilled and
reamed.
If there are not more than three plies of main material and if no ply is more than
% inch thick, holes in the main material may be punched full-size.
If there are more than three plies of main material or if the thickness of any ply
of main material is more than 5^ inch but not greater than the nominal diameter of the
rivet less }i inch, holes in all phes of main material shall be sub-punched or sub-drilled,
and reamed after assembly.
If the thickness of any ply of main material is greater than the nominal diameter of
the rivet less % inch, holes in such ply of main material shall be sub-drilled. Holes in
the other plies of main material may be sub-punched, or sub-drilled, and reamed after
assembly.
Stiffeners and active fillers at points of bearing shall not be considered main material
in determining the number of plies, but should any sub-punching, or sub-drilling, and
reaming be required by reason of thickness of material, all holes in such stiffeners and
fillers also shall be sub-punched, or sub-drilled, and reamed after assembly.
Size of Holes
505. The diameter of holes punched full-size and of finished holes reamed and drilled
shall be t'g^ inch greater than the nominal diameter of the rivets.
The diameter of the die for punched and sub-punched holes shall not be more than
^2 inch greater than that of the punch.
The diameter of holes sub-punched, or sub-drilled, prior to reaming shall be A inch
less than the nominal diameter of the rivets.
The diameter of sub-drilled and reamed holes shall be as required for sub-punched
and reamed holes, or else the holes shall be drilled to finished size while all of the plies
are assembled.
The diameter of holes for turned bolts shall not be more than 3^2 inch greater than
that of the bolt.
Reaming and Drilling
506. Reaming shall be done with twisted-flute reamers directed preferably by
mechanical means. Drilling shall be done with twist drills.
703. p. 15-26.
Revise first sentence to read:
703. The weights of rolled shapes and plates shall be computed on the basis of
their nominal weights and dimensions as shown on the approved shop drawings, deduct-
ing for copes, cuts, and open holes.
358 Iron and Steel Structures
525 p. 15-22
Revise to read:
Fit of Stiffeners
52S. The bearing ends of stiffeners on beams and girders shall be milled or ground
to bear against the flange or else shall be welded to the flange, except that welding to a
flange at a point where the tensile stress exceeds one-fifth of that allowable will not be
permitted. The fit of other stiffener ends against the flange shall be such as to exclude
water after being painted. Fillers and splice plates shall be made to fit within ^ inch at
each end.
XII. Steel Castings, p. 15-^2
Change Serial A27-36 T in the reference to ASTM specifications to read "Serial
A27-39".
1611. p. 15-48
Add a section to read:
Welding
1611. Welding of structural alloy steel will not be permitted.
The following revision of the Rules for Rating Existing Iron and Steel Bridges is
recommended:
108 p. 15-123
Under (c) Hammer Blow Effect, Clause 3, substitute the numeral 5 for the quan-
tity n^ in the denominator of the last term in both formulas (a) and (b).
Instructions for the Maintenance Inspection of Steel Bridges
In accordance with instructions to collaborate with Committee 12 — Rules and
Organization, on matters affecting bridges, Committee 15 in 1939 submitted to Com-
mittee 12, Instructions for the Maintenance Inspection of Steel Bridges, to replace cor-
responding material previously adopted for publication in Chapter 12 — Rules and
Organization, and published in the 1929 Manual. However, in accordance with the
suggestion received from Mr. W. T. Dorrance, chairman of Committee 12, that these
instructions would properly be a part of Chapter 15, Committee 15 submits the follow-
ing instructions with the recommendation that they be adopted for publication in
Chapter 15 of the Manual.
INSTRUCTIONS FOR THE MAINTENANCE INSPECTION
OF STEEL BRIDGES
1. The inspection of steel bridges shall be under the general supervision of the Chief
Engineer of Maintenance, the Bridge Engineer, or other general officer in charge of
bridge maintenance. Direct supervision, on each maintenance unit, shall be under some
designated officer herein called General Bridge Inspector.
2. One or more competent bridge inspectors for each maintenance unit, who are
familiar with and have a general knowledge of steel bridges, shall be assigned for the
inspection of bridges under the direct supervision of the General Bridge Inspector.
3. The General Bridge Inspector shall personally inspect all steel bridges in his ter-
ritory at least once each year, and those requiring special attention more frequently.
Iron and Steel Structures
359
4. Bridge inspectors shall forward promptly to the General Bridge Inspector, on the
form provided, a report of each bridge inspected. The report shall state the conditions
found in each individual part, regardless of what may have been reported previously.
5. When the bridge inspector finds defects that, in his opinion, are of such a nature
as to make traffic at regular speed unsafe, he shall take the necessary steps to have the
speed limited to that which he considers safe. Immediately after the inspector has taken
steps to protect traffic, he must notify the Train Dispatcher by telegraph or telephone,
sending copy to the Division Engineer and the Division Superintendent, giving the safe
speed limit and briefly describing the necessary repairs. He shall follow this immediately
with a written report to the General Bridge Inspector, giving in detail the defects found.
6. The General Bridge Inspector shall examine these inspection reports and if any
defects of a serious nature are reported he shall take immediate steps to have the nec-
essary emergency repairs made. After the General Bridge Inspector has examined the
inspection reports, he shall forward one copy of each to his superior officer, calling
attention to any defects which are not of an emergency nature but are serious enough
to warrant the attention of such officer.
7. The General Bridge Inspector should be familiar with the capacity and stability
of the steel bridges under his charge. If any defect should develop which, in his opinion,
weakens the structure or any member, he shall report to his superior officer immediately
after personal inspection with his inspector and the division officer charged with the
direction of bridge maintenance, giving recommendations for remedying the defect. He
may request that a special inspection be made of the structure by a representative of the
Bridge Engineer.
8. In making inspection reports the following abbreviations are permissible:
A.B.
Anchor bolt
I.
Inner
Bbl.
Barrels
I.S.
Inside
Bot.
Bottom
L.
Angle
B.W.
Backwall
Lat.
Lateral
Br.S.
Bridge seat
Mas.
Masonry
Brkt.
Bracket
. N.
North
Bm
Beam
0.
Outer
Chd.
Chord
o.s.
Outside
Concr.
Concrete
p.
Post
Conn.
Connection
Fed.
Pedestal
C.Pl.
Cover plate
PI.
Plate
Diag.
Diagonal
PtI.
Portal
Diaph.
Diaphragm
Reinf.
Reinforcing
E.
East
Roll.
Roller
E.B.
Eastbound
S.Pl.
Sole plate
Exp.
Expansion
S.
South
F. Bm.
Floor beam
Spl.
Splice
Fill.
Filler
Stiff.
Stiffener
Fig.
Flange
Str.
Stringer
Fdtn.
Foundation
u.c.
Undercoping
Fr.
Frame
Vert.
Vertical
G.R.
Guard rail
Wpg.
Waterproofing
Gen. Cond.
General condition
W.
West
Gir.
Girder
W.B.
Westbound
Guss.
Gusset
W.W.
Wing wall
Hor.
Horizontal
X.
Cross
Int.
Intermediate
360 Iron and Steel Structures
9. The bridge inspector, in his report, shall cover the following points:
(a) Deck
Size, spacing and minimum depth of ties.
Whether ties are treated or untreated.
Uniformity of bearing of ties.
Number and size of defective ties.
Size and condition of guard timbers and guard rails.
Fastenings of ties.
Fastenings of guard timbers and guard rails.
Condition of walks and railings.
Condition of refuge bays.
Condition of ballasted deck, and depth of ballast measured from base of rail
at each end of bridge.
Whether waterproofing is effective or requires repairs.
(b) Fire Protection
Description and condition of fire protection.
(c) Track
Weight of rail and size of tie plates.
Condition of rails, joints, and fastenings.
Alinement of track and its location with reference to the steel structure, at
ends and center of each span.
Surface of track on bridge and on approaches.
Where track is out of line or surface, the report shall show the location,
amount, and probable causes.
(d) Shims and Blocking
Conditions of shims and blocking, giving description and location, making
sketch if necessary.
(ej Bridge Seats
Condition and cleanness.
(f) Anchors and Bearings
Whether the superstructure is securely anchored to the masonry.
Whether bed plates, rollers, rockers, and pedestals are clean, in correct position
and have full bearing.
Whether expansion bearings are functioning properly.
Whether bed plates are wearing into masonry.
Whether there are any flaws or breaks in bearings.
(g) Expansion
Clearance between expansion ends and masonry or adjoining spans.
Whether there is any apparent movement of the masonry.
(h) Paint
Condition of paint.
Date of last painting, number of coats and kind of paint, if stenciled on the
bridge.
Whether spot painting or repainting is needed.
(i) Straightness and Alinement of Members
Condition of individual members as to bends and kinks.
AUnement of trusses, girders, floor members and towers.
Slackness of eye-bars and adjustment of counters,
\
Iron and Steel Structures 361
(j) Damage From Blows
Parts damaged by blows from equipment, lading or floating objects.
Location and extent of damage, making sketch to show parts damaged and
repairs suggested.
(k) Cracks and Breaks
Where parts or welds to be examined for cracks or breaks are in dark or
poorly lighted places, examination should be made with flashlight or other
artificial light.
Cracks and breaks, especially in floor connection angles, stringer flange angles
under tie bearings, hangers, pin plates, fillets of angles of flanges and posts,
and in end sections of lower chords or flanges over or near bearings.
Cracks in webs of floor beams where bottom flange angles do not extend
under end connection angles.
Lateral bracing and cross frames, especially those of spans on curves.
Welds on lateral bracing and cross frames, stiffeners and other welded details.
(I) Pins, Pin Holes and Nuts
Condition of pins and pin holes, as to movement and wear.
Pins should be observed under traffic if practicable. The report shall give the
location of pins observed, the amount of movement of the pins, and the
wear of pins and pin holes if it can be determined.
Whether pin nuts are tight.
(m) Rivets and Turned Bolts
Location and number of rivets and turned bolts that are loose and of rivets
that have badly corroded heads, giving special attention to floor connections.
(n) Corrosion
Condition of members as to loss of section from corrosion, noting extent of
such action, with measurements of remaining section if members are badly
corroded, paying close attention to loss of metal in plates and angles of
lateral systems of spans on curves.
Damage from engine blast in spans over other tracks, and attachment of
blast plates, where used.
Top chord splice and connection of portal angle to top of end post for rust
distortion between stitch rivets.
(o) Cleanness
Collection of dirt on horizontal surfaces.
(p) Movable Bridges
(1) Rail Locks
Wear and condition of rail locks and rail ends and whether tolerances
in Part 64, Signal Section Manual, are exceeded (vertical % inch,
horizontal ^ inch).
Signal interlocking connections.
(2) Charts and Diagrams
Whether an operating diagram is posted.
Whether electrical wiring diagram is posted or is available.
Whether lubrication chart is posted and the instructions on it are
followed.
362 Iron and Steel Structures
(3) Lubrication
Whether moving parts have been kept sufficiently lubricated. They
should be observed during operation. The report shall show whether
lack of lubrication is due to inattention or to inadequate facilities.
If facilities are inadequate, complete information shall be given with
recommendation for improvement.
(4) Gears
Condition of gears as to:
Accurate meshing
Fit on shafts
Fit of keys
Breaks, flaws and excessive wear (on gear teeth and keys)
Protection against falling objects
Safety guards
Cleanness
(5) Bearings
Whether bearings have proper hnings and good running fit.
Whether shafting is accurately alined, so as not to weave or wobble
in bearings or between them ; also whether collars and thrust bear-
ings are in adjustment.
Attachment of caps to bases and of bearings to supports.
Alinement, fit, and wear of trunnions, rollers, and sheaves in their
bearings.
(6) Cables
Adjustment of cables as indicated by slackness, inclination of equalizer
bars, or uneven seating of spans.
Condition of cables as to rust and excessive accumulations of hardened
grease.
Broken wires and broken strands.
Condition as to lubrication.
Working clearances.
End connections and clamps.
(7) Clutches and Brakes
Working condition and cleanness.
(8) Power Equipment
Condition of power unit for delivering the necessary power.
Whether properly maintained.
(Q) Mechanical Features
Operating condition.
Condition and adjustment of balance wheels.
Condition and adjustment of wedges or other lifting devices.
Condition and adjustment of locking devices.
Adjustment of indicator devices.
Adjustment of toggle arms to form very nearly a straight line when
wedges are fully driven.
Turntable of swing bridges, including rollers and treads as to breaks
or flaws that might cause breaks.
Clearance through a complete cycle of operation.
Balance through a complete cycle of operation.
Iron and Steel Structures 363
Safety devices — electrical and mechanical.
Lightning protection of power plant and superstructure.
Condition and adjustment of guides, centering devices, buffers, and
bridge locks.
Condition and fastenings of racks, tracks and tread plates.
Condition of sheaves.
(10) Counterweights
Condition of counterweights and their supports.
Safety of balance or counterweight box.
(11) Navigation Requirements
Condition of hghts.
Condition of siren or other boat signalling devices.
Condition of fenders and other protection.
Clearances for navigation.
(12) Record of Openings
Whether a complete record is being kept of bridge openings, vessel
movements, and happenings affecting the interests of the Railway
Company.
10. The inspector shall report indications of overload or failure in any part of the
bridge. He shall observe the behavior of the bridge during the passage of live load, if
practicable, noting excessive vibration, deflection, and side sway.
11. Attachments of wires, pipes, etc., that may be harmful to the bridge, shall be
reported.
Report on Assignment 3
Non-Ballast Type Metal Floor Steel Bridges
G. A. Haggander (chairman, subcommittee), James Aston, J. E. Bernhardt, A. W. Car-
penter, F. S. Hales, A. R. Ketterson, H. S. Loeffler, F. J. Pitcher, G. L. Staley, F. P.
Turner.
The non-ballast type of metal floor for steel bridges is adapted to places where the
depth from base of rail to clearance line is small. It was widely used in early track
elevation structures.
Figure 1 illustrates an early and simple type consisting of transverse I-beams, about
1 ft. 3 in. center to center, acting as floorbeams between the girders, with a longitudinal
plate under each rail. These plates usually are stiffened by angles or Z-bars riveted to
the edges to distribute the loads longitudinally. The space outside of these stiffened plates
is covered by a thin deck plate to protect the I-beams and to shelter the area under the
bridge. The rail is fastened to the longitudinal plate by cast clip washers and bolts.
This type of floor did not provide for track circuit insulation and was noisy. The
bearing of the rail caused considerable wear in the longituchnal plate. It was imprac-
ticable to adjust the grade of the track or the rail if that became necessary.
To overcome these faults the construction shown in Fig. 2 was generally adopted.
It is essentially the same as that shown in Fig. 1 except that a wood or fiber shim is
inserted between the rail and the plate to provide insulation, prevent wear, and reduce
noise. Fiber bushings and washers are provided for the clip washers and bolts to
complete the insulation.
364
Iron and Steel Structures
7'- 6"
,N
6'-2x
r5'-3i.i L
i Plate
Clggranca Line -»
15'-4-2*-UI-3' cirs
CLEARANCL TO BASL OF RAIL.
■ Plate - i"
I- Beam - I?
Plaits and anqle - 3z
Rivet head ~ f
Total • l^i
A great many bridges with floors of this type are in service. By varying the thick-
ness of the shims, the rail may be surfaced. If wood shims are used, they should be
placed with the grain transverse to the rail and laid continuous to reduce splitting and
crushing. A tough wood without pronounced fiber is recommended.
Figure 3 illustrates a rail trough floor with the track on a nine-degree curve. One
rail is elevated. A flangeway along the gage side of the low rail is provided by a pair
of heavy angles with their vertical legs well braced and supporting a manganese steel
wearing strip. These wearing strips are bolted to the angles and may be replaced easily.
This particular design does not provide for insulating the rail, the circuit being carried
around the bridge by a cable.
Figure 4 illustrates a conversion of the bridge shown in Fig. 1. This consists of
replacing the rail trough with a heavy wide-flange beam and supporting the rail on this
beam. This beam distributes the load more effectively over the floor beams. The rail is
well fastened and insulated. This plan requires a raise of grade which also improves the
clearances.
Figure S illustrates a rail fastening to a trough type floor. In the original construc-
tion the rail rested on a small steel plate riveted to the top trough section. This was
replaced by the construction shown, which carries the load to the vertical trough plates
and provides insulation.
Iron and Steel Structures
365
Generally, the first cost and maintenance cost of these types are higher than for types
with ballasted decks. To offset this, the reduced floor depth may result in lower cost of
the approaches.
A floor of this type is not justified unless there is no alternative within reasonable
first cost when all of the factors are considered.
hboW- HiK Hd
Lock Hu\
Sl««l Cut \Nash«r
ibrc Washer
■fibre Bushing
rClip Washer
fContinuous Wood or
Lfibrc Shtm Tran»w5« to QaiI
■•
1 ''■"
—
--
IT.
1
1
-r
I "'~\
1 — /<•
—
>
o
o
t Floor Beomj
1
o
Im
-
t
(
o
0
0
1
o
o
p
1
>
1\
0
o
■ ^
< £
CM fl
0
1
o
t Floor Btotn i
\
o
\
1
"
-r
u
"(O
0
[
■
J
/ji
?i
»
PLAN
Fig. 2.
366
Iron and Steel Structures
Iron and Steel Structures
367
iS\ f Plate
6- 60* ^ Baom."
f PI Sliff«nir
i Fillet Welds.
Spring Washer
Clamp
8* Bolt.
"Spring Washer
|— Washer
Fibre Insulafion
Tie Plote.
Z Fibre Insulation
Fibre Insulation
Washer.
\[Compres5ed Timber
W^"*''°" i- Fillet Weld
* ~^r^i Plate
l?-I £> 45*
SECTION.
368
Iron and Steel Structures
r-^ ci ^Ti ^Zi ^rii irii .c
,Bok»liU Channel Not fe Exceed 6ik ,
SECTION A-A.
i i li .
1 , r-
1 jV-e
^
V4»
1 —
PLAN 6c ELEVATION
OF CLIP INSULATOR-
PLAN 6c ELEVATION
OF RAIL CUP.
Fig. S.
Report of Committee 11 — Records and Accounts
C. A. Knowles, Chairman, J. H. Hande H. L. Restall, Vice-
Anton Anderson R. J. Herring Chairman,
F. B. Baldwin A. T. Hopkins O. M. Miles
H. D. Barnes C. D. Johnson A. T. Powell
S. H. Barnhart W. R. Kettenrinc C. P. Richardson
B. A. Bertenshaw E. M. Killough F. M. Spiegel
W. C. BoLLN P. R. Leete H. J. Stroebel
E. V. Braden Henry Lehn D. C. Teal
W. F. CuMMiNGS W. M. Ludolph V. P. Turnburke
V. H. Doyle D. O. Lyle H. C. Wertenbkrger
D. E. Field W. S. MacCulloch A. O. Wolf
C. C. Haire W. S. McFetridge Louis Wolf
H. N. Halper E. W. Metcalf Committee
To the American Railway Engineering Association:
Your committee respectfully reports on the following subjects:
1. Revision of Manual.
Progress report — presented as information page 370
2. Bibliography on subjects pertaining to records and accounts.
Progress report — presented as information page 371
3. Office and drafting room practices:
(a) Drafting equipment and tools;
(b) Specifications of materials to be used for drawings and drafting;
(c) Standard system for fiUng drawings.
Progress report — presented as information, with recommended conclusions for pub-
lication in the Manual page 373
4. Recommended practice to be followed with respect to maintenance of way
accounts and statistical requirements.
Progress report — presented as information page 379
5. Construction reports and records:
Forms for recording complete descriptive statement of quantities and other
physical characteristics of construction projects.
No report.
6. Valuation
(a) Resume of developments of the current year in connection with regulatory
bodies and the courts.
Progress report — presented as information page 379
(b) ICC Valuation orders, reports and records.
Progress report — presented as information, with a recommended addition to the
Manual page 381
7. Report upon changes in, revisions and interpretations of, ICC accounting
classifications.
Progress report — presented as information page 382
8. Methods for avoiding duplication of reports and for simpHfying and coordinating
work under the requirements of the ICC and other public authorities.
Progress report — presented as information page 385
9. Records of property leased and available for lease.
No report.
The Committee on Records and Accounts,
C. A. Knowles, Chairman.
Bulletin 422, January, 1941.
369
370 RecordsandAccounts
aibert fierce JUSepmoutl)
Albert Pierce Wej'mouth, a member of the Committee on Records and Accounts
since 1928, died November 13, 1940, at his home in Ben Avon, Pittsburgh, Pa. He was
born in Dorchester, Mass., February 20, 1882, and was graduated from Massachusetts
Institute of Technology in 1904. Following his graduation he entered the service of the
Pennsylvania Railroad in the engineering department at Pittsburgh. He remained in that
department during his entire service and through successive advancements became assist-
ant engineer on the staff of the chief engineer at Pittsburgh, which position he had held
for over twenty-five years at the time of his death.
He is survived by his widow, Mrs. May Myers Weymouth, a daughter, Frances G.,
and a son, Edward A. Weymouth, all of Ben Avon. Mr. Weymouth was devoted to his
family, to the Ben Avon Presbyterian church, of which he was an elder, and to his
profession. He was a student of the principles of engineering and valuation accounting,
which prompted him to become a member of the Committee on Records and Accounts.
His experience on extensive engineering projects in the Pennsylvania's most difficult
territory, combined with his zeal and earnestness in the pursuit of sound accounting and
clear records, made him a valuable member of the committee. As a member and chair-
man of various subcommittees he rendered devoted, unselfish and capable service.
Through his unobtrusive but effective manner and his pleasing personaUty he won and
held the respect and friendship of his associates. It is with a sense of distinct loss to the
Committee on Records and Accounts and the American Railway Engineering Association
that the members of the committee here record his passing.
E. V. Braden
C. C. Haire
Committee on Memoir
Report on Assignment 1
Revision of Manual
D. E. Field (chairman, subcommittee), W. F. Cummings, J. H. Hande, R. J. Herring,
W. R. Kettenring, P. R. Leete, Henry Lehn, E. W. Metcalf, A. T. Powell, F. M.
Spiegel, H. J. Stroebel.
The work of the subcommittee this year has consisted of reviewing all forms in the
Manual to determine those in need of revision, and those that should be deleted. This was
accomplished by having each member of the subcommittee review that portion covering
material handled by some other subcommittee, of which he is also a member. At this
time the committee recommends no change.
During the next year the subcommittee will look into the possibility of a new
arrangement of the material in Chapter 11 of the Manual, to the end that it may be put
in more logical sequence, give a better numbering to forms, plates and pages, and simplify
future revisions.
Records and Accounts 371
Report on Assignment 2
Bibliography on Subjects Pertaining to Records and Accounts
E. V. Braden (chairman, subcommittee), Anton Anderson, B. A. Bertenshaw, H. N.
Halper, Henry Lehn, E. W. Metcalf, C. P. Richardson, D. C. Teal.
The practice of previous years has been followed in compiling the bibliography for
the current year. Periodicals likely to contain important articles pertaining to railroad
records and accounts were systematically reviewed, also reference lists of new books
and pamphlets for items of special usefulness or interest to members of the Association.
The following compilation is submitted as a result of such bibliographical review for the
period from November 1, 1939 to November 1, 1940.
Bibliography
Books
1. Interpretations of ICC Accounting Classifications of Steam Railroads. By Account-
ing Division, Finance, Accounting, Taxation and Valuation Department, AAR, Washing-
ton, D. C. Loose Leaf. $1 per copy to member railroads. $1.25 to non-members.
This book contains all the formal interpretations included in ICC Accounting
Bulletin No. IS, also the informal interpretations issued by the ICC Bureau of
Accounts and designated as "A" cases, all revised to March 1, 1940. When a suffi-
cient number of additional interpretations or revisions of cases previously issued
have been accumulated, the Department of Finance, Accounting, Taxation and
Valuation, AAR, will issue loose-leaf supplements.
2. Code of Federal Regulations of the United States of America — Having General
Applicability and Legal Effect in Force June 1, 1938.
Title 49— Transportation and Railroads (Vol. 14, Book 1, Vol. 14, Book 2),
two volumes covering the regulations and orders of ICC 1938 Supplement, con-
taining amendments issued to Dec. 31, 1938. Price $2.25 per volume or supplement,
Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.
Pamphlets
1. Taxation of Railroads in the United States. 1936-1940. A list of references, ar-
ranged by years of publication by the Bureau of Railway Economics Library, AAR,
Washington, D. C. 20 typed pp.
2. Railroad Reorganization, Practice and Policy; Some Aspects and Present Trends.
By Joseph R. Warner. Savings Bank Journal, December 1939. pp. 7, 26-32.
3. Valuation or Historical Cost; Some Recent Developments. By George 0. May.
(partner, — Price Waterhouse Company). Dun's Review. May 1940. Published by Dun &
Bradstreet, Inc., New York City. pp. 17-20, 49-50.
4. Railroad Construction Indices. Compiled by Engineering Section, Bureau of
Valuation, ICC, Washington, D. C. 22 mimeo pp. Dated August 1, 1940.
5. Symposium on Railroad Reorganization. Published as the Summer, 1940, issue of
Law and Contemporary Problems, Duke University Law School, Durham, N. C. Con-
tains the following 13 articles relating to Railroad Reorganization:
The Development of Railway Corporate Structures.
J. W. Barriger, III, chief examiner, Railroad Division, Reconstruction Finance
Corporation.
372 Records and Accounts
The Background and Techniques of Equity and Bankruptcy Railroad Reorganiza-
tions; A Survey.
Warner Fuller, professor, Washington University School of Law.
Progress and Delay in Railroad Reorganizations Since 1933.
F. D. Dembitz, attorney, Reconstruction Finance Corporation.
Some Financial and Economic Problems in Railroad Reorganizations.
Joseph R. Warner, railroad financial analyst, Newark, N. J.
The Relative Treatment of Securities in Railroad Reorganizations Under
Section 77.
H. J. Friendly and L. M. Tondel, Jr., attorneys, Root, Clark, Buckner &
Ballantine.
The Case for a Special Railroad Reorganization Court.
C. M. Clay, assistant general counsel. Reconstruction Finance Corporation.
The Judicial and Administration Mechanism of Section 77.
Leslie Craven, attorney. Miller, Owen, Otis & Bailly.
The Representation of Security Holders' Interests Under Section 77.
Wm. G. Fennell, attorney, Cadwalader, Wickersham & Taft.
Labor's Interest in Railroad Reorganization.
A. F. Whitney, president. Brotherhood of Railroad Trainmen.
Protecting the User Interest in Railroad Reorganization.
A. B. Rood, executive research director. Old Colony Commuters & Shippers
League.
The Problems of the Leased Line.
John F. Meek, Jr., assistant professor, Yale School of Law.
The Voluntary Adjustment of Railroad Obligations.
Hubert L. Will, attorney, U. S. Department of Justice.
The Purchase by Railroads of Their Own Obligations.
R. T. Swaine, attorney, Cravath, deGersdorff, Swaine & Wood.
6. Recent Developments in the Field of PubUc Utility Valuation and Accounting.
Report of Special Committee American Bar Association, 32 pages, 1140 North Dearborn
Street, Chicago.
7. Rate of Capitalizing Railroad Earnings to Establish a Valuation for Property
Taxation. N. H. Jacoby — Journal of Business, University of Chicago. 13: 158-71, April
1940.
8. Transition of Depreciation Accounting; How Public Service Commission and
Wisconsin Utilities have met this problem. A. R. Colbert, Journal Land and Public
Utility Economics, 16: 129-36. May 1940.
\
Records and Accounts 373
Report on Assignment 3
Office and Drafting Room Practices
D. C. Teal (chairman, subcommittee), B. A. Bertenshaw, D. E. Field, A. T. Hopkins,
C. D. Johnson, W. M. Ludolph, E. W. Metcalf, F. M. Spiegel, H. C. Wertenberger.
The schedule of subjects assigned and reported on herein is as follows:
(a) Drafting equipment and tools
(b) Specifications of materials to be used for drawings and drafting
(c) Standard system for filing drawings
The basic information for these studies has been developed through the medium
of a questionnaire submitted to 58 Class I railroads. In general, the practices described
and recommended are those of the majority of the users.
(a) Drafting Equipment and Tools
A report on this topic was made at the March, 1940, convention and published in
the Proceedings, Vol. 41, pages 454 to 456, as information. It contains a list of the
drafting tools ordinarily owned by the draftsman and also the items of equipment usually
furnished by the railroad. General recommendations were made for selection of new
equipment.
After reviewing the subject matter again, your committee is of the opinion that the
report submitted in 1940 adequately covers the assignment. It is recommended that the
subject be discontinued.
(b) Specifications of Materials To Be Used for Drawings and Drafting
The most commonly used materials in drawing and drafting work are drawing,
tracing and blueprint papers and cloths, pencils, inks, water colors and erasers.
To judge drawing materials correctly is very difficult as most of the important
qualities can be measured only with the aid of special instruments constructed for this
purpose. An experienced draftsman may be able to select a drawing paper in regard to
its surface, erasing quality and transparency ; however, for most of the other properties
such as wearing quality and permanence, he is obliged to rely on his own past experience
or trust that the material ordered will conform to the small sample he has been shown.
In choosing drawing materials, it is necessary to keep in mind whether they are to
be used for pencil, ink, or water color work, for indoor or outdoor use, and whether the
drawings are to be permanent or temporary records. As the materials used become an
integral part of the finished drawing, in theory, their general quality should balance and
be consistent with the permanence and importance of the work to be done. However, it
is not practical in railroad work to keep large amounts or a wide selection of drawing
supplies on hand. Regardless of initial good quality, most of them deteriorate to some
extent with age. Although theoretically it would be well to have a selection that will
cover all possible needs, in practice, this would necessitate keeping numerous items on
hand which would be used infrequently. It is common practice and common sense to
order drawing room supplies monthly, limiting the selection to those types whose gen-
eral quality and properties are adapted to the major requirements of the work to be done.
The table lists the most commonly used drawing materials together with the special
factors to be considered when ordering them, with general all-round utility in mind.
374
Records and Accounts
Factors Influencing the Selection of Drawing Materials
Item
Drawing papers and cloths
Tracing papers and cloths
Profile and cross-section
papers and cloths
Print papers and cloths
Drawing pencils
Colored pencils
Waterproof drawing inks and
water colors
Erasers
Properties to Consider
Surface (for taking pencil or ink)
Erasing quality (to suit major requirements)
Color (for eye strain and to suit other requirements)
Wearing quality (to suit major requirements)
Permanency (to suit major requirements)
Formation (to suit major requirements)
Cleanliness (to suit major requirements)
Transparency (for tracing work and for making prints)
Surface (for taking pencil or ink)
Erasing quality (to suit major requirements)
Wearing quality (to suit major requirements)
Permanency (to suit major requirements)
Surface (for taking pencil or ink)
Permanency (special resistance to shrinkage or expan-
sion to protect accuracy of engraving line work)
Transparency (for making prints)
Color of engraving lines (for eyestrain)
Wearing quaUty (resistance to rough handling and
folding)
Permanency (body resistance to shrinkage or expansion
to protect accuracy)
Chemical treatment of surface (Permanency and reten-
tion of color of background or Unas)
Ability to make clean black lines
Strength and uniformity of lead
Opaqueness of lines (for tracing work)
Ability to make clean distinct lines
Contrast and vividness of colors
Strength and uniformity of lead
Indelible versus other types (Indelible pencils should not
be used on drawings or prints that are for outdoor
service, because of possibility of getting wet.)
Opaqueness (for tracing work)
Ability to make clean, distinct lines
Permeating tendencies
Ease of erasing
Ability to erase without damage to texture of paper or
cloth
Uniformity of materials
Operating speed and effectiveness
According to questionnaire answers, it is universal practice among all American
railroads to order drawing materials by requisitions on the general storekeeper, the sta-
tionery department or direct on the purchasing agent. Requisitions state the trade name
and catalog reference of the brand preferred with a note to the effect that acceptable
substitutes will be considered in order to allow competitive bidding. Everyday items such
as drawing paper, tracing cloth, pencils, etc., are usually ordered on the basis of past
experience, while innovations are selected from samples submitted by the manufacturer.
The standardized commodities are usually purchased in sufficient quantities to obtain
price advantages. Blueprint paper is often contracted for yearly at an agreed price, orders
being placed from time to time as paper is needed.
Records and Accounts 375
A wide selection of drawing materials is now available from old established and
reputable dealers. Prices are in keeping with the quahty and are adequately controlled
by the competition between the manufacturers.
Your committee has been unable to find any instance in either railroad work or
other industries where specifications have been used for the ordering of drafting mate-
rials. In this connection, it should be noted that their production is highly specialized
work which is confined to a relatively few reptuable manufacturers. All of the papers
and cloths and most of the instruments are registered with the U. S. Patent Office. The
special materials and patented processes used to produce these "trade mark" goods are in
reahty the specifications for them.
Conclusions
Except for requirements laid down to the paper mills by the drawing supply com-
panies, no specifications are now in use or available for the ordering of drawing and
drafting materials.
The present almost universal practice of ordering "trade name" materials by catalog
reference and from samples, limiting the selection to standard types having general quality
and properties suited to the major requirements of the office, is quite satisfactory for
railroad work.
It is considered unnecessary and impractical to attempt the preparation of definite
specifications at this time for the ordering of drawing materials.
The report is presented as information with the recommendation that the subject be
discontinued.
(c) Standard System for Filing Drawings
Railroad drawings are the records of land ownership, tracks, bridges, buildings,
equipment and other work. They are valuable as permanent records, and are also needed
frequently for reference when planning new facilities and for handling routine business.
It follows that they should be filed in a safe place as well as in a manner to make
them easily accessible.
Drawings should be filed efficiently and systematically, but how? One railroad draft-
ing room has one type of equipment, the next one another. Drawings are indexed alpha-
betically, geographically and numerically. They are stored in vertical filing cases, in flat
horizontal drawer cabinets, and in pigeonhole tubes. The methods used depend partly
upon the type of filing equipment that is available and, while systems may vary as to
details, they are usually alike in certain essentials.
In the larger sense to which this report is dedicated, filing involves three things.
1. Numbering and coding
2. Indexing
3. Filing equipment
Numbering and Coding
As indicated by the phrasing, the numbering and coding of drawings are usually
so combined and correlated that they have to be considered as one operation.
The drawing number serves two purposes, (1) for easy identification and (2) for
locating in the storage files. As they are completed, the drawings are assigned numbers
that embody code letters or symbols to indicate where they are to be kept. The number
thus becomes the intermediary agent between the card index catalog and the fiHng cabinet.
The storage equipment, of course, has to be identified and labeled in accordance with
the system used.
376 Records and Accounts
Most offices number serially, starting from one. However, there are others that start
new numbers with each individual file case.
The filing information may be placed at the beginning or it may be at the end of
the main number. In the latter case, Drawing No. 1234-A-IV-a would indicate that
Drawing 1234 belongs in cabinet "A", drawer "IV", compartment "a". In some cases
only the drawers and their compartments are identified. Drawing No. 1234-A-l would
here belong in drawer A, compartment 1. This plan is feasible in smaller offices and when
the equipment is suitable. The flat drawer, sectional type cabinets, to which new sec-
tions can be added as needed, are adaptable to this scheme.
One railroad with two types of filing equipment distinguishes between pigeonhole
and drawer filing by prefixing a "Ph" or "Dr" to the number. The range of numbers
contained is posted over each receptacle. In this manner Drawing Ph-2012 would be filed
in the pigeonhole marked Ph-2000 to Ph-2025.
In another office, new numbers are started for each cabinet and the filing cases are
identified by letters. Here, drawings with numbers prefixed by the letter "A" are filed
in cabinet "A" and those with prefix "B", in cabinet "B". This scheme obviates the use
of large numbers.
One railroad files its small letter-sized drawings in looseleaf type file binders. The
drawings are identified by book and page numbers. Drawing No. B-S, P-100 is filed in
book S, page 100.
Besides identifying the drawing and locating it in the files, the drawing number
often contains other coded information. Sometimes the prefix letters indicate the depart-
ment in which the drawing was prepared. Symbols used by one railroad are:
C. E. = Chief engineer's office
B. = Bridge department
S. D. ^ Signal department
W.S.=:: Water supply department
When such prefixes are used, the filing information is necessarily placed last. Draw-
ing No. S. D.-1000-D-2 would be a drawing prepared by the Signal department, filed in
cabinet D, drawer or compartment 2.
On another railroad, where all drawings are under the jurisdiction of the chief engi-
neer, prefix letters are used to indicate the general class of the drawing, for example:
A ■=z Architectural drawing
B := Bridge drawings
C = Coaling plant drawings
D = Dams
S = Signal drawings
Here again the filing information appears at the end of the main number.
Another method used to indicate the general class is to allot a series of numbers to
each. In one office, drawing numbers 0 to 9,999 are assigned to buildings, 10,000 to
19,999 are for bridge drawings, etc.
There is, however, one class of drawing for which all railroads use the same num-
bering system, namely, for the identification of right-of-way and track maps (valuation
maps) as prescribed by the ICC in accordance with Section 19A of the Act to Regulate
Commerce — second issue, effective January 1, 1933. The ICC instructions are included
in the "Specifications for Preparation of Maps and Profiles", appearing as Article 207
on page 11-66 of the Manual.
R e c ords and Accounts 377
Indexing
Filing always involves indexing and indexing means first of all, to catalog the
drawings on index cards or in ledgers, in such a manner that they can be quickly found.
This is usually accomplished by first hsting the drawing on a "master" numerical index
and then on other cards grouped according to location or by subject matter, recording the
drawing number, title and other pertinent data, and making cross references where nec-
essary. The master or numerical index is used principally for keeping track of the last
number assigned. It is also indispensable for locating plans which have been referred
to by number only.
The location and general subject indexes supplement the master numerical index.
They are the ones most used for looking up drawings.
Building and track layout drawings are usually grouped and catalogued according to
city or village location with the index cards arranged alphabetically. Bridge drawings,
because of their "in between town" locations are indexed according to mile post location
and district, subdivision or valuation section, with cards arranged serially or geo-
graphically. Profiles and track charts are also catalogued in this manner.
Standard drawings, which illustrate items of equipment and recommended con-
struction methods, are best indexed by subject matter. Standard drawings as a rule
require more cross references than the others.
One railroad uses a colored card system for grouping.
White cards are for station, track and right-of-way maps
Blue for contract plans
Green for lease plans
Yellow for deed plans
Buff for profiles
The ICC specifications for the preparation of right-of-way and track maps do not
require that they be catalogued in any special manner ; however, most railroads have
found it expedient to make a geographical and alphabetical cross index for them. This is
usually in ledger or bound book form. With such an index and knowing either the mile
post, valuation section, or town location, it is an easy matter to find the proper drawing.
It is important that sufficient data be posted on the index cards to thoroughly
identify the drawing and to make it unnecessary to pull out three or four from the
files before finding the right one. Sometimes the descriptive matter is so vague as to
cause inefficient office routine. The essential information required by all systems is:
1. Drawing number and fifing reference
2. Title (Additional quahfying or descriptive information here will assist in recog-
nizing the plan wanted.)
3. Scale, if any
4. Date
5. Type of drawing (cloth tracing, paper tracing, blueprint, etc.)
Supplementing the above information, some offices note additional data, such as:
6. Reasons for preparation, or purpose, such as:
a. Proposed
b. As built
c. Retirement
7. Revision dates
8. Maker of plan
9. Office where made
378 Records and Accounts
Filing Equipment
Filing equipment is generally described in terms of the kind of storage that is
provided, or as vertical, horizontal and roll.
The vertical type cabinet can be used for the storage of both large and small
drawings. The drawings are grouped according to size and placed in folders of appro-
priate dimensions. The smaller folders are held upright in slot-partitioned drawers and
the larger ones hung in box-like cases. Total storage capacity is quite large, with each
folder holding about fifty tracings. This system is particularly convenient when it is
desired to group together complete sets of plans for a large construction job. Right-of-
way and track maps (valuation maps) are usually stored in this manner.
Horizontal drawer cabinets are more commonly used than any other type of filing
equipment. The flat drawers, partitioned to suit different size drawings, are well suited
for the filing of active, semi-active or inactive drawings. New sectional units can be
added when necessary to increase storage capacity. The shallow drawers permit quick
handling with but little wear and tear on the tracings.
In the Proceedings for 1938, Vol. 39, pages 659 and 660, is shown a partitioning
arrangement of flat, horizontal drawers to suit different sizes of drawings. The partitions
are made with thin wood strips fastened to the bottom and sides of the drawers. In
practice, it has been found advisable to partition off only three or four drawers at a
time. Then, as existing compartments become filled, new partitions can be installed to
suit the sizes required.
While roll filing is especially adapted to long or odd sized drawings, this method
can be used for all sizes and is done in drawer style cabinets as well as pigeonhole
cabinets or shelves.
Some offices use only one type of filing equipment; others combine the use of the
three. Approximately SO percent of the railroads own vertical units. All of them own
and use some kind of horizontal and roll filing equipment.
It is found impractical to classify filing cabinets according to sizes as each drafting
organization has to provide for its own individual requirements.
Filing calls for other specialized equipment such as index card files, guides, etc.
Filing equipment of all kinds is now obtainable in stock sizes that will suit almost any
requirements. Units are now advertised that combine all three methods of filing in
addition to having special box compartments for card indexes and shelves for the storage
of field notebooks.
Conclusions
It cannot be said that one method is always better than another because that which
is best suited to the individual needs of one office might not be so well adapted to
another. Each system has its special features and advantages.
The portion of the report presented above is offered as information.
Supplemental Subjects
In addition to the assigned work, your committee has reviewed two subjects reported
on previously, for possible Manual inclusions.
Welding Symbols
At the present time there are no welding symbols in the Manual.
The American Welding Society has recently developed a new code of welding sym-
bols which is now being considered for adoption as an American standard. Recognizing
Records and Accounts 379
the authority of the American Welding Society, it is believed desirable to have its
symbols available for drafting room use. However, until such time as they have been
adopted by the American Standards Association, these symbols will be subject to revi-
sions. To avoid having material in the Manual which might soon be out of date, it is
proposed to include only a reference. Your committee recommends that the following
information be published in the Manual on page 11-98:
WELDING SYMBOLS
It is recommended that the symbols of the American Welding Society be used.
These symbols together with instructions for their use are pubhshed in bulletin form and
may be obtained from the American Welding Society.
Style To Be Used in the Preparation of Reports and Specifications
In the Proceedings for 1938, Vol. 39, there is a report entitled "Style To Be Used in
the Preparation of Reports and Specifications". This report was originally presented as
information but with the understanding that it would be reviewed and considered for
inclusion in the Manual.
Your committee recommends that the material shown in Proceedings for 1938.
Vol. 39, pages 661 to 669, inclusive, be published in the Manual as pages 11-121 to
11-129, inclusive.
Report on Assignment 4
Recommended Practice To Be Followed with Respect to Mainte-
nance of Way Accounts and Statistical Requirements
H. L. Restall (chairman, subcommittee), Anton Anderson, E. V. Braden, W. F. Cum-
mings, C. D. Johnson, W. M. Ludolph, W. S. McFetridge, A. T. Powell, D. C. Teal.
The committee has had under study this year a system of recording the physical
characteristics and location of certain types of electrical equipment, and now has under
consideration the enlarging of the assignment to embrace other kinds of physical prop-
erty to be covered by a uniform system of recording.
Report on Assignment 6 (a)
Resume of Developments of the Current Year in Connection With
Regulatory Bodies and the Courts
S. H. Barnhart (chairman, subcommittee), F. B. Baldwin, H. D. Barnes, B. A. Berten-
shaw, W. C. Bolin, V. H. Doyle, D. E. Field, C. C. Haire, H. N. Halper; R. J. Her-
ring, A. T. Hopkins, W. R. Kettenring, E. M. Killough, C. A. Knowles, P. R. Leete,
D. O. Lyle, W. S. MacCulloch, W. S. McFetridge, H. L. Restall, H. J. Stroebel, V. P.
Turnburke, H. C. Wertenberger, Louis Wolf.
The Transportation Act of 1940, approved September 18, 1940, which amended in
many particulars the existing Interstate Commerce Act, carried forward without change
the entire Valuation Act. The ICC appropriation for the fiscal year beginning July 1,
380 Records and Accounts
1940, includes $640,000 for its Bureau of Valuation, the same amount as for the previous
two years. On October 1, 1940, the total force of the bureau numbered 188 employees.
By its order of January 1, 1940, the ICC increased from $100 to $500 the minimum
amount to be charged to the Investment in Road and Equipment Account for property
changes, which will result in reducing the number of minor items which must be handled
in valuation reporting where carriers exercise the option permitted under the order.
During the year 1939 Class I carriers charged to Account 459, Valuation Expenses,
an amount of $425,589, contrasted with $623,463 for the year 1938.
Carriers have been engaged in filing with the Bureau of Valuation reports required
by Valuation Order No. 3, consisting of returns on B. V. Form 588, which contain the
details of property changes necessary to bringing previous engineering inventories for-
ward to new valuation dates. These returns are likewise utilized by the Land and
Accounting Sections to revise their land reports and estimates of original cost, respectively.
As of October 1, 1940, all Class I carriers had filed these returns through the year 1935;
98 percent, through 1936; 87 percent, through the year 1937; 69 percent, through the
year 1938; and 26 percent, through the year 1939, or were approximately 93 percent*
current. In order to have the information necessary to bring their underlying valuation
figures to current dates, the director of valuation requested Class I carriers to file
returns on B. V. Form 589, Summary of Annual Charges and Credits to Investment in
Road and Equipment Account, for those years where report on Form B. V. 588 was not
rendered.
The Engineering Section of the Bureau of Valuation, having completed revised inven-
tories for all Class I carriers through 1927, is engaged in bringing these inventories for-
ward to later dates and as of October 1 had completed 64 percent of the mileage through
1932; 41 percent through 1934; 13 percent through 1936; and 2 percent through 1938,
or approximately 59 percent* current. The work of the Accounting Section in preparing
summaries of original costs and that of the Land Section in revising land valuations have
advanced to about 56 percent* and 58 percent*, respectively.
No tentative valuations as of current dates were completed and served on railroad
companies, but at the request of the commission, the bureau brought to date the under-
lying valuation estimates of carriers involved in reorganization proceedings. In some in-
stances, reports were prepared showing a property breakdown by mortgage districts. In
a number of cases, carriers checked these estimates of original cost, cost of reproduction
new, less depreciation, and land values.
At the direction of the commission, the bureau also spent considerable time in work-
ing up estimates for use in a number of rate cases involving switching rates and also in
the Barge Line case involving line haul rates, hkewise in a number of cases involving
competitive truck and rail rates. Estimates were also prepared for a number of indi-
vidual roads relating to the amount of deferred maintenance, if any, for use in pending
cases.
During the year the Bureau of Valuation completed and issued its final valuations
on pipe line carriers inventoried as of December 31, 1934, which was the original valua-
tion date. A summary showing the more important findings in these valuations, has been
prepared by the bureau. Copies of the summary may be procured from Mr. E. H. Bun-
nell, vice-president, Finance, Accounting, Taxation and Valuation Department, AAR,
Washington, D. C. The bureau also started the initial work of inventorying the property
of those pipe line companies added to its program since 1934 and served a few tentative
valuations, and issued some final reports, prepared as of varying dates from 1937
through 1939.
Based on 5,750,000 mile-years from basic valuation through 1939.
— H
1
Line
No.
1.
i 6
CI
10
11
12
13
iA.
il
16
18
11.
?0
21
22
2U
Ul_
RECORD OF BALLAST CHANGES
(Name of Road)
AFE I Date
--' I (0 I (^) I (o)
iTotal Cu.YdsJ
.-J X-.
CUBIC
YARDS
_1_.
J2L
(W
(9)
(11)
im
(16)
JiiL
AML
17 inches. All lines and printing black. Form may be printed as perforated sheet for bindinj;
ord card.
• 21 .
m
;g^ j
m
general locatit
feet; To static
INSTRCCTIOXS FOR USE OF FORM—
This form may be used for recording ballast changes or as a continuing record of ballast inventory.
The spaces in the top of the form (above the column ruling) may be used for recording the key infor
Recording Separately Each Mile oj a Group of Miles on One Sheet oj Form:
Use columns 2 and 3 for location and description of project.
Columns 4 and 5 are for recording AFE number and date.
Columns 6. 7 and 8 may be used for such data as kind of ballast, source of ballast, average haul, e
Show in the upper caption space of column 9 (reading downward). Mile; Length feet; From station
for recording for each mile the Mile number; Length; Station; Flus; Station; and Plus.
Line 1 should be used to designate (in any selected descriptive column) and to record in each of the columns 10 to 18, inclusive. 1
computed in accordance with adopted standard. Column 9 should record the total yardage shown in columns 10 to 18. inclusive.
Show on line 2 (0=- as many of following lines as may be required) and in appropriate columns the "Basic Inventory of ballast.
Enter in successive order on line 3 (or line next following "Basic Inventory") and following lines changes as they occur.
Additions and retirement quantities may be entered in same column by indicating retirements in red.
Totals may be made of ballast in track at any desired date.
TL^Sre^Sge'I"'oXnS ma'J'brmade of'ihe form when use_d as a continuing record of ballast inventory or when used for recording .ballast changes only, except
only the "Basic Inventory" of ballast and the quanf "
' other designati
feet. The corresponding upper caption
he cubic yard.^ of ballast for each
reported on the sheet.
spaces of colu
iiile (length in feet
10 to 18. inclusivi
) recorded on the
nputed
Recording as a Whole a Substantial Stretch 0} Track on One Sheet of Form:
U« columns 2 and 3 for designating changed portion.
Columns 4 and 5 are for recording AFE number and date. .
Columns 6. 7 and 8 may be used for such data as description of project
Sbftw the kinds of ballast in the upper caption spaces of colui
Line I should be used to designate (in any selected descriptiv.
standard section.
Show on line 2 and in appropriate coluk.i..3 n.^ ■- ,
Enter, in .ucpsive order on line i and following l.nes^chang« J. they ^_„. ^^,^^^^^__^ _„ ^^^
Additions and reurement quantities may be entered in sam** coiu
Totals m.y be made of ballast m track at ^"y^gf [^f J^^'J^„ ^.ed as a continuing record of ballast in
The same usage_ as outlined may be made of^the lorm^when ^^^^^^^^^ -^ accordance with the adopted
continuing record of ballast inventory — _
in accordance with the adopted standard section may not be needed.
Inventory" of ballast.
of ballast, average haul of ballast, etc. .
Musive. Column 9 should record the total yardage shown m columns U
record in column 9 the total cubic yards of ballast in the stretch of 1
that when used for recording ballast changes
sheet computed in accordance with adoptrd
only the ■Ba'.ic In
fpl that when um-J foi
Records and Accounts 381
Various joint cost data committees composed of the commission's valuation engi-
neers and railroad representatives continued their study of the more important items
entering into railroad construction in an endeavor to keep informed as to the current
trends, and their reports and conclusions were circularized among the carriers. The Joint
Equipment committee completed and issued its report entitled, "Costs of Railroad Equip-
ment and Machinery," which contains the cost data summaries for all types of equipment
for which cost data have been published and, likewise, all tables of average relationships
of costs appearing in its previous reports, thereby giving complete coverage for the years
1920-1939. The 1939 edition of "Railroad Construction Indices" was prepared and re-
leased by the Bureau of Valuation. Copies of these reports may be obtained from Mr.
E. H. Bunnell, vice-president. Finance, Accounting, Taxation and Valuation Department,
AAR, Washington, D. C.
Court Decisions
There were no noteworthy decisions by the U. S. Supreme Court involving valuation
issues since the last report was written.
A number of utility cases involving rates were litigated in state courts, but no new
issues were presented. Many states are adopting the continuous inventory system, similar
to that adopted by the ICC for railroads, which has proved effective in reducing the time
and effort required in making revaluations of utility properties for regulatory purposes.
Report on Assignment 6 (b)
ICC Valuation Orders, Reports and Records
(Subcommittee personnel same as for Assignment 6 (a))
Further study has been made of the subject, Forms for a Record of Ballast Changes.
With the aid of suggestions and forms submitted by members of the committee a general
form has been developed. Modifications of this form are now in use and are satisfactory.
This form, designated as Record of Ballast Changes, is submitted as Exhibit 1, and it is
recommended that it be adopted as recommended practice and published in the Manual
as Form No. 1114-A, page 11-23.1.
The committee has given continued study and consideration during the year to the
subject, Study of Valuation Order No. 3 Reports and Records to Determine if Further
Simplifications Are Possible. While several suggestions as to simphfications have been
considered, there is nothing of major importance to be included in this report.
The subject. Form of Order No. 3 Reports in Connection with Joint Projects,
Federal-Railroad has been given continued consideration, but due to difficulties with
respect to the classification of such property, it has not been possible to develop a
conclusion.
382
Records and Accounts
Report on Assignment 7
Report Upon Changes In, Revisions and Interpretations o£,
ICC Accounting Classifications
H. D. Barnes (chairman, subcommittee), F. B. Baldwin, S. H. Barnhart, W. C. Bolin,
C. C. Haire, J. H. Hande, R. J. Herring, W. R. Kettenring, Henry Lehn, W. M.
Ludolph, O. M. Miles, H. L. Restall, C. P. Richardson, V. P. Turnburke.
Your committee has continued the review of proposed accounting rulings or orders
submitted by the ICC Bureau of Accounts in subject form as outlined in the Proceedings
for 1939, Vol. 40, page 746. Summaries of the opinions of the members of the entire
committee have been furnished by Mr. E. H. Bunnell, vice-president, AAR, for the
following:
ICC Bureau
of Accounts
Subject No. Subject
197 Revised Proposed order modifying Investment in Road and Equipment Account 41,
Cost of Road Purchased, cancellation of Account 42, Reconstruction of
Road Purchased, and creation of new Account 42, Difference between
• the Investment and the Money Outlay for Construction and Improve-
ment of Property Acquired.
This proposal has since been revised and is now before this
committee for further consideration.
220 Revised Proposed order modifying the last two paragraphs of Section 2 of General
Instructions in Classification of Investment in Road and Equipment
defining "cost"; modifying text of Road and Equipment Account 2 J/2
and Note A to Account 39 and addition of note to Account 754.
225 Revised Proposed order amending paragraph 1 of General Instructions in Classifi-
cation of Investment in Road and Equipment; modifying text of
Account 701 and adding Note C thereunder.
241 Proposed order modifying the title and text of General Balance Sheet,
Account 702, Improvements on Leased Railway Property.
243 Proposed "A" case prescribing the accounting for the cost of excavation
through existing embankments to install bridges or culverts.
245 Proposed order cancelling fourth paragraph of Road and Equipment
Account 76, Interest During Construction, change in Note B, and addi-
tion of new Note E thereunder, cancelling Case 177 of Accounting
Bulletin No. 15.
257 Proposed order modifying paragraph (c) of Section 4 of General Instruc-
tions in Classification of Investment in Road and Equipment relating
to "cost of work train service", by ehminating rent for carrier's own
equipment used in construction service.
261 Proposed order modifying texts of Account 21, Grain Elevators, 22, Stor-
age Warehouses of the Classification of Investment in Road and Equip-
ment with appropriate changes in the Classification of Operating
Revenues and Expenses and in the text of Account 70S, Miscellaneous
Physical Property.
Records and Accounts 383
In addition to the above mentioned subjects the following were in the hands of the
committee for review at the time this report was prepared:
ICC Bureau
of Accounts
Subject No. Subject
247 Revised Proposed order modifying Sections 7 and 8 of the General Instructions in
the Classification of Investment in Road and Equipment, to provide
that all retirements of road property, except important sections of the
main line, or a branch line, shall be charged to operating expenses.
253 Revised Proposed order modifying the Classification of Investment in Road and
Equipment, and Operating Revenues and Operating Expenses to pro-
vide that the total cost of all additions and betterments to existing
tracks, except the installation of ballast in tracks not previously bal-
lasted, shall be charged to operating expenses.
258 Proposed order modifying the Classification of Investment in Road and
Equipment, and Operating Revenues and Operating Expenses to sub-
stitute the "Group Method" for the "Unit Method" of depreciation
accounting as an optional provision.
263 Proposed order modifying the instructions under General Account II,
Equipment in the Classification of Investment in Road and Equipment
to define "rebuilt equipment".
Since this committee's last report (Proceedings for 1940, Vol. 41, pages 472 to 474),
ICC has issued the following orders modifying the accounting classifications:
Order dated December 6, 1939, concelling Account 25, Gas Producing Plants, 245,
Gas Producing Plants and 246 Gas Producing Plants — Depreciation; making
numerous changes in certain Income and General Balance Sheet Accounts; and
modifying Cases 196 and 221 of Accounting Bulletin No. 15.
Order dated January 17, 1940, modifying the text of Account 101, Freight of
the Classification of Operating Revenues and Operating Expenses by the addi-
tion of Note G prescribing sub-accounts for payments for pick up and
delivery services and switching services when performed in connection with
line haul transportation of freight.
Order dated January 17, 1940, modifying the answer to Section (b) of the answer
to Case 186, Accounting Bulletin No. IS to read, "To Account 2, Land for
Transportation Purposes".
Order dated January 31, 1940, effective January 1, 1940 revising the minimum
rule in the Classification of Investment in Road and Equipment from .'flOO to
$500. A carrier may adopt a minimum less than $500 if it first files with the
commission the amount which it proposes to adopt.
Order dated March 12, 1940, modifying the text of Income Accounts 503 and 536.
Order dated September 30, 1940, effective January 1, 1941, modifying the title
and text of Account 702, Improvements on Leased Railway Property; modi-
fication of item included in Account 3, Grading, the text of Account 102,
Passenger, the title and text of Account 103, Excess Baggage, the text of
Account 108, Other Passenger-Train, the text of Account 775, Accrued De-
preciation-Road; cancellation of Accounts 713, Traffic and Car-service Bal-
ances Receivable; 759, Traffic and Car-service Balances Payable, and 771, Tax
Liability; and the addition of new Accounts 713, Traffic and Car-service Bal-
384 Records and Accounts
ances-Dr., 759, Traffic and Car-service Balances-Cr., and 767, Accrued Tax
Liability. The numbers of Accounts 766 and 767 are changed to 764 and 766,
respectively; Cases 144 and 246 of Accounting Bulletin No. 15 are cancelled
and the answer to Case 80, same document, is modified; and Section 23 of
Special Instructions for Operating Expenses is cancelled.
Order dated October 17, 1940, effective January 1, 1941, amending Section 1 of
General Instructions in Classification of Investment in Road and Equipment
and modifying text of Account 701, Investment in Road and Equipment, and
adding Note C thereto; cancellation of Accounts 709 and 710 and modification
of Accounts 708, 712 and new Account 709, Temporary Cash Investments
prescribed.
In addition to these orders the Bureau of Accounts has released the following new
and revised accounting rulings:
Issued January 1, 1940
Case A-4 — Revised. Accounting for amounts received from pipe line companies
and others for rights to construct and maintain pipe lines on a carrier's right-
of-way.
Case A-6^ — -Revised. Accounting for exchange of land both when there is and when
there is not a cash transaction.
Case A-16 — Revised. Accounting for a carrier's liability for an award under the
Workmen's Compensation Act.
Case A-34- — Revised. Accounting for taxes on jointly used and jointly owned
property.
Case A-7S — Revised. Accounting for loss due to depreciation of rail and other
track material returned to stock after having been leased.
Case A-132 — Revised. Accounting for income taxes on interest on tax free bonds
assumed by the accounting company and income taxes withheld in payment
of interest to non-resident aliens.
Case A-153. Accounting for payroll taxes assessed under the provisions of the
Social Security Act (or Railroad Unemployment Insurance Act) and the Car-
rier's Taxing Act of 1937 based on the payroll of a carrier's employees and
added to the cost of labor performed for others in connection with joint
facility arrangement and otherwise.
Issued March 1, 1940
Case A-154. Accounting for additional fill and new ballast applied in raising the
grade of track and for existing ballast material retained in the embankment.
Case A-15S. Accounting for compensation received by a carrier for performance
of services in connection with the administration of the Railroad Unemploy-
ment Insurance Act.
Case A-156. Accounting for purchase of equipment under conditional sale con-
tract which provides for the transfer of title upon performance of all obliga-
tions thereunder.
Case A-1S7. Accounting for the cost of excavation through existing embankments
to install bridges or culverts.
Records and Accounts 385
Issued May 1, 1940
Case A-95. Cancelled. This case was in connection with the accounting for the
maturity of receiver's certificates.
Case A-1S8. Interpretation of Section 7 of Special Instructions to Balance Sheet
Accounts.
Issued July 1, 1940
Case A-29. Cancelled. This case covered the accounting for funds deposited with
insurance companies to insure performance of contracts.
Case A-128. Cancelled. This case pertained to the accounting for services per-
• formed by one carrier for another in lieu of the continuation of operation of
trackage rights by the latter.
Case A-159. Accounting for the sale of second hand passenger coaches requiring
repairs to place them in serviceable condition.
The Bureau of Accounts by Accounting Series Circular dated March 20, 1940,
requires all steam carriers to inventory their materials and suppUes for the year 1940
and annually thereafter unless otherwise directed.
The effective date of the proposed order of the ICC covering the accounting for bal-
last (ICC Bureau of Accounts Subject No. 232) has been withheld and the vice-president
of the Finance, Accounting, Taxation and Valuation Department of the AAR is handhng
the negotiations between individual carriers and the ICC Bureau of Valuation.
During the year the F.A.T.&V. Department of the AAR has prepared in convenient
loose leaf form a reprint of Accounting Bulletin No. IS corrected to date, together with
the "A" cases and appropriate indices.
This report is submitted as information with the recommendation that the subject
be continued.
Report on Assignment 8
Methods of Avoiding Duplication of Reports and for Simplifying
and Coordinating Work Under the Requirements of the ICC
and Other Public Authorities
F. B. Baldwin (chairman, subcommittee), H. D. Barnes, S. H. Barnhart, H. N. Halper,
C. A. Knowles, P. R. Leete, D. O. Lyle, W. S. MacCulloch, Louis Wolf.
During the year your committee has maintained contact with those departments or
committees of the AAR and other railroad committees charged with the responsibility of
deaUng with those bureaus and departments of the government requiring reports from
railroads. These committees have presented the railroad viewpoint in contemplated
changes or expansion of requirements and have endeavored to keep the requirements
within reasonable limits, and where possible have secured some simplification or elimina-
tion of those that are onerous.
On the other hand, the information required by the Railroad Retirement and Un-
employment Insurance acts has added to the number of reports demanded of railroads;
also the activities of the Bureau of Statistics on the subject of cost finding have added to
the work of the railroads in supplying data.
In at least two states, the requirements of the state commissions are being met in
part by furnishing copies of reports to the ICC required under Valuation Order No. 3, in
lieu of separate reports prepared on forms prescribed by the state commission.
386 Records and Accounts
The Corporation Commission of Oklahoma, for many years, has required a quar-
terly filing of copies of roadway completion reports with sketches or prints showing work
completed; also, an accounting statement, by primary accounts, of the net expenditures
for the state as a whole. For the past several years the commission has been accepting a
blue print copy of the report on B. V. Form No. S88-R for the state as filed with the
ICC, in lieu of the completion reports and summaries thereof. The saving of the expense
of preparing and fihng copies of large numbers of completion reports is substantial.
The Minnesota Railroad and Warehouse Commission in 1939, agreed to accept a
copy of the carriers' reports to the ICC showing equipment changes on B. V. Form
No. S88-R and Subschedule "B", amended to give the total salvage recovered from
equipment retired, by primary accounts, in lieu of a detailed annual report of the addi-
tions and retirements of the units of equipment on special forms furnished by the state
commission for that purpose. The substitution of the report required by the ICC under
Valuation Order No. 3 for the special state report and the records necessary for its
preparation has resulted in a substantial saving to the carriers.
As a matter of information the text of the ICC order dated November IS, 1940,
relative to its organization schedule and assignment of work and functions under amended
Section 17 of the Interstate Commerce Act is presented as Exhibit 2.
This report is submitted as information.
Exhibit 2
Order
At a General Session of the Interstate Commerce Commission, held at its office in
Washington, D. C, on November IS, 1940
Section 17 of the Interstate Commerce Act, as amended (U.S.C. title 49, sec. 17),
and other provisions of law being under consideration, the following order was duly
adopted:
Ordered: Effective December 2, 1940, except as may be otherwise provided herein,
the following organization schedule and assignment of work and functions shall be in
force:
Divisions of the Commission
That there continue to be, as at present, five divisions of the commission, known,
respectively, as divisions 1, 2, 3, 4 and S, consisting of three members each.
As provided by section 17 of the Interstate Commerce Act, as amended, each divi-
sion shall have authority to hear and determine, order, certify, report or otherwise act
as to any work, business, or functions assigned or referred to it under the provisions of
that section, and with respect thereto shall have all the jurisdiction and powers conferred
by law upon the commission, and be subject to the same duties and obligations.
Each division with regard to any case or matter assigned to it, or any question
brought to it under this delegation of duty and authority, may call upon the whole
commission for advice and counsel, or for consideration of any case or question by an
additional commissioner or commissioners assigned thereto ; and the commission may
recall and bring before it as such any case, matter or question so allotted or assigned and
may either dispose of such case, matter, or question itself, or may assign or refer the
matter to the same or another division.
Each division may determine the time and place for its conferences and determine its
order of business.
Records and Accounts 387
Assignment of Duties to Divisions
That work, business, and functions of the commission be assigned and referred to
the respective divisions for action thereon, as follows:
Division 1
General conduct of administrative matters not otherwise assigned or reserved, in-
cluding among other things, work formerly assigned to the following committees but
reassigned to Division 1 by the order of May 8, 1939: Salaries and Personnel, Finance,
Cooperation with State Commissions, Organization, Building and Assignment of Space,
Admissions to Practice, Reporting, and Annual Report.
Section 20 (1) to (10), inclusive, relating to the reports, records, and accounts of
carriers, lessors, and other persons under Part I.
Section 204 (a) (1), (2), and (4); section 220; and section 222 (b), (d), and (g),
so far as those sections relate to reports, records, and accounts of carriers, brokers, and
other persons under Part II.
Section 313, relating to accounts, records, and reports of carriers and lessors under
Part III.
Sections 1 (21), 5 (3), 6 (10) 10, 15 (11) and (12), 16 (8) to (12), inclusive;
20a (11) and (12), 25 (h), of Part I; section 222 of Part II; sections 316 (b) and 317 of
Part III, and the Elkins Act, as amended, so far as relating to discovery and enforcement
of penalties for violations of provisions of law.
Section 13 (3) of Part I, so far as relating to the institution of investigations speci-
fied in that paragraph, on the petition of the carrier or carriers concerned.
Section 304 (c), relating to classifications of groups of water carriers subject to
Part III and rules, regulations, and requirements relating thereto.
Section 204 (c) and section 304 (e), so far as relating to the investigation of com-
plaints of alleged non-compliance with provisions of Parts II and III hereinbefore as-
signed to Division 1 or requirements established pursuant thereto.
Matters coming from the Bureau of Personnel Supervision and Management under
Executive Order No. 7916, of June 24, 1938, and amendatory and supplementary Execu-
tive Orders and matters assigned to Division 1 by the order of the Commission of
July 24, 1939, amending an order of October 12, 1935.
Matters coming from the Bureau of Inquiry under Parts I and III, the Elkins Act,
and acts supplemental thereto, and the Clayton Antitrust Act, as amended, and from the
Section of Law and Enforcement of the Bureau of Motor Carriers, so far as relating to
the discovery of derelictions and enforcement of penal provisions of Part II.
Admission, disbarment, and suspension of practitioners before the commission, under
Rule I-B of the Rules of Practice.
Division 2
Section 4, relating to long-and-short-haul and aggregate-of-intermediate rates, and
relief therefrom.
Section 6, except paragraphs (11) and (12), relating to schedules of carriers under
Part I, sections 217 and 218, relating to tariffs of common carriers and schedules of con-
tract carriers under Part II, and section 306, relating to tariffs of common carriers and
schedules of contract carriers under Part III, including, among other matters, applications
thereunder, forms and specifications, and questions turning upon the construction or
application thereof.
Section 15 (7) of Part I, sections 216 (g) and 218 (c) of Part II, and section
307 (g) and (i) of Part III, relating to the disposition of applications for suspension of
schedules or parts thereof, including authority to institute investigations into rates, fares,
practices, and charges of carriers under Parts I, II, and III, as ancillary to a proceeding
of investigation and suspension.
Sections 6 (11) (b) and 6 (12) of the Interstate Commerce Act and section 11 (d)
of the Panama Canal Act, U. S. Code, t. 49, sec. 51, relating to the establishment, under
the additional authority conferred upon the commission by the Panama Canal Act of
proportional rates to or from ports, and through rail and water arrangements in foreign
commerce.
Section 19a, relating to the valuation of the property of carriers.
Section 20 (11) of Part I and section 219 of Part II, so far as relating to the
authorization of released rates and ratings.
388 Records and Accounts ^_
Sections 3(2), 223, and 318, so far as relating to the prescription of rules governing
the delivery of freight and the settlement of .rates and charges, and to prevent unjust
discrimination, under Parts I, II, and III.
Section 22 so far as relating to reduced rates in case of calamitous visitation or
disaster.
Section 304 (d) of Part III, relating to relief from the provisions of that part
because of competition from carriers engaged in foreign commerce.
Section 204 (c) and section 304 (e), so far as relating to the investigation of com-
plaints of alleged non-compliance with provisions of Parts II and III hereinbefore assigned
to Division 2 or requirements established pursuant thereto.
Standard Time Act of March 19, 1918, as amended, U. S. Code, t. IS, sees. 261-265,
inclusive.
Matters coming from the Board of Reference, relating to instructions concerning the
informal consideration of unusual matters and cases for which there is no governing
precedent.
Matters coming from the Bureau of Informal Cases.
Division 3
Civil Aeronautics Act of 1938, approved June 23, 1938, U. S. Code, t. 49, sec. 643,
so far as relates to action as members of a joint board, as may be directed by the
chairman of the commission.
Section 1 (9) to (17), inclusive, relating to switch connections, car-service and
emergency directions with respect thereto, and contracts of common carriers by railroad
or express companies for the furnishing of protective service against heat or cold.
Section 5 (1), relating to the pooling of traffic, service, or gross or net earnings of
common carriers subject to the act.
Section 3 (S), relating to requirement of common use of terminals and compensation
therefor.
Section 6 (11) (a) of the Interstate Commerce Act, and section 11 (d) of the
Panama Canal Act, relating to the additional jurisdiction over rail and water traffic con-
ferred upon the commission by the Panama Canal Act, U. S. Code, t. 49, sec. 51, with
respect to physical connections between rail lines and docks; — and section 201 (c).
Transportation Act, 1920, as amended, U. S. Code, t. 49, sec. 141 (c).
Section IS (10), relating to the direction of the routing of unrouted traffic.
Sections IS (13), 225, and 314, relating to fixation of reasonable allowances to the
owner of property transported for transportation services rendered, and Ex Parte No. 11,
The Tap Line Case.
Section 25 (a) to (g), inclusive, as amended, relating to the installment and main-
tenance of safety devices by carriers by railroad, other than enforcement of penalties.
Section 1 (21) (other than enforcement of penalties), so far as relating to the
compulsory construction of new roads or procurements of additional facilities.
Section 204 (a) (1), (2), (3), and (5) of Part II so far as relating to the estab-
lishment of reasonable requirements for the safe transportation of explosives and other
dangerous articles, including inflammable hquids, inflammable solids, oxidizing materials,
corrosive liquids, compressed gases, and poisonous substances.
Section 204 (c) so far as relating to the investigation of complaints of alleged non-
compliance with provisions of Part II hereinbefore assigned to Division 3 or requirements
established pursuant thereto.
Matters arising under the Transportation of Explosives and Dangerous Articles Act,
Accident Reports Act, Safety Apphance Act, Hours of Service Act, Locomotive Inspec-
tion Act, Medals of Honor Act, Ash Pan Act, Railroad Retirement Act of 1937, Carriers
Taxing Act of 1937, Railroad Unemployment Insurance Act, the Railway Labor Act, as
respectively amended; the Block Signal Resolution of June 30, 1906, and Sundry Civil
Appropriation Act of May 27, 1908; Postal Service Acts, U. S. Code, t. 39, c. 6, 12, 13,
14 and 15, so far as those acts relate to duties of the Commission.
Divisions 2 and 3 alternately, in monthly rotation:
All cases not otherwise herein assigned or referred to another division or reserved
to the commission, arising under Part I, and aU cases involving rates, fares, or charges
arising under Parts II and HI, which cases (a) have involved the taking of testimony at
public hearings, and are set to be argued orally before one of such divisions, or (b) are
submitted without oral argument, but which have involved the taking of testimony at
public hearings.
Records and Accounts 389
Division 4
Section 1 (18) to (20), inclusive, and sections 303 (1), 309, 310, 311, and 312, relat-
ing to certificates of convenience and necessity under Parts I and III and permits under
Part III.
Section 5 (2) to (13), inclusive, (other than enforcement of penalties), and 210a (b)
of Part II, relating to the consolidation, merger, purchase, lease, operating contracts, and
acquisition of control of carriers, and to non-carrier control.
Section 5 (14) to (16), inclusive, relating to common control of railroads and
common carriers by water.
Section 302 (e) and section 303 (b), (c), (d), (e), (f), (g), and (h), relating to
exemptions of water carriers from the provisions of Part III. Sections 20a and 214 (other
than the enforcement of penalties), relating to the issuance and approval of securities of
carriers under Parts I and II, and to the holding of inter-locking positions as director or
officer.
Section 204 (c) and section 304 (e), so far as relating to the investigation of com-
plaints of alleged non-compliance with provisions of Parts II and III hereinbefore
assigned to Division 4 or requirements established pursuant thereto.
The Uniform Bankruptcy Act, as amended, U. S. Code, t. 11, relating to the reorgani-
zation of corporations subject to the exercise of the regulatory powers of the commission.
Matters arising under the Reconstruction Finance Corporation Act, as amended, and
under Section 20 of Title II of the Emergency Relief and Construction Act of 1932, as
amended.
Matters arising under the Clayton Antitrust Act, as amended (other than enforcement
of penalties).
Matters arising under Section 22 (b) (9) of the Internal Revenue Code (relating to
exclusions from gross income) as amended bv the Act approved June 29, 1939, S3 stat.
c. 247, Sec. 215 (a) p. 875.
Division 5
Section 203 (b), relating to partial exemption from the provisions of Part II, in-
cluding determinations as to the necessity for application of Part II to transportation
within a municipaUty, between contiguous municipaUties, or within an adjacent zone,
and the determination of the Umits of such zones, referred to in section 203 (b) (8) and
to casual transportation operations by motor vehicle, referred to in section 203 (b) (9).
Section 204 (a) (1) to (3), so far as relates to reasonable requirements with respect
to continuous and adequate service and transportation of baggage and express by com-
mon carriers, and to qualifications and maximum hours of service of employees and
safety of operation and equipment for common, contract, and private carriers, but not
including requirements for the safe transportation of explosives and other dangerous
articles.
Section 204 (a) (4) and section 211 (a) to (c), relating to the regulation of brokers
(other than their accounts, records, and reports).
Section 204 (4a), relating to certificates of exemption to motor carriers operating
solely within a single State.
Section 204 (7), so far as relates to inquiries into the management of the business of
motor carriers and brokers and persons controlUng. controlled by, or under common
control with motor carriers and requests for information deemed necessary to carry out
the provisions of Part II.
Section 204 (b), relating to the establishment of classifications of brokers or of
groups of carriers and just and reasonable rules, regulations and requirements therefor.
Section 204 (c), so far as relating to investigation of complaints of alleged non-
compHance with the provisions of Part II assigned to Division 5 or requirements
established pursuant thereto.
Sections 206, 207, and 208, relating to certificates of public convenience and necessity.
Section 209, relating to permits.
Section 210, relating to dual operations.
Section 210a (a), relating to grants of temporary operating authority.
Section 212, relating to suspension, change, revocation, and transfer of certificates,
permits, and licenses.
Section 215, relating to security for the protection of the pubhc.
Section 224, relating to identification of motor carriers.
Section 226, relating to investigation of motor vehicle sizes, weights, etc.
390 Records and Accounts
Any other matters arising under Part II not hereinbefore specially assigned or
referred to other divisions.
In connection with the foregoing assignments Division 5 is authorized to institute,
conduct and determine investigations into motor-carrier practices pertaining to matters
covered by such assignments.
From such assignment of work there shall be reserved for consideration and dis-
position by the commission (1) all investigations on the commission's own motion here-
tofore entered upon and hereafter instituted, except as hereinbefore otherwise provided,
and (2) all applications for rehearing, reargument or other reconsideration and all cases
before the commission for reconsideration, except as hereinafter otherwise provided; and
there shall also be excepted from this assignment of work all cases submitted prior to
November 1, 1940, either to the commission or to a division thereof, or submitted to the
commission and specially referred to a division, the various cases enumerated in any
previous order of the commission as reserved for consideration and disposition by the
commission, and all cases otherwise specially assigned.
Unless otherwise ordered by the commission, any commissioner who is transferred
from a division shall continue as a member of such division for the disposition of cases
orally argued and submitted prior thereto, and those in which drafts of final reports are
under consideration, in lieu of the commissioner designated to serve as a regular member
of the division.
Assignment or Duties to Individual Commissioners
That the following portions of the work, business, and functions of the commission,
be assigned and referred to individual commissioners as herein designated.
To the Individual Members of Divisions 2 and 3
In rotation, in each month, to the members of the particular division which, accord-
ing to the assignment heretofore made, is designated to receive submissions of rate, etc.,
cases in that month: (a) shortened procedure cases under Rule of Practice X-A, sub-
mitted without oral argument during the month; and (b) shortened procedure cases
assigned for oral argument during the month.
To Individual Members of the Commission
The commissioner to whom the Bureau of Traffic reports: (a) special permissions
or other permissible waivers of rules regarding schedules of rates, etc., under sections 6,
217, 218, and 306; (b) released rates applications under section 20 (11); (c) Ex Parte
No. 13, with respect to modifications under section 6 (3) of posting requirements of
section 6 (1); and (d) reduced rates authorizations in cases of calamitous visitation
under section 22.
The commissioner to whom the Bureau of Accounts reports: distribution of carrier
accounts and spreading of items over periods of time; and prescription of depreciation
rates and modification thereof as to individual carriers under sections 20 (4), 220 (c),
and 313 (d).
The commissioner to whom the Bureau of Service reports: uncontested matters re-
lating to the transportation of explosives and other dangerous articles.
The commissioner to whom the Bureau of Locomotive Inspection reports: uncon-
tested matters arising under the Boiler Inspection Act, as amended.
The commissioner to whom the Bureau of Safety reports: uncontested matters under
section 25, the Safety Appliance Acts, as amended, and the Hours of Service Act, as
amended.
The commissioner to whom the Bureau of Finance reports: applications under sec-
tion 20a (12) for authority to hold the position of officer or director of more than one
corporation, when all the corporations are part of the same system.
The commissioner to whom the Bureau of Statistics reports: requests of carriers
for extension of time for filing annual reports.
Records and Accounts
391
The commissioner to whom the Bureau of Informal Cases reports: applications and
complaints on the special docket.
The commissioner to whom the Bureau of Inquiry reports: the reference of cases
involving supposed violations of law under Parts I, II and III of the Interstate Com-
merce Act, the Elkins Act, or related acts, to the Department of Justice for investigation
and possible prosecution.
The chairman of the respective divisions: merely procedural matters in any formal
case or pending matter, and extensions of time for compliance with orders (except in
investigations on the commission's own motion), in any such case or matter, when the
subject matter or particular proceeding has been or is assigned or referred to the divisions;
Provided, that if the proceeding has been assigned to a commissioner for administrative
handling or preparation of report, such commissioner shall act on such procedural mat-
ters (including extensions of time for compliance with orders) ; and if the subject matter
or particular proceeding has not been assigned or referred to a division or to a com-
missioner, the chairman of Division 1 may act on such matters.
In each of the foregoing delegations and assignments to an individual commissioner,
it is contemplated that in event of his absence or disability the senior member of the
division which has jurisdiction of the subject matter or proceeding who is present shall
act instead of the commissioner above designated. In event of the absence or disabihty
of a commissioner to whom a proceeding not referred to a division has been assigned for
administrative handling or preparation of report, procedural matters in connection with
such proceeding may be acted upon by the chairman of the commission.
In respect of all such matters, petitions for reconsideration or for rehearing of any
order or decision of an individual commissioner as herein authorized shall be initially
passed upon by the division to which the general subject is referred, and if the general
subject has not been referred to a division, then by the commission.
All such petitions shall be governed by the general rules of practice of the commission.
Bureaus of the Commission
That the bureaus of the commission shall report as follows: (a) with respect to
administrative matters, including personnel and salaries matters, to Division 1, through
the commissioner to whom the bureau reports; (b) with respect to matters of policy and
functioning, through the division or commissioner to whom the bureau reports, to the
division or to the commission, as set forth below:
Bureaus of the
Commission
Accounts
Administration
Finance
Formal Cases: generally
matters pending before
divisions
Informal Cases
Inquiry
Law
Locomotive Inspection
Motor Carriers
Tariff matters
Finance matters
Personnel Supervision and
Management
Safety
Service
Statistics
Traffic
Valuation
Water Carriers
Reports Through
Commissioner in charge
Chairman, ex officio
Commissioner in charge
Commissioner in charge
Chairman of division
Commissioner in charge
Commissioner in charge
Commissioner in charge
Commissioner in charge
Commissioner in charge
Commissioner in charge
Commissioner in charge
Chairman, ex officio
Commissioner in charge
Commissioner in charge
Commissioner in charge
Commissioner in charge
Commissioner in charge
Division 1
To
Division 1
Division 1
Division 4
Commission
Division
Division 2
Division 1
Commission
Division 3
Division 5
Division 2
Division 4
Division 1
Division 3
Division 3
Commission, except as to
matters assigned to
Division 1
Division 2
Division 2
Commission
392 Records and Accounts
Standing Committees of the Commission
That there continue to be, as at present, two standing committees of the commission,
namely the Committee on Rules and Reports and the Legislative committee, consisting
of three members each, appointed by the commission, which shall designate the chairman
thereof. The chairman of the commission may designate a commissioner to fill a vacancy
on any committee until the commission otherwise orders.
Rehearings and Further Proceedings
For the proper and more convenient dispatch of business, and to the ends of justice,
the following regulations of the conduct of proceedings are adopted (in addition to those
governing the parties, as set out in the Rules of Practice), in respect of rehearings,
reconsiderations, further hearings, and supplementary proceedings, when upon the appli-
cation of any party to the decision, order, or requirement of a division of the commission.
The application (and any supporting or opposing documents) when submitted shall
be considered by the division: if the division grants the same, the application will stand
as granted by the division and denied by the commission, and further proceedings will
be before the division and under its direction. Any further decision, order, or require-
ment of the division shall be subject to application for rehearing as provided in the act.
If the division does not grant the application, the application (and supporting or oppos-
ing documents) will be considered by the commission, which in its discretion will deter-
mine if sufficient reason for granting a rehearing or taking any other action has been made
to appear.
By the Commission.
(Seal) W. P. Bartel,
Secretary.
Report of Special Committee on Impact
J. B. HuNLEY, Chairman, A. N. Laird C. P. Schantz
O. F. Dalstrom B. R. Leffler C. E. Sloan
S. F. Grear C. T. G. Looney F. E. Turneaure
M. HiRSCHTHAL J. A. Newlin W. M. Wilson
C. S. Johnson G. E. Robinson Committee
To the American Railway Engineering Association:
The assignments to your committee are as follows:
1. Tests of short steel spans with open floor, together with effect of track inequalities
and worn wheels on such spans.
2. Tests of steel spans with ballasted deck, including spans with pre-cast concrete
decks and poured-in-place concrete decks; also tests on ballasted decks with timber
floor; particular attention to be given to the damping due to the type of deck and the
track ballast.
3. Tests of dynamic shear in steel girder and truss spans.
4. Tests of impact in columns and hangers of steel spans.
5. Tests of rigid frame structures of steel and concrete.
As an initial step in the study of the above assignments, your committee asked for
the approval of a request for an appropriation of $4,000 to be expended during 1940 in
the analysis of valuable test data at that time available to the committee. This budget
request was endorsed by the Board of Direction and authorized by the Association of
American Railroads.
Accordingly, work was started on the analysis of stress and deflection measurements
made by the Pennsylvania Railroad on two spans on the main line at Chester, Pa.
These measurements were considered especially valuable because they afforded a com-
parison of impact effects produced by steam locomotives and electric locomotives without
unbalanced counterweights in the drivers; because tests were conducted at speeds as
high as 105 miles per hour with the electric and 90 miles per hour with the steam loco-
motives; and because actual stresses were measured with new type electric gages not
available in earlier tests. In addition to the information acquired, the analysis of these
tests has been of very great value in clarifying the future test procedure that should be
followed by the committee.
Other test data remain to be analyzed during 1941. It is also proposed to carry out
a program of field tests during 1941 with instruments and funds made available to the
committee by the Association of American Railroads.
The committee's report on the analysis of the Pennsylvania impact tests follows:
The Special Committee on Impact,
J. B. HuNLEY, Chairman.
Bulletin 422, January, 1941.
393
Description and Analysis of the Bridge Impact Tests Made
by the Pennsylvania Railroad at Chester, Pa.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
1. Digest 397
2. Foreword 399
3. Instruments 402
Electro-magnetic strain gages 402
Electrical lateral deflectometers 405
Electrical vertical deflectometers 406
Mechanical vertical deflectometers 405
Speed recorder 406
Location of instruments 407
4. Spans Tested 408
(a) Span No. 6 : S5-ft. 10 in. girder span 408
(b) Span No. 7 : 122-ft. girder span 408
5. Locomotives Used in Tests 413
Electric locomotive Class PS-A 413
Electric locomotive Class GG-1 413
Steam locomotive Class K4-S 413
Steam locomotive Class Ml-A 414
6. Locomotive Characteristics Affecting Dynamic Stresses 414
The static weight and spacing of the various axles 414
The friction of its springs and their frequency of vibration 414
The period of its roll or rotation about a horizontal axis 419
The period of its nosing or rotation about a vertical axis 419
The condition of its wheels 419
The counter-balancing 419
7. General Test Procedure 427
8. Analysis of Field Records 429
Test records 420
Reading of records 429
Stress and deflection corrections 429
9. Impact Effects as Found From the Test Data 448
Speed effect 448
Roll effect 458
Track effect — electric locomotives 463
Combined track and hammer blow effect — steam locomotives 467
Total impacts 468
Lateral forces 471
10, Conclusions 482
11. Acknowledgment 483
394
Impact 395
LIST OF PLATES AND DIAGRAMS
Figures Page
1 General Elevation of Test Bridge and Test Spans 400
2 General View of Test Building 399
3 Footwalk and Hanging Platforms 401
4 Electrical Circuit and Details of Magnetic Strain Gage 402
5 View of Indicating Gage on Test Member 403
6 View of Oscillographs in Test Buildings 404
7 View of Electrical Lateral Deflectometer 405
8 View of Electrical Vertical Deflectometer 406
9 View of Mechanical Vertical Deflectometer 407
10 55-ft. 10-in. Girder Span and Location of Test Instruments 409
11 Relation of Rail to Rail Support — S5-ft. 10-in. Span 410
12 122-ft. Girder Span and Location of Test Instruments 411
13 Relation of Rail to Rail Support— 122-ft. Span 412
14 Spring Arrangement and Equahzing System — Class P5-A 415
15 Spring Arrangement and Equalizing System — " GG-1 416
16 Spring Arrangement and Equalizing System — " K4-S 417
17 Spring Arrangement and Equahzing System — " Ml-A 418
18 Unbalanced Weights by Dynamic Method of Analysis — Class K4-S 423
19 Unbalanced Weights by Dynamic Method of Analysis — Class Ml-A 424
20 Unbalanced Weights by Static Method of Analysis— Class K4-S 425
21 Unbalanced Weights by Static Method of Analysis^-Class Ml-A 426
22 View of Last Word Dial Calibrating Stand 428
23 View of Steam Locomotive on Test Span 428
24 Typical Strain & Deflection Record 122-ft. Girder Span— Class Ml-A 430
25 Typical Strain & Deflection Record 122-ft. Girder Span— Class P5-A 431
26 Typical Strain & Deflection Record 55-ft. 10-in. Girder Span— Class K4-S. . 432
27 Typical Strain & Deflection Record 55-ft. 10-in. Girder Span— Class P5-A., 433
28 Speed Effect & Roll Effect— 55-ft. 10-in. Girder Span— Class P5-A 457
29 Speed Effect & RoU Effect— 55-ft. 10-in. Girder Span— Class GG-1 458
30 Speed Effect & Roll Effect— 55-ft. 10-in. Girder Span— Class K4-S 459
31 Speed Effect & Roll Effect— 55-ft. 10-in. Girder Span— Class Ml-A 460
32 Speed Effect & Roll Effect— 122-ft. Girder Span— Class P5-A 461
33 Speed Effect & Roll Effect— 122-ft. Girder Span— Class GG-1 462
34 Speed Effect & Roll Effect— 122-ft. Girder Span— Class K4-S 463
35 Speed Effect & Roll Effect— 122-ft. Girder Span— Class Ml-A 464
36 Track Effect— 55-ft. 10-in. Girder Span— Class P5-A 465
37 " " " " " " — " GG-1 465
38 " " 122-ft. Girder Span— Class P5-A 466
39 " " " " " — " GG-1 466
40 Track & Hammer Blow Effect— 55-ft. 10-in. Girder Span— Class K4-S 469
41 Track & Hammer Blow Effect— 5S-ft. 10-in. Girder Span— Class Ml-A 470
42 Track & Hammer Blow Effect— 122-ft. Girder Span— Class K4-S 471
43 Track & Hammer Blow Effect— 122-ft. Girder Span— Class Ml-A 472
44 Comparison of Actual Impacts with Design & Rating Rules Impacts —
55-ft. 10-in. Girder Span— Class P5-A 473
45 Comparison of Actual Impacts with Design & Rating Rules Impacts —
55-ft. 10-in. Girder Span— Class GG-1 473
396 Impact
Figures Page
46 Comparison of Actual Impacts with Design & Rating Rules Impacts — -
5S-ft, 10-in. Girder Span— Class K4-S 474
47 Comparison of Actual Impacts with Design & Rating Rules Impacts —
55-ft. 10-in. Girder Span— Class Ml-A 474
48 Comparison of Actual Impacts with Design & Rating Rules Impacts —
122-ft. Girder Span— Class PS-A 475
49 Comparison of Actual Impacts with Design & Rating Rules Impacts —
122-ft. Girder Span— Class GG-1 475
50 Comparison of Actual Impacts with Design & Rating Rules Impacts —
122-ft. Girder Span— Class K4-S 476
51 Comparison of Actual Impacts with Design & Rating Rules Impacts —
122-ft. Girder Span— Class Ml-A 476
Impact 397
Description and Analysis of the Bridge Impact Tests Made
by the Pennsylvania Railroad at Chester, Pa.
1. Digest
This report embraces a description and analysis of tests made by the Pennsylvania
Railroad on two plate girder spans at Chester, Pa., their length being 55 ft. 10 in. and
122 ft. respectively. The tests were made after the electrification of its four track line
between New York and Washington in order to determine not only the comparative
impact effects of the two types of electric locomotives which would be operated in this
territory but also to compare the impact effects of these electric locomotives with steam
locomotives which had been in operation for some time. These tests were conducted at
considerable expense to the Pennsylvania Railroad and the Special Committee on Impact
appreciates the opportunity afforded to analyze and present these data.
Stresses, vertical deflections, and lateral deflections were measured at the center of
each span under the four different types of locomotives running at various speeds ranging
from approximately 5 m.p.h., which may be considered as static loading, up to a maxi-
mum speed of 105 m.p.h. for the two types of electric locomotives, 80 m.p.h. for the
freight type steam locomotive and 90 m.p.h. for the passenger type steam locomotive.
Excellent electrical measuring equipment was developed for use in these tests and every
care was taken in calibrating the instruments and conducting the tests; hence, it is
believed the results can be accepted with full confidence.
The results of these tests are of particular interest to railway engineers generally for
two reasons: First, because the highest speeds, which were considerably higher than in
any previous tests, give information of value with respect to present day speed of
operation, and second, because a comparison is afforded between the effects of locomo-
tives with and without the so-called hammer blow resulting from the over-balance in
the driving wheels of steam locomotives.
The total impact effects produced by each of these locomotives, in percent of the
stresses measured at a speed of approximately 5 m.p.h. are shown in Figs. 44 to 51, in-
clusive. It will be noted that in general there was an increase, at the very high operating
speeds, in impact effect with an increase in speed but that this increase was moderate,
except for the electric Class P5-A on the 55-ft. 10-in. span. With respect to comparison
of the impact effects with the electric and steam locomotives, the following tabulation is
an average of five of the maximum impact effects found for each type of locomotive on
each span:
Average Average Impact
Class Type Speed Percent
55-ft. 10-in. Span
PS-A Electric 80 49
GG-1 Electric 90 39
K4-S Steam (passenger) 72 59
Ml-A Steam (freight) 57 3S
122 ft. 0-in. Span
P5-A Electric 87 26
GG-1 Electric 98 18
K4-S Steam (passenger) 86 29
Ml-A Steam (freight) 70 28
It will be noted from the above tabulation and Figures 44 to 51, that there was no
marked reduction in impact with the electric locomotives even though they had no
398 Impact
unbalanced counterweight. However, it should be pointed out that these two types of
steam locomotives were exceptionally well balanced and the hammer-blow effect was
within reasonable limits at the speeds used. It can be seen from Figures 44 to 51 that
the total impact effects, with the exception of the electric locomotives on the 5S-ft. 10-in.
span, are within the maximum allowance as provided for in the section on design in the
present AREA Specifications for Steel Railway Bridges and AREA Rules for Rating
Existing Iron and Steel Bridges. However, it should be kept in mind that these tests
represent but two spans, and until such time as these data can be compared with data
on other spans, no definite conclusions should be drawn.
In addition to these total dynamic effects, the data were also analyzed for the pur-
pose of studying the magnitude of the individual impact effects which make up the total
impact effect. These individual effects, expressed in percentage of the static stress, and as
found from this study, are as follows:
1. A definite increase in stress due to speed and termed "speed effect", was found
throughout the tests entirely distinct from the vibrations that were developed by the
moving loads. A probable explanation of this speed effect is the centrifugal force devel-
oped by the locomotives in following the path of the deflected span. The results of this
study are shown in the upper diagrams in Figs. 28 to 35 inclusive. The maximum speed
effects generally range from 15 to 20 percent on the 55-ft. 10-in. span, and 10 to 13
percent on the 122-ft. span.
2. Measurements frequently showed an increase in stress in one girder with a cor-
responding decrease in stress in the other girder of the same span, which is termed "roll
effect" and is presumably caused by the spring borne weight of the locomotive oscillating
about a horizontal axis. These results are shown in the lower diagrams of Figures 28 to 35
inclusive. One outstanding characteristic of the roll effect is that there was a rather nar-
row range in speed for each locomotive on each span, through which range the roll
reached a maximum, decreasing from this maximum at either lower or higher speeds.
The roll effect on the S5-ft. 10-in. span had a maximum value of approximately 15 per-
cent for all locomotives except the P5-A electric for which it was 27 percent. On the
122-ft. span, the maximum roll effect values were approximately 10 percent for all loco-
motives except the P5-A for which this value was 16 percent.
3. The test measurements showed that vibrations were induced in the test spans by
the electric locomotives even though there was no periodic disturbing force set up by
unbalanced counterweights. This impact effect has been termed "track effect" and is
presumably due to irregularities in the track surface or wheel treads; to the periodic
effect of wheel loads coming and going off the span, or to other conditions of track and
locomotive that would tend to produce a vertical vibration in the spring borne weight
of the locomotive or in the girders.
These are the first comprehensive tests with electric locomotives, making it possible
to analyze this track effect separately from the out-of-balance counterweight effect. The
results are shown in Figures 36 to 39 inclusive.
The outstanding characteristics of the results are the narrow range within which the
test results were found to lie and the fact that the track effect seemed to increase rather
rapidly up to a speed of 30 to 40 m.p.h., particularly on the SS-ft. 10-in. span, and at a
much less rapid rate thereafter. Maximum track effects, as to be expected, were greater
on the short span ranging from 10 to 15 percent, compared to approximately 5 percent
on the 122-ft. span.
4. The combined track and hammer-blow effect for the steam locomotives is shown
in Figures 40 to 43 inclusive, for which locomotives these two effects could not be
separated. Generally these results follow reasonably well the theory of forced vibration
Impact
3^9
of a loaded bridge span subjected to the disturbing force of the unbalanced counter-
weights. On the long span the maximum impact due to combined track and hammer-blow
effect ranged from 10 to 20 percent and on the short span from 25 to 30 percent. It
seems possible that the bridge vibrations set up by unbalanced counterweights may have
been broken up, to a certain extent, by the track effect disturbances, and in the range of
critical speed, damped by locomotive spring action.
2. Foreword
With the electrification of the Pennsylvania Railroad, between New York and Wash-
ington, it became necessary to consider the comparative effect on bridges of electric
locomotives operating at high speeds, with steam locomotives of approximately equal
weight. Little was definitely known as to the dynamic forces imposed by such electric
motors, and it was decided to make a series of tests with both the steam and electric
locomotives to be used in this territory.
Fig. 2 — General View ol Test Buildmg
The bridge selected for this test was located at Chester, Pa., and consisted of
sixteen SS-ft. 10-in. and one 122-ft. four-track, deck girder spans, with open decks; see
Fig. 1. By applying the necessary instruments to the long span and one adjacent short
span, impact data could be obtained on a long girder, and one of average length with
each test run.
It was felt that the desired information could best be had by the use of magnetic
strain gages and recorded by means of oscillographs. A discussion with representatives of
the General Electric Company resulted in an arrangement by which that company devel-
oped and furnished the necessary instruments for recording strains, vertical and lateral
deflections.
; ^s
Impact
401
To house the equipment, a building 14 ft. by 24 ft. was erected under the short span
adjacent to the pier between the two test spans; see Fig. 2. Suitable desks for the opera-
tors and recorders, and tables and shelving for the oscillographs, relays, meters, etc.,
were provided. It also contained a dark room in which the films could be developed
immediately upon their removal from the oscillographs.
A 3-kw., 60-cycle electric power line was carried into the test building for light,
heat, fans, battery charging transformer, motor-generator set, water cooler, radio and
miscellaneous power.
Fig. 3 — View of Footwalk and Hanging Platforms
Telephone connection was made with the Pennsylvania Railroad Wilmington ex-
change; also with the interlocking tower at Baldwin, two miles north of the bridge, and
with the Lamokin Street tower three quarters of a mile south. Telephone communication
was also arranged between the test building, the upper deck of the bridge, and all gage
positions on the two spans.
Hanging platforms were suspended beneath the lung span at the center and quarter
points. A footwalk running from Pier 6 to Pier 7 between the girders under tracks i
and 4 and suitable stairways or ladders were constructed to afford access to the hanging
platforms. See Fig. 3. The roof of the test building, as shown in Fig. 2, was used to
provide access to the gages on the short span.
402
Impact
All electrical measuring and recording equipment was installed and operated by the
General Electric Company. Railroad employees were in charge of the operation of the
test locomotives and other work on the track. Watchmen were continuously on duty
during test runs, acting as whistle men and giving warning of the approach of trains
by means of push button signals located at various points on the bridge.
3. Instruments
The instruments used in these tests were of the electrical type and consisted of:
20 electro-magnetic strain gages by which a continuous record of the strains at various
points could be obtained; two lateral deflectometers and two vertical deflectometers
located at the center of the spans recording the lateral and vertical movements during
each run; and one timer from which the speed of the locomotives was obtained. In addi-
tion to these electrical instruments, two mechanical deflectometers were used which also
recorded directly the vertical movements at the center of the test spans.
Electro-Magnetic Strain Gages
The general principle, by which strains are measured by the electro-magnetic strain
gage, is based on the fact that a magnetic circuit, in which the lines of magnetic force
must travel through both a magnetic material and an air gap, has the major part of its
reluctance in that part of its path which is through the air gap, even if the gap be very
short. Therefore, a small change in the length of the air gap will have a relatively large
effect on the total reluctance of the circuit and on the current carried in the winding of
the magnets.
Moioi— Cqei^SfOi'or- Se'f
I lOV.-A.C
^_ /_,^ Qer-ier^oi-or-'
^ ' I lO\y.- 2000 Cyc/e
I 2000Cu<=le OgOI>li»» ^
, ^^OOO Cycle Fil+en
^a I .. I IZ<s<=f:f,er~
Balar-icir-icj
Tranafor-mens
2000 CLjCle Filfsr^
Fiq. ^A
DiAqRAMMATiC CIRCUIT OF MAqNETIC STRAIM QAqSS
To conneci-ior-i "B '
Appnon. 0. 005 in. ai'f- e^ap
'^Ar-ma-fi.
-PafH cf rr-!ciC3mei'-i<:: ■fli-j^
3 !m. cjdcie lenc^-l-H
Fiq. 4. s
Schematic cPRAWiNq of ome MAqNBTic strain <qAqE
(USaa FOfS EJTHEJS BAUAS/CH^q QAQE OIS INPlCATir^q qAqE)
Impact
403
The complete electrical circuit for one electro-magnetic strain gage, from generator
to oscillograph, is shown diagrammatically in Fig. 4 A. It can be seen that the electrical
circuit, in which the indicating gage operates, is a Wheatstone bridge through which the
2,000-cycle current passes. The indicating gage and one of the balancing transformers,
connected in series, form one side of the bridge while the balancing gage and the other
balancing transformer, connected in series, form the other side of the bridge. Since the
two sides of the bridge are connected in parallel, the 2,000-cycle current passes through
the two sides in an inverse proportion to the resistance offered by each side.
The electro-magnetic strain gage, which can be used for either the indicating gage
or the balancing gage, consists essentially of an electro-magnet wound on a m shaped
core with an armature across the legs of the core, see Fig. 4 B. The magnetic core is
attached to one gage point while the armature is attached to the other gage point. The
construction of the instrument is such that when it is placed in working position, a defi-
nite air gap is provided between the armature and the ends of the magnetic core. When
a current is passed through the coil, a path of magnetic flux is set up through the core,
and this passes from the core through the air gap into the armature, through the arma-
ture and then back across the air gap and again into the core. Since a very small change
in the air gap greatly varies the resistance of the path of the magnetic flux, the amount
of current flowing in the coil will be changed accordingly.
In operation, the indicating gage is attached to the member in which the strain is
to be measured; see Fig. 5. It is fastened by special screws which are seated in two
drilled and tapped holes, the center of these holes being exactly a gage length apart, in
this case three inches, and in the line of stress. The balancing gage working in conjunction
Fig. S — View of Indicating Gage on Test Member
404
Impact
with the indicating gage is not attached to the member, but is located at some convenient
point in the circuit.
Since the change in the length of the air gap of the indicating gage is directly pro-
portional to the change in the distance between its two attaching screws, any strain in
the member on which the indicating gage is mounted produces a change in the length
of its air gap. As previously mentioned, any change in the length of the air gap greatly
varies the resistance of the path of the magnetic flux and therefore of the electrical
current flowing in the coil itself.
Any strain in the member, to which the indicating gage is attached, changes the
amount of current flowing through its side of the Wheatstone bridge, but since the length
of the air gap in the balancing gage remains constant, the amount of current flowing
through this side of the Wheatstone bridge remains constant. This variation in resistance
between the two sides results in a change of potential in the Wheatstone bridge, and by
means of a galvanometer in the oscillograph, can be indicated on the record. This out-of-
balance current from the Wheatstone bridge is rectified and filtered so as to produce a
direct current before reaching the galvanometer.
The four oscillographs used in these tests were of the 6-element type, that is, each
oscillograph had 6 galvanometers, each of which was, connected with a gage or de-
flectometer, so that a simultaneous and continuous record of 24 strains or deflections
could be had for each test run. On the electro-magnet of the galvanometer, there was
mounted a tiny mirror intercepting a ray of light, and any change in potential in the
Wheatstone bridge, caused by a variation of strain in the member with the consequent
Fig. 6 — View of Oscillographs in Test Building
Impact
405
Fig. 7 — View of Electrical Lateral Deflectometer
change in the air gap of the indicating gage, produced a deflection, proportional to the
change in voltage, in the magnet and mirror. The light ray reflected from the mirror
registered on a photographic film, and the strain gage circuits were so adjusted that
0.001 in. strain in the member produced a change in position, of the reflected ray on the
film, of 1.0 in.
For stresses within the proportional limit, the unit stress "/" is equal to the unit
deformation "A", multiplied by the modulus of elasticity "£", divided by the length
between gage points "/", or / ^
AE
I
Assuming a value of 30,000,000 lb. per sq. in. for
the modulus of elasticity of steel, a movement of 0.001 in. between the gage points,
which are 3 in. apart, represents a stress of 10,000 lb. per sq. in.
Supersensitive galvanometers, having an average sensitivity of O.lS milliampere per
millimeter deflection of the light ray on the film, were used for all strain gage recorders.
Galvanometers, having a sensitivity of 1.50 milliampere per miUimeter deflection of the
light ray on the film, were used for all vertical and lateral deflection recorders.
In addition to the strain and deflection records, timing waves from the 60-cycle
power supply were recorded on the film by each oscillograph. The ampUtude of this
wave was temporarily increased as the locomotive passed over trips 2, 3 and 4 placed on
the rail at various points on the bridge as shown on Fig. 1. All records were taken on
film six inches wide and five feet long, an average of five runs being taken on each film.
An electric motor and a gear box were used to drive the oscillograph film holders
through a jack shaft, the speed of the film being increased or decreased by shifting the
gears. See Fig. 6. The oscillograph equipment was automatically started and stopped by
other track contacts operating through a relay system.
Electrical Lateral Deflectometers
The electrical lateral deflectometers (see Fig. 7) operated on the principle of the
seismograph, the weights in these instruments being so balanced as to be sensitive only
to lateral motion or to lateral tilt. Any lateral movement of the girders, on which they
were mounted produced a proportional change between the weights and the case, causing
a contact arm to move along a rheostat which changed the voltage in the circuit. The
change in voltage was recorded by the galvanometer in the oscillograph. The circuits of
406
Impact
Fig. 8 — View of Lleclrical Vertical Deflectometer
the lateral deflectometer were adjusted so that 1,000 in. lateral deflection in the girder
produced a movement of the reflected light ray on the photographic film of 1.0 in.
These instruments were normally level but small changes in level during the test run
produced only a slow shifting of the zero line which did not interfere in any way with
the observation of the lateral deflection.
Electrical Vertical Deflectometers
The electrical vertical deflectometers (see Fig. 8) consisted of a rheostat with a
contact arm. They were mounted at the center of the spans, with a wire running from
the contact arm to the ground, tension in the wire being maintained by a coil spring.
Any vertical movement of the girder caused the contact to move along the rheostat,
changing the voltage in the circuit, this change in voltage being translated through the
galvanometer, into a corresponding movement of the light ray on the film. The electrical
vertical deflectometer circuits were adjusted so that 1.000 in. vertical movement of the
girder produced a movement of the ray on the film of 2.0 in.
Mechanical Vertical Deflectometer
The two mechanical vertical deflectometers (see Fig. 9) were furnished by the Cleve-
land, Cincinnati, Chicago & St. Louis Railway, each being attached to one girder of both
spans. Their construction and method of operation are fully described in AREA Proceed-
ings for 1936, Vol. 37, page 754. As the records, being directly inscribed on paper, were
immediately available after each run, they were used throughout the tests for the purpose
of quickly selecting the speed of subsequent runs, and ascertaining the maximum oscilla-
tion and critical speed of the particular locomotive used.
Speed Recorder
A synchronous timer was used to record the time, to the nearest hundredth of a
second, required for the locomotive to pass between trips 1 and 5 located as shown in
Fig. 1, the distance between them being 376.7 ft.
Impact
407
Location of Instruments
Five electro-magnetic strain gages, one electrical lateral deflectometer, one electrical
vertical deflectometer and one mechanical vertical deflectometer were used on the S5-ft.
10-in. test span. The location of these instruments is shown in Fig. 10. One of the
gages was placed diagonally on the outside of the web at the south end of the west
girder, for the purpose of measuring the shearing stress, but due to high frequency
lateral vibrations in the web, bending stresses as well as shearing stresses were recorded.
These bending stresses were magnified due to the fact that the air gap on the instrument
was at a distance of ^ in. from the face of the plate, and since it was impossible to
determine how much of the total stress was due to bending, and how much to shear,
these records have been disregarded.
It should be pointed out that both the electrical and mechanical vertical deflectome-
ters were placed on the east girder of the S5-ft. 10-in. span, so that no record of
Fig. 9 — View of Mechanical Vertical Deflectometer
408 Impact
deflections in the west girder was obtained. These instruments were not used on the
west girder of this span as the test building, which was directly under the girder,
interfered with running the wire from the instrument to the ground.
Fifteen electro-magnetic strain gages, one electrical lateral deflectometer, one elec-
trical vertical deflectometer and one mechanical vertical deflectometer were used on the
122-ft. test span. The location of these instruments is shown in Fig. 12. One of the strain
gages was placed on the outside of the web at the south end of the west girder, but, as
in the case of the SS-ft. 10-in. span, no reliable results as to shearing stresses were
obtained. Eight of the strain gages were placed on the top and bottom cover plates of
both girders at the quarter points, and two were placed at the center of the span on the
outstanding leg of the top and bottom flange angles of the west girder. Since the results,
obtained from a preliminary study of all the test records, indicated that the strains
recorded by these ten strain gages were comparable with the strains recorded by the four
strain gages, located at the center of the span on the cover plates, the stresses recorded
by these ten gages have been omitted in this report.
4. Spans Tested
Span No. 6: 55-ft. 10-in. Deck Girder Span
This span consisted of two girders 55 ft. 10 in. long overall, and 54 ft. center to
center of bearings, as shown in Fig. 10. It was fabricated in 1903 and was designed for a
live load equivalent to Cooper's E-40, using lower stresses than present day allowances.
The capacity of this span, using the present AREA design stresses and impact, would
be E-SO. The center line of track did not coincide with the center line of span, the track
being off center to the west, one inch at the north end and two inches at the south end.
With an average eccentricity of IJ^ in., the west girder would carry 52.5 percent of the
total load and the east girder 47.5 percent.
The deck was of the "open type" ; that is, the timber ties supporting the rail rested
directly on the girder flanges. The rail was P.S. 130-lb. section and the location of the
track joints is shown in Fig. 11. The rail was not uniformly supported by ties, and the
distance between the base of rail and top of tie plate or tie, at each tie, is shown in
Fig. 11.
Since the gage length was three inches, it was felt that the total strain between the
gage points would not be greatly affected by the local strains at rivet holes and that a
better comparison of measured and calculated stress could be obtained if the theoretical
stresses were computed from the gross moment of inertia of the girder section. Deflec-
tion is not materially affected by local strains at net sections, but depends largely upon
the strains throughout the span length, so that the theoretical stresses and deflections in
the various tables have been computed from the gross section at the center of the span.
Span No. 7: 122-ft. Deck Girder Span
This span consists of two girders 122 ft. long overall and 119 ft. 3 in. center to
center of bearings, as shown in Fig. 12. It was fabricated in 1903 and designed for a
live load equivalent to Cooper's E-40. The capacity of this span, using present AREA
design stresses and impacts, would be E-64.
The center line of track, at both ends was ^4 in. west of the center line of span
and this eccentricity would cause a distribution of live load between the west and east
■girders of 50.8 percent and 49.2 percent, respectively.
As with span No. 6, the deck was of the open type, with uneven bearing of the rail
on the ties. The play between the base of rail and top of tie plate or tie, and the location
of the rail joints, are shown in Fig. 13. (Text continued on page 413)
Impact
409
■J; 0-5-95
-or ^jjs
^Ti-ach. (Nor-i-H Grid)
^ Easr Qii-ctisr-
410
Imp act
h-As b. ang/ss
<* Track CSoufH End)
,1 ^ Wss-f- Qlr-der-
-^ .< > ^
Q 0 0 0 « II II II
-tit) ^^^
~ in 10 ■/) -^ ,*"s. u
(J V. N N IT, nj Q
■^^ I ! ' ' '
Oi M I I I
0 in 10 03
(i- 0
s.^r;«»^'
<»•
'i^TracK-(NorfH End)
Bas-f- dfr-der-
'II
[ L
; O'
Lit.
, J
<i. 5)
1^1'^
»^
00 0 c 0
Impact 413
It will be noted that in this span the first cover plate on both the top and bottom
flanges is cut at the center, the outer plates serving as a spHce, so that, in computing
the theoretical stresses, the gross moment of inertia, including only the five outer cover
plates was used, but for computing deflections, all six plates were considered as part of
the gross section.
5. Locomotives Used in Tests
Four locomotives were used in the tests, two high speed electric (Classes PS-A and
GG-1), one steam passenger (Class K4-S) and one steam freight (Class Ml-A). The
two steam locomotives were of the two-cylinder type, the left pin leading the right by
90 deg. and with the eccentric cranks traiHng. All runs were made without any additional
equipment, except for the tenders on the steam locomotives.
The following is a brief description of these four locomotives used:
Electric Locomotive Class P5-A — No. 4779
The rating of this locomotive, in terms of Cooper's loading, on the S5-ft. 10-in.
span is E51.3 for center stress and E52.6 for center deflection. The rating on the 122-ft.
span is E40.2 for center stress and E38.6 for center deflection. The total weight of the
locomotive in working order with tanks filled with oil and water is 394,950 lb., and
from individual scale weights cf the wheels it was found that the left side carried 201,760
lb. or 51.1 percent, and the right side 193,190 lb. or 48.9 percent of the total.
This locomotive is of the 2-C-2 type with s'x traction motor armatures. The arma-
ture shaft is geared to a quill which drives the wheels through spring cups. Axles 1, 2
and 6 are equipped with SKF roller bearings while axles 3, 4, 5 and 7 are equipped with
Timken roller bearings. The lateral clearance of the center plate on the front truck was
3^2 in. and on the rear truck t^ in. All general data regarding this locomotive such as
axle spacing, wheel weights, actual wheel diameters, wheel clearance, equalizing system,
spring arrangement and spring frequencies are shown in Fig. 14.
Electric Locomotive Class GG-1 — No. 4814
The rating of this locomotive, in terms of Cooper's loading, on the 5S-ft. 10-in.
span is E43.8 for center stress and E45.9 for center deflection. The rating on the 122-ft.
span is E41.7 for both center stress and center deflection. The total weight of the loco-
motive in working order with tanks filled with oil and water is 463,840 lb. the left side
weighing 232,040 lb. or 50.0 percent and the right side weighing 231,800 lb. or 50.0
percent.
This locomotive is of the 2-C -|- C-2 type with twelve motor armatures. The arma-
ture shaft is geared to a quill which drives the wheels through spring cups. All boxes
are equipped with Timken roller bearings. Both front and rear unit engine truck center
plates have a lateral clearance of uj in. All general data regarding this locomotive such
as axle spacing, wheel weights, actual wheel diameters, wheel clearance, equalizing system,
spring arrangement and spring frequencies are shown in Fig. 15.
Steam Locomotive Class K4-S. — No. 3843 With Tender No. 3511
This locomotive is of the 4-6-2 type and is used in high speed passenger service.
The tender, which has 2-axle trucks, has a capacity of 12,150 gal. of water and 18 tons
of coal. The rating of this locomotive with fully loaded tender, in terms of Cooper's
loading, on the 5S-ft. 10-in. span is E53.0 for center stress and E52.9 for center deflec-
tion. The rating on the 122-ft. span is E44.7 for center stress and E43.7 for center de-
flection. The total weight of the locomotive, without tender, is 314,120 lb., the left side
414 Impact ^
weighing 157,600 lb. or 50.2 percent and the right side weighing 156,520 lb. or 49.8 per-
cent. The total weight of the tender in working order, with full water tank and coal
bunker, is 195,950 lb., the left side weighing 95,530 lb. or 48.8 percent and the right side
weighing 100,620 lb. or 51.2 percent. All data regarding this locomotive as to its axle
spacing, wheel weights, actual wheel diameters, wheel clearances, equalizing system,
spring arrangement and spring frequencies are shown in Fig. 16.
Steam Locomotive Class Ml-A.— No. 6718 With Tender No. 6711
This locomotive is of the 4-8-2 type and is used in high speed freight service. The
tender, which has 3-axle trucks, has a capacity of 22,100 gal. of water and 31.5 tons of
coal. The rating of this locomotive with fully loaded tender, in terms of Cooper's loading,
on the 55-ft. 10-in. span is E60.4 for center stress and E60.9 for center deflection. The
rating on the 122-ft. span is E55.9 for center stress and E57.6 for center deilection. The
total weight of the locomotive, without tender, is 387,580 lb. the left side weighing
198,010 lb. or 51.1 percent and the right side weighing 189,570 lb. or 48.9 percent. The
total weight of the tender in working order, with full water tank and coal bunker, is
385,070 lb., the left side weighing 194,420 lb. or 50.5 percent, and the right side weighing
190,650 lb. or 49.5 percent. All data regarding this locomotive as to its axle spacing, wheel
weights, actual wheel diameters, wheel clearances, equalizing system, spring arrangement
and spring frequencies are shown in Fig. 17.
6. Locomotive Characteristics Affecting Dynamic Stresses
The dynamic effect of any locomotive on a structure depends upon the following:
(a) The static weight and spacing of the various axles
(b) The friction of its springs and their frequency of vibration
(c) The period of its roll or rotation about a horizontal axis
(d) The period of its nosing or rotation about a vertical axis
(e) The condition of its wheels
(f) The counter-balancing
(a) While the spacing and weights on the individual axles of a locomotive primarily
affect the static live load stresses, they do have some bearing on the dynamic stresses.
The frequency of the natural vibrations of any span will be lower under a heavy load
than under a hght load, so that the synchronous speed of a locomotive, operating over
any particular span, depends upon its weight. This is particularly important with two-
cylinder steam locomotive, or any engine having unbalanced rotating weights.
The static weight of a locomotive, insofar as it fixes the static deflection, would
seem from these tests, as will be shown later, to have some bearing on the dynamic
effect. This action is apparently due to the centrifugal force exerted as the locomotive
follows the path of the deflected span.
(b) The period of vibration of the locomotive springs was not measured in these
tests, but the theoretical frequency has been computed from the known spring deflection
constants. The friction of the springs and the frequency of their vibration have a marked
effect on the damping of the bridge vibrations, and it was found that such damping
occurred during many of the test runs.
For the purpose of estimating the frequency of vibration of the sprung weight of
the locomotives used in these tests, the coefficient of spring deflection (required load in
pounds to produce one inch deflection or compression) was obtained from the mechanical
department of the Pennsylvania Railroad and the static deflection under the spring borne
weight on the axles and the corresponding frequency of vibration for each spring or axle
(Text continued on page 419)
in
Q.
(n
(f)
<
IT
X 1^5
1
0 >^
5'
^
in
0
s
^
Hi
w
cy
w
fVl
(^
^^1
^s
K
1^
0
C)
(?>
<i\
<^
m
tfl
^
^
\^
^
^■Q f'i^
0
0 Ci
0(
Oi
P:s ^
^
'^
UC V)
IT)
OJ
N
■^
5
^
^H -^
1^
1
0
15
0
0
0
§
Ci
^
Sii
1
Ci-
vs
^
[^
s ^
1
k
in
UJ,, lU
•fJ
^H^
r)
A
:)-^^
1^
0
0
0
0
i:
0
OJ
<*
IS
0\*
5
(\j
Vi
J 0
vl
Q) io
w
(\J
(y
(U
(\i
C
0
f^
1
•^
1
~
t^
^
VS
W5
1
0
U
ti
UJ
?-5
Ul^
z
uJ
Q<:<2
J
0
0^
"D.^-St. " 0)-+-
t; II II II II
"J r> OS
>Q'^5
C ^
^1 -So
Wis
>oi
~2tP^?)fJ
0 t.A?t;5,k
b '' II II II 11
^ I
,0 fi..^j)^.^^
,^^
I
en
in
<
10 J
-U
h
. 0
0
u
0
J
1^
^ J
? <
i;; Q ^^ fi t^ ^
"n Jf ^ Q- K) -•
*? I (\j fti Y
.OOP
!^ ^S 0^ ^
03
• N OJ t\J ^
R" > 2- "^ ■
>- irv Ci
■0 SO?
?
^?
<1D
0
"^J-
C^
5"
0:1
'^
M-
f\J Is
^}-
'^
u^
C>
Cb
Q
Q
f^ 1 ^
1^
(VJ
Ci
*^
C\J
(y
cy
cu
C
!
1
^ lA
fs
0
vs
^
0
0
0
«1
0
0^
0
ifi
?i
1^
,5 5
0
10
Its
>
Q
^
^
0
^
u^ ^
t-y
-V
0
c^
^
^J-
5"
w
^
^
(\i
<n
^
1^
N
^3
M-
(\l
m
1^
<o
1^
"^
~~
01
OJ
Oj
t\J
(\j
<\i
~"
~^
?^
8
?
0
§
0
0
0
5
e,
0
>^
i-^^T
/
ifi
<\J
<n
\>
^
^
IT)
^
^
1^
^
^
"1
in
0 ^
-0
I
^J
^
Q
0 1 Q
c^
0
0
0
0,
C)
C\
^
IV
^i
0 Q
c^
y
f^
i.^
Oi
0
<.^
■J
'5^
\f N
N
N
N
N
N
V
•sj-
So*
c^
oi
n"
N~
N
N"
n"
N"
cy
cy
^
^
(j^
1
j
1
1
8
0^0
0?
§
0
OJ
0 0
^iaJ
l^!M
o'o
N|f\)
I
0 0 ,Q ,Q
8 ^
3:
S'S
^O^jtJ)
N
JJ
K"
OJ
N'
(y■'^■'
(jjV
aj>"
§
0'
S-9
t\! (0
1
1
1
1
1 1
uj ^5-
'
j
1
1
i
AJ(\J
w
«3
<M
ID
c\i
<c
nj
«0
ty
"U
(yoo
i
cu
cu
nj 01
^'^^,
1
?y
^1
1
i
^
HI
u
Q
0
Q
0
Cs
0
Q
0
Ci
1
^
0
^
«i
IV
1 1
nJli^
1
-jiQ
j
x5
-
CVl
f^
M-
"i
15
N 03
1)
u
^S
^
1 1
0 "^
I- ^
5) ■«
5 "u -^
I
c
"«i
<ll
«i
J
1
1
H
^T
Cv
Cl
c^
0
Ol
<\\
0
1^
<5\
M I
2^
'^ ^ (Si Q"
t<^ ")|VS-^-^
If) 0^
y 5 ^
O ^S
si-
Y^^-^
<0 N
1 I
in
1
1 1
^5
1
Q
In
0 vs
ur ":;" rii
I
o^ IS
^ ^ s
In" 03"
I I
I I
I I
"A
(Ti ^<0-
0 si?
I- (r
1^ \r
<\J tvj Ci
V3 Q
>.
^
§1
^
^
0\
(vj
s
(y
(vi
lc§ ]f)
or.
^
1^
fn
0
1
1
<fCi !»4
0)
0|
C>
C>
0)
Q
0
k;
^ «>
>
3 -
ur
V)
T
(1
5
5-
t
■K
ni
?J
1-
^M
Q
^
"^
^
^
(\i
^
1'
1
K
rC
0
151
0
(\i
in
"n
^
P
(nk Q-
■+
In
•n
In
V
^j
N
0 ^
><
^J
H
*J
(,^
^
Oi
0
(>
0
L^
cf
lO
v^
•.^
c^
Q
CN
0
;>
^
^
^^
M-
Cl
c^
!"
I) "J
u;
(T;
in
in
in
^•-
^l"
«
K
miiiii
5
^
^^
^
^
M-
"n
^r
^^
IVUu
r.
0
i
0
OJ
0
o
IX)
fe
■i
Pi
(M
oi
nj
-
(VJ
^
NT
V
s
~j v^
ly
*.\
\)
(V p
-J
f^J
nj
01
0]
fM
■1
•|
(^
^
fy
^jty
^1}]
,^1
t
m
in
m
u
Pi
UJ
k
M
ii_
•r\)
(\J
on
r
)
c
in
>*
^
vs
1
3
[
I
•si-
)C
(n
<
J
U,
. uJ
a>
0
0
u
0
J
Id H
5
u
(T
tn
>
7
U)
<^
fV^
0-
(V^
7
<
.N
z
J
<
Q!
CY
tL
lU
-J
0
N
II -J
u in\^
-^ ^-^
t5..?"j"
■fin
hi
^ 3 .:
■jQintn
;0) , II
U
i f-
in 1
in iLi
J
nU
2
h
in
>-
(IT III
h
0
0 Q.
u (n
0
z
<
(y z z
OS"^^
»<^.
<i
0
Impact 419
was then computed. The static deflection of the total sprung weight of the locomotive
and the corresponding frequency of the spring group was then computed by using the
sum of the coefficients for each spring or axle. This method assumes that the equaUzing
system will adjust the axle loads so that there will be a uniform static deflection of the
locomotive.
The theoretical frequencies of the locomotive springs are given in Figs. 14 to 17,
inclusive.
(c) While the magnitude of the roll of the locomotive, or the transfer of weight
from one rail to the other, could be obtained from the stress readings in the two girders
of one span, no instruments were available for measuring the period of this roll. It is
hoped that this information can be obtained in future tests as it may help to establish
some relation between speed and the amount of roll, and it is one of the factors affecting
the nosing force.
(d) What is said as to the rolling of the locomotive, applies equally to the nosing
or weaving from side to side. This movement is probably periodic and may produce
lateral stresses of such magnitude that they can not be disregarded. That this force was
quite large, in these tests at least, is apparent from the measured lateral deflection of
the spans.
(e) Irregularities in the wheel treads or their eccentric mounting produce vertical
forces when the locomotive is in motion and the same effect may be caused by inequali-
ties in the surface of the rail. These forces have a relatively greater effect on short spans
than on long spans.
(f) An important dynamic effect from a locomotive is due to the centrifugal forces
set up by the unbalanced weights on its drivers. In these tests such forces occurred
only with the steam engines, as there were no unbalanced rotating weights on the wheels
of the electric locomotives.
This unbalanced condition of the steam locomotives is frequently referred to as
overbalance and consists of weight added to the wheels to partially counteract the effect
of the reciprocating parts, which consist of the piston, cross-head, union Hnk and a part
of the main rod. The necessary information required for the analysis of the counter-
balancing of these locomotives was furnished by the mechanical department of the
Pennsylvania Railroad and is given in Tables 1 and 2.
In calculating the centrifugal force or "hammer blow" produced by the two steam
locomotives, it was thought desirable to compute the overbalance by two methods which
are usually referred to as the "static method" and the "dynamic method". In the static
method of analysis the static weights of the main rod, side rods, eccentric crank, eccentric
rod, crank pin and counterweights are considered but the transverse moments caused by
these weights rotating in different planes are neglected. In the dynamic method of
analysis not only the weights of the main rod, side rods, eccentric crank, eccentric rod,
crank pin and counterweight but also the transverse moments due to their different
planes of rotation are considered.
In the dynamic method of analysis certain refinements are also made in the deter-
mination of the effective revolving weight of the main rod, eccentric crank and eccentric
rod. The motion of the main rod, relative to the locomotive, is of course rotational at
one end and reciprocating at the other. The equivalent revolving weight of the crank
pin end of the main rod may be determined by the equations for plane motion of a
rigid body. Investigations of a number of main rods have shown that the equivalent
revolving weight is approximately seven-eighths of the scale weight of the crank pin
end, and this value was accordingly used in these analyses.
420
Impact
GEJERAI. LOCOMOTIVE DATA
LOCOMOTIVE CLASS KI4-S (STEAM)
Cran^ Pin Radius • •• Ih In*
Strolc* • 28 In.
Cyllndor Contors 89 in.
Driver Clrcumferenoe (Actual) 20.6? ft.
Speed at One Revolution per Sooond 1
(a) Feet per Second 20.6?
(b) mles per Hour 3i.093
Total Weight' of Engine 31U.120 l*!"
Total Weight or Full Tender 195.960 lbs
FRO:iT DRIVER (Wheel #3)
Weight of Side Rod 161^ lbs.
Weight of Side Rod Fit ... • Uo lbs.
Counter-weight •«....... ii39 lbs.
Side Rod Centers _. . . . 76.00 in.
Count6r.*ieight centers ..«•.• .• 60*50 in.
MAIN DRIVER (Wheel #*)
Weight of SideRod 652 lbs.
Weight of Side Rod Fit 66 lbs.
Weight of Back End of Main Rod (Actual) 586 lbs.
Weight of Back End of Main Rod (Corrected) 51ii lbs.
Weight of Main Rod Fit 75 lbs.
Weight of Eccentric Craiik I30 lbs.
Weight of Eccentric Crunk Fit I5 lbs.
Weight of Back End of Eccentric Rod (Actual) 30 lbs.
Weight of Back Elid of Ecoentrio Rod (Corrected) • 26 lbs.
Counter Weight 17ljO lb
Side Rod Centers 76.00 in.
I'Aln Rod Centers 89.00 in.
Eocentric Crank Centers .... .... 96>75 In
Counter-weight Centers ..................... 63*00 in
Eocentric Crank Length ..*** 15*C't
Eccentric Throw 15*00
Distajice Center of Gravity of Eocentric Crank
from Center of Rotation •* 10*00
REAR DRIVER (Wheel jfj)
Weight of Side Rod * 190 lbs*
Weight of Side Rod Fit Ifi lbs*
Counter-^veight *....■•*. .....••* U65 lbs.
Side Rod Centers 69*00 in.
Counter.4Veight Centers ..**« .* 60. 50 in*
RECIPROCATIIIG WEIGHTS (One Side)
■Piston and Piston Rod
Cross-Head Shoo and Pi]
Union Link ■ * ■ . .
a&in Rod Front End .
1*67 lbs
faOi* lbs
11 lbs
_i.7l. lbs
1550 lbs
RECIPROCATING '.VEIGHTS BALAIICED
Front Driver
Kain Driver
Rear Driver
Total
mic i:ethod of
Right Side Left Side
516
33.2
atic Method of
Analysis
Right Side Left Side
235
235
705
235
235
235
705
, '.Veight of Engine
Reciprocating './eights
31U.120
1,556
The weight of the eccentric crank for both steam locomotives is 130 lb. with its
center of gravity 10 in. from the center of rotation of the main driver. A radial line
through the center of gravity of the eccentric crank makes an angle of approximately
IS deg. with a radial line through the crank pin and lags the pin in rotation in both
main drivers when the motion of the locomotive is forward. For purposes of analysis it
was convenient to divide the weight of the eccentric crank into two components, one
being parallel to a radial hne through the crank pin and the other at an angle of 90 deg.
thereto. The equivalent revolving weight of the back end of the eccentric rod was added
to the 90-deg. component while the part of the crank pin encircled by the eccentric crank
was added to the component parallel to a radial line through the crank pin.
Impact 421
CEIERAL LOCOnDriVE DMA
LoconoTi-/i; cuss ki-a (steat)
Crank Pin Radlu 15 In.
Strolce 30 In.
Cyllnddr Center 91.5 In.
Driver Circumference fAotual) 18.^ rt.
Speed at One Revolution per Second 1
(a) Feet per Second 16. 58
(b) mles per Hour 12.66S
Total Weight of Engine 367,580 Ibo
Total Weight of f\ill Tender 3e5»070 Ibt
FROKT DRIVER (Wheel #5)
Weight of Side Rod 136 lbs.
Weight of Side Rod Fit 36 Ibe.
Counter-weight 366 lbs.
Side Rod Centers 76.625 in.
Coimter-weight Centers ..•••••...........••■ 60.675 In.
HAIS DRIVES (Wheel *)
Weight of Side Rod &5 lbs.
Weight of Side Rod Fit 108 lbs.
Weight of Beck End of ftoin Rod (Actual) 6C6 lbs.
Weight of Back Sod of Main Rod (Corrected) 531 lbs.
Weight of Main Rod Fit 109 '-ts.
Weight of Eccentrio Crank 13° Us.
Weight of Bocentrio Crank Pit 20 lbs.
Weight of Baek End of Eccentric Rod (Actual) • 30 lbs.
Weight of Back End of Eccentrio Rod (Corrected) 26 lbs.
Counter-weight • 1766 lbs.
Side Rod Centers 76.625 in.
tbln Rod Centers 91.500 in.
Eccentric Crank Centers IO3.OO in.
Counter-weight Centers 63.25 in.
Eccentric Crank Length ..... 16.77 in.
Eocentrio Throw IS'OO in.
Distance Center of Gravity of Eocentrio Crank
fron Center of Rotation 10.00 in.
ll'IERIEDIAIE DRIVER (Wheel #5)
Weight of Side Rod Il63 lbs.
Weight of Side Rod Fit 36 lbs.
Counter-weight 713 l^'s.
Side Rod Centers 76.625 in.
Counter-weight Centers 61.000 in.
REAR DRIVER (wheel #5)
Weight of Side Rod , ^ j^5^
Wolght of Side Rod Fit 15 1^^^
Counter-weight ....,.« 59!, lbs.
Side Rod Centers •••••..•.....,,,,,.,.,, 75 f^c in
Counterrtweight Centers 6o!875 in!
RECIPHOCAIING WEIGHTS (One Side)
Piston and piston Rod , (^ j^s.
Cross Head Shoe and Pin 757 lbs
Unioii Link 21 Ibe!
I'^ain Rod Front End * jjc 11,3!
Total -TmS lbs.
RECIPROCAIIKC WEIGHTS BALANCED
Dynamic Uethod of
Analyele
Statie Method of
Analysis
RlRht Side
Left Side
RiRht Side
Left Side
Front Driver 189
i'ain Driver 1;5
Intermediate Driver Ij^g
Rear Driver IB9
Total 572
169
22
21ii
2ih
21i<
21i.
856
21^4
21i
2U»
Per Cent. 30.1j
29.2
Ii5.5
45.5
Weight of Enr.ino
: 3f7.560
: 206
Reciprocating W..irht6
The revolving weights may be considered to be proportional to the rotational or
centrifugal forces which act radially, for any given speed of the locomotive, and for
convenience they may be considered as forces with horizontal and vertical components.
Using the values of these forces with the crank pin on the right side in an up position,
moments of (1) the vertical forces and (2) the horizontal forces acting on a pair of
driving wheels, are taken about a vertical plane through the center of the counterweight
422 Impact
of the left wheel of the pair. Corresponding moments are then taken about the vertical
plane through the center of the counterweight of the right driver. From these moments
the resultant unbalanced weights (horizontal and vertical components and their resultant)
in the plane of the counterweight are determined.
It should be understood that these calculated values of resultant unbalanced weights
do not in any way show lack of proper attention to the counterbalancing of the loco-
motives. It is common practice to place more counterweight in the driving wheels of a
locomotive than is required to balance the rotating parts in order that the inertia effects
of the reciprocating parts may be reduced, with a resulting reduction in the shaking
forces on the locomotive frame and in the reduction of its nosing tendency. It is neces-
sary, however, to know the amount and position of the resultant unbalanced weights
in each driving wheel resulting from this practice in order that proper interpretation may
be placed on the measured oscillations.
The general formula for calculating the hammer blow produced by the unbalanced
rotating parts is the formula for centrifugal force
H.B. = ^r.^
g
in which
H. B. = Hammer blow or centrifugal force in pounds
W = The unbalanced weight at crank-pin radius which produces the hammer
blow in pounds
g = The acceleration due to gravity in feet per second per second
r = The crank pin radius in feet
w = The angular velocity in radians
(1 revolution = 2 tt radians)
Upon examining the oscillograph records, of which those shown in Figures 24 to 27,
inclusive, are typical, it can be seen that both girders are acting in unison, that is, the
oscillations in both the east and west girders are in phase. The resultant axle hammer
blow was therefore considered as producing the oscillations instead of the resultant ham-
mer blow for each side of the locomotive. It should be understood that in short spans,
in which there are no cross bracing, the two stringers or girders may act independently.
For such spans the resultant hammer blow for each side of the locomotive should be
used. The maximum resultant axle hammer blow, for the locomotives used, occurs when
the crank pins on the left side are 45 deg. past, and the crank pins on the right side are
within 45 deg. of the vertical.
The resultant unbalanced weights as computed by the dynamic method of analysis,
for each driver of the two steam locomotives with the maximum hammer blow at one
revolution per second and the vertical component of the hammer blow when the pins
are 45 deg. from the vertical (pin position for maximum effect on the bridge) are shown
in Figures 18 and 19. These results, as mentioned previously, are based upon an analysis
considering the out-of-plane effect of the revolving parts and certain refinements in the
determination of the effective revolving weights of the main rod, eccentric crank and
eccentric rod.
The results obtained from a counterbalance analysis of these locomotives by the
static method of analysis, in which the effective revolving weight of the main rod on the
crank pin is considered as the actual scale weight, and neglecting the 90-deg. component
of the eccentric crank and eccentric rod and the out-of-plane effects of all the revolving
parts, are shown in Figures 20 and 21. • (Text continued on page 427)
Imp act
423
i I
. .,0
;^o
^^ ^ ' ' ' i J
^-Q tuji^njif.Ha con
0
I
0
u
0
J
5: HI Jin CO
? 0 K->:~J r
CC
r
QDi^
K^
balance plane.
4.
IZiah-f- courrher^
loalartce. plane
11,
55?
«^ <
^ 0
uJ. 0
< u
(0 ?
V
3
i.
13
1^
424
Impact
1^' ^iudQNSlOh
^ ?l u 1 I I 1 I
IU> , , , , I
< 0
-Ik
ffiU
in
< in in
S J <
in 111
in
<
0)0
0
-(Ufll|N
OJ^SIsO
^3^^0
^1^3?'^ I ill I
ill 0 5'0(l)iri<U'^(\l<M|o
uj vj S^
'III?
lull
V U u^ 5 c^ - t}-(j^
^i'J- SincM^njcv)
^ II I I
0 D
lUvO
ho la nee. plans
fSKghrh Cour-i+en
k^cilance plane
I I I I
'111
< z
3
Impact
42S
oQ!::t:t
V)
to
o5
"is-
u
ujh; ' I ! , ^^
c I
0
'I
0
u
0
_J
OClNNNmj -t:
1 I
y r Vi
e.l i
ir ■■'■
Lefi- czaun+en
balance plans
halance. plane.
S I
■'it I
^ a.
D 0
ZlD?
(Q u
426
Impact
0 b
\j M \y WW i\jk,- I
C
lb
0
I'll
y>
et, i u-r
Si^SI
§1.
0
1
0
u
0
J
! I I I I ~a
0
(1,0 ^> ift
Ml
;k W r
:l.^^'
hey
'III
1 ' '
balance plans
ISiqh-f courrhsn
balance plane
M
I
I
e
Ik
0
I
0
UJ. Q
z
i *
ID 0
Impact 427
7. General Test Procedure
After the test building, platforms, foot-walk, stairs, etc., had been erected, the
necessary holes in the girders of the test spans were drilled and tapped to provide for
the attachment of the instruments. The electrical circuits for the gages and deflectometers
were then connected, but the instruments were not placed until they had been caUbrated.
In calibrating the electro-magnetic strain gages, the air gap in the balancing gage
was first set to have a clearance of approximately 0.005 in. Each indicating gage was
then placed on the calibrating stand and adjusted by changing its air gap until the
galvanometer indicated that the amounts of current flowing through the two sides of the
Wheatstone bridge were balanced. The air gap of the indicating gage was then changed
by known increments and the corresponding deflection was recorded by the oscillograph.
The change in the air gap was measured by means of the "Last Word" dial on the caU-
brating stand, which was graduated to record movements of 1/10,000 in. See Fig. 22.
The desired amount of galvanometer deflection per increment of air gap change was
secured by varying the resistance connected in series with the galvanometer.
After the gages had been calibrated they were placed on the test spans and a loaded
car of known weight was spotted on the span in position for maximum moment and
readings were taken with 10-in. Berry strain gages, held along side the magnetic strain
gages. The result of this comparative test for both spans is given below:
Berry Strain Gages Magnetic Strain Gages
Stress Stress
55-Ft. 10-In. Span lb. per sq. in. lb. per sq. in.
Top — east girder — compression 7,200 6,800
Bottom — east girder — tension 7,100 7,600
Average — top and bottom 7,150 7,200
Percent variation — top or bottom stress from
average 0.70 5.56
Top — ^west girder — compression 7,300 6,800
Bottom — west girder — tension 7,200 7,600
Average — top and bottom 7,250 7,200
Percent variation — top or bottom stress from
average 0.69 5.56
122-Ft. Span
Top — east girder — compression 4,500 4,900
Bottom — east girder — tension 4,600 4,800
Average— top and bottom 4,550 4,850
Percent variation — top or bottom from average. 1.10 1.03
Top — west girder — compression 4,400 4,600
Bottom — west girder — tension 4,800 5,100
Average — top and bottom 4,600 4,850
Percent variation — top or bottom from average. 4.35 5.15
Test runs were made at approximate speed variations of five m.p.h. up to the maxi-
mum speed permissible with the particular type of locomotive used. Runs at intermediate
speeds were then made with a view to carefully checking the existence of any relation
between the recorded dynamic values and the theoretical values which had previously
been determined.
Photographs were taken of the steam locomotives on all runs when the speed
exceeded 50 m.p.h. These photographs, of which Fig. 23 is typical, included a marker
showing the run number and a scale board graduated in feet and attached to the rail.
This scale board, together with arrow head painted on the driving wheels of the loco-
motive made it possible to determine the location of the crank pins with respect to the
center of the spans.
428
Impact
Fig. 22 — View of Last Word Dial Calibrating Stand
Fig. 23 — ^View of Steam Locomotive on Test Span
Impact 429
All photographic and oscillograph films were developed in the dark room in the test
building immediately after the exposures had been made. As soon as the films were dry,
they were properly labeled to designate the date, run number, class and speed of
locomotive and instrument numbers.
8. Analysis of Field Records
Test Records
Black-hne prints of all the test records were made from the oscillograph photographic
film and these prints were then bound together in three volumes and in consecutive
order, according to speed, for each locomotive. Volume I contains all the records for span
number 6, while Volumes II and III contain the records for span number 7.
Since it would make this report too voluminous to include all of the test records,
only typical records are included as shown in Figures 24 to 27, inclusive. These volumes
of test records, as well as the Big Four mechanical deflectometer records, are now on
file in the engineering division offices, Association of American Railroads.
Reading of Records
For an analysis of the records it was first necessary to draw base lines representing
zero stress and deflection. Since the reflected light ray was quite wide in some cases,
resulting in a thick stress or deflection line, it was decided to measure all stresses and
deflections from one side of the line, as shown in the typical examples, Figures 24 to 27.
Light dotted lines, called upper and lower envelope curves, were then drawn through
the peaks of the oscillations. A soHd line, called the mean stress or mean deflection
curve, was then drawn midway between the upper and lower envelope curves. It should
be pointed out that, at very slow speeds, the mean stress or deflection curve represents
the static stress or deflection, at the center of the span, for the different positions of the
locomotive as it passed over the span. As the speed of the locomotive increases, the
mean stress curve is affected by the speed of application of the load and by the roll of
the locomotive, as will be shown later.
As pointed out in AREA Proceedings for 1936, Vol. 37, page 760, the oscillations in
any span keep building up until they reach a maximum and then become smaller. In
the 55-ft. 10-in. span, the maximum oscillation at all speeds occurred at the time of
maximum mean stress or deflection. In long spans this condition may not obtain, as the
oscillations usually reached their maximum value before the time of maximum mean
stress or deflection when the speed exceeded the synchronous, and after that time when
the speed was lower than synchronous. But in the 122-ft. span this variation was negli-
gible, and, as with the short span, the values of the oscillations were scaled at the point
of maximum mean stress or deflection.
Stress and Deflection Corrections
To the values of stresses and deflections, as first scaled from the records, it was
necessary to make the following corrections:
(1) Strain Instrument Correction. — The center of gravity of the "air gap" on the
magnetic strain gages being % in- from the base, the strains were recorded on a plane
which was % in. farther from the neutral axis than the extreme part of the steel. As-
suming that the stress is proportional to the distance from the neutral axis, this correction
factor amounted to 0.972 for the 55-ft. 10-in. span and 0.985 for the 122-ft. span.
(2) Mechanical Deflectometer Wire Tension Correction. — As the span deflected from
its initial position, there was a corresponding change in the spring tension, causing a
change of stress in the wire leading to the ground weight. This variation in stress was
(Text continued on page 434)
430
Impact
Impact
431
i
<^
i
t^
h:
>i.
N
0
a:^^
'^ll
s:"
Q
1^
0 y
*o
0 a
rO
UJ h
rt
(y 0
o
Ul
1 i
1 I
cv
<
to
(X
3
o
_J
7 -J
(O
. D in
cvJ
d
er§Q!<
c
i^<(jd
7 =
^OU
ScvJo
0
p- -J
V
h
0 2
432
Impact
1^
o ^
^ 2
o4in
(VJCbg<
K-' 0
-J y
< 0
y -•
Q.
V
h
Impact
433
434 Impact
accompanied by a proportional variation in length, and for the wire used with these
instruments, which was of 0.080 in. in diameter actuated by a spring having a constant
of 2.2 lb., this correction amounted to 0.00279 in. additional deflection for each inch
deflection of the S5-ft. 10-in. span and 0.00664 in. additional deflection for each inch
deflection of the 122-ft. span.
(3) Coal and Water Deduction Correction. — The amount of coal and water in the
tenders of the steam locomotives was measured and recorded before each test run. The
variation in the stresses and deflections due to the difference in tender weights was com-
puted and the scaled values for each run were corrected so that all of the values shown
in the tables are on the basis of full tenders. Since the tender was not on the 55 ft.
10 in. span at the time of maximum stress and deflection, it was not necessary to correct
these values. The correction factors for the 122-ft. span were as follows:
Locomotive Class K4-5
Stress in kips per sq. in. = 0.0465 P
Deflection in inches r=: 0.00734/'
Locomotive Class Ml-A
Stress in kips per sq. in. ^ 0.0755 P
Deflection in inches = 0.0107 P
in which "P" is the reduction in tender wheel loads, in kips.
The maximum correction for locomotive Class K4-S was for run 206 at a speed of
88.3 m.p.h., when sufficient water and coal had been used to reduce the tender wheel
loads by 9.05 kips, so that it was necessary to add 0.42 kips per sq. in. to the mean and
maximum stresses and 0.066 in. to the mean and maximum deflections. The maximum
correction for locomotive Class Ml-A was for run 154 at a speed of 46.2 m.p.h. The
reduction in tender wheel loads for this run amounted to 9.08 kips so that it was neces-
sary to add 0.69 kips per sq. in. to the mean and maximum stresses and 0.095 in. to the
mean and maximum deflections.
The vertical stresses and deflections, as corrected, are shown for the four classes
of locomotives, in Tables 3, 4, 5 and 6 for the 55-ft. 10-in. span and in Tables 7, 8, 9
and 10 for the 122-ft. span. In these tables, the "max'mum stress" or "maximum deflec-
tion" is the sum of the "mean stress" or "mean deflection" and the "semi-amplitude
stress" or "semi-amplitude deflection"; this stress or deflection includes all of the dynamic
effects of the moving load except the roll effect.
It should be kept in mind that the measured stresses represent the average strain
over the gage length of three inches and it is probable that they are lower in intensity
than if they had been measured on a shorter gage length at a section through the rivet
holes. These measured stresses therefore should not be considered as the maximum
stress concentration which may occur, but they do indicate the variation in unit stress
under different conditions of loading.
It will be noted that for most of the runs, the unit stress in the top flange is lower
than that in the bottom flange. This may be due, in part, as pointed out above, to the
fact that on the tension flange, the gages were affected more by the net section than the
gages on the compression flange. By referring to the comparative tests made with the
10-in. Berry gages and the electro-magnetic gages under a stationary car of known weight,
as given on page 427 it can be seen that the average of the top and bottom electro-
magnetic gage reading agrees closely with the average of the Berry gage readings. For
this reason it was felt that more reliable impact percentages would be secured if the
average of the top and bottom stresses were used. Another factor contributing to this
(Text continued on page 447)
Impact
435
Id
^^
a
f?
3
tn
t;
e
a
i
sJ
3
£3
^3
g
&
g
a
^ 8 g w <I
111-
11 ^
gii
a.
la|K^8
8g»
o o o
KS&C^K
o o o o
o o <i o
> O O O Q O O O
ooooo ooooo ooooo
o Q ir\o o o
o o o o o o
If ^§81
o o o o
o o
O O O O O (
i^ooQiA ii^Q^'^c>o oooifvo QOiAOir\ <20<3<34> QM>QQ"^P
ooQt*-'*jirv «}\Qt— CQCQ Os(H«-icqo oocQcQir\ mS iti^O ^o-O hj <o -:i a> o rf\
ir\3-^3-a^ J J_:T33 -auMTvj ir\ UMr\33K\ rc\r<\r<^KM<\ K^K^3K^■^ ir\
ooooo
so ITi'iS ^ so
o o o o o o
ooooo ooooo ooooo oooooo
QOOOQ ooooo mOQlTtOO
Sl^S<iS3 a^S^R S33S,!?!T!^
JOOOO OOOOO
O O Q O <
w CO * or -
o o o d d
o o o o <
saaas sss-!?®
SSSS€S
> o o o o <
)Oooo ooooo
§o o
c?o o
> O lAO O
J^333
? o d o o
OOOOO oooooo
OlTvQOO OOOJNO <3 Q Q ^O Q QQmu>Ol£\
33 3-3 3 if\3 i^H\ t<\K\H\te\t<\ K\»r\3 k\3 3
> o o o o o o <
)OOoo oooooo
SSa S^^^S t9^(^K& 3S83S ~K!i?^® SS^3^ fj2^<3®8<
t--ootD <DC0O^a^ON
^^-.
8:??
- OssO » O
•5»S^:3&I
aS83f.
(D (^ <^ CO o^
vO ONr< "QsO
r^ Cy »- O O On
3J•!^-l!^
<y^O\(j^o\ o\
3SS!Si,S< K35-S3
I- to I^
8i&K8&
CD CO (>OvOs
t-r-co o fH
s:?^53K?
aas^S'S!
CD CD 00 CD r-
ONCD^tZJ CD
r^r-t^ t'-r-
co a><o <D CD
cy3ifNtr.rt
C~<DtO CO OCJs
S&&
KSs^8g
g8g8&
On On CO CD ON
UMA-OnO CO
ir\sO OoD lA
v3 ir\r-(^ w
t-sO r-
t^O^ C^sO
vO [--nO t--c-
CD t-- r-oD t-
OD CD to r- t^
r-r-r^ r-r-
'~""""°~
8?R3^
g^ssss
KS&S1&
r!f:S;&&
SjS;815S
Slco^rt o^
&S;:9&J38
SSS^
R?^3£S
o^l/^t-3 ir\
o o o o ^
O O O (-1 <H
to OnEon »-<
On t— Ov »H On
rH O r-< r^ ^ rH
?^?;?^&S SS;^^^ 5S;&&& l=S;&;;^^ £SS;J:;£ ^^^^
O O .-» o
)OOr<r-l OQO^O
CVJ W W
odd
d d d
o o o
?^^"^ ®»SK® ?i»^a:" £&.?,£?,&; ^&Sj&S
O O O rH O
o o o o c
P&Sg^S
ooooo
SS33 S^^^S ^S°^5hS ^SjSS^ SJSS
> o o
ON ON so r* o\
OvO On On
d (-« d o
r- w CJ oD cjj t-~
O O O O O r^
>0000 OOOOO rHOf-tfHO OOOOO r^i-*»Hc
uS-:}sO f-K^^ « K^ Cfr cvj ir\33 tr\3 •-« iaih 3kn^cj3 Tncor^K^r-t cy0JCJr^3Nq
t-<Dr- r-eocDooco t^cocococD t^oocor^oD i^f— h-coo ononOOO
<D CO ON CD CO
r-ONOJK>.H C>_:ro^ONK^
t- t^ t-CD O
(SiP K-s rt 3
O -^ O O^OnoD
2SS3<3d
S'a^iSg
CO o sO o^2)
'j>r-^o r-oo(Dt— CO r-r-cocoeo r^cor^'Oco Osot^too
^«3
Sso u^u^-o
OJ »H On On
S^iStS;^ *3^^ft i^S^f:^^. '?^'?'§^ ^5^.'^^^-
u^sO ^ '^ L
^ to <H cvj
sO ^ ^ "O sO
sO so r-so
8R3^!
t^^ sO sO s
^3^^f^
tS3&
f- r- 1— r-sO
•^sO -^ -O O vO-Ot^^ONO^
;gsas«
) so r--o r- r-
w w »H o w
_|3^0 c^H^
sO ^ ^ ^ sO
'2»S ^8cSS(J ^^333 SSS5
o r* ly nOso
eo_4<o ® lAi^
8S8
fS !5^»§s fii<s»g s«§g5} »I3S§ ^i^saa
I ^1
5 £SCo
sa
zct
aasaa
436
o k « is
M a -rj CO <
& I
\ss
S C i3
§*<
E8
a^s
Impact
p QOOOg oo o ooooo o oo 8^^°?^ S-SS-SSS
-^ -=* -* -^ -^. -* -* ' ' ■* ^ J ^ -* -* ^ »^ f^ J* -* -:t -S -:t J -* .:* ^ -^ J
ooooo oo o ooooo o oo ooooo oooooo
ooo oo o ooooo o oo ooooo oooooo
o 00808 ss.,8 g&gss 8 ^^ ^^°^^ B^^^oe
000 00 o ooooo d do ddooo oooooo
SoopQ 00 o ooooo o 00 ooooo 00000^
oo5co rt« r-< w pj r^ cj o o t- u-\ cor-frS'* ^-3^^SD;
ooooo do o dddoo o 00 ooooo oooooc
ooooo ooooo ooooo ooooo ooooo oooooc
r— r-cococo ooooon o^'-ho<-i oc^o\r-u\ owcocmcj j^d--3-jcjr
dddod ddddo ddddd odooo ooooo cooooc
000 ooooo ooooo ooooo ooooo cooooc
»-t.-iw ^rgcy,-(r-< i-iOjOjC\J&I CJOJr-iOir-i "-fW^r^y^ C:^^G;&5
o ooooo ooooo poooo ooooo ooooo oooooc
odo G o G d o dddoo ooooo ooooo oooooc
ooooo ooooo ooooo ooooo OOOinO OOOOQ<
r-r-r-r-r- c^coroc^co c^a-orac^ cot^cou^-a- ^-^-l^^K^c^ KNto,p^cyoa
ooodo oddod o g g o S doooo ooooo oooooc
f-H ^ i-t ON oj iTv ic^ r— ^ On 3■^-o^cvIC^ r-ojOMr\ON oj'-jtoocj —(.-(^o-hcoc
r-r-r— vor- t^t^r— r-t— r^r--r-cor- cocot—coco tococoosco cot— r-cococ
MD 00 \£) r-vo irvvou-MTNt— voir\kr,ir\^ j'K\-4k>^ '^'^I0u?'^*'^c^'^'^m(
CO t-^ CO r^ CO cocdcQcot— cdcdcocdco coocorAcrs co c> on ctn o^ cot— COOnCTnC
(Mc^OJK^c^J cjcvjowt— r-ioooo ir\<7^oo-j r-coo^ocv c^cyojr>.t-ij
ojrH^crsfTv irM-~\c>j'as x£)coojo.-i r-n^-- k\co r-^-*H~vOJ K^ir\t^-HCOii
\oi— '0»r«^ ^o'^'^vDr— NO^r^cot— cot— t— r— co t— t— cocot— t— vii^Dt— t— a
Cy (\, I— vo pJ Oir\OvOvO \0j-000 vOCy^CJt— '.O^O^CT\ COCO'H<OOu
K\cyojcjf«-\ omhcotoj- vorHCcoo u-viTMTiO-s jc\jcocycvj ir\(?\c\ir-r— <
Sfigss ss^s8 ^^S'^^ °^°^^ ^s.a^?^ &s^sss
'OO-osD^o vot— r-r— I— ^ot— i— t— t- t— ^covovo »« t- t— t— t— cor-cc^oo^t
^r^K^J^f^^^-^ OOOJi-HtA cy.-<^C\J^ K\C\CyK>K-. CNjO^^Q C»r-C0O^COf
i-Ol— Ot— CO O^C\JK^^OO^ j-r— U~\<-<r— OC\jK\0«^ rHO.jr— O OOvi)C\Jt— c
U^iAuAuAiTt vOt-vOvOiA M3^o\D\OvO vOOvOO'O -^vovo^or^ t^co r-^ r- t^v,
CNO^J-J ^COcO-*-* ^COuOt-CO CyOjoaOJCO CoCjj^^OJ COcOOO-OJC
^ CJ CVJ Cy K-\ iT. lAsO UA_:T _* L-. r-tO t— CTnTO UA C>0 t-O tT-M^ t— CO --O -:t -:T CC c
Oodoo ooooo G G G O O odoOO OOOOO ooooo<
ddddd ddddd ddddd ddddd ddddo oooooo
(T, O C- 0^ as OvO-.COOC^. CT'C0cOt--CQ t-COCNtrCO '-ccoc^c>co toc^o^o^r— t-
ddodd dodod ddd'dd doddd ooooo oooooo
^j'-SJ^J- OsjOnOO-- ^ ^ tf\^ (T\ ^OscO-:JCTs j-CTnCOO-* J'-J^COC
^^CmCvj^^ C^j ^ ^ ^ rr\ j-uSvjDKNJ jJ'J-(0-:t _3--J^OKN-rf K>J-U-\kr\vj
oddod ddddo ddddd ddddd doooo ooooc
asC^O^O^C^ CT\C*vCr\C7vON C\cOCOOnOn OnCTCOCNOn ONO-COt^CTN OvO^COCOc
ooooo ooooo ddodo doooo ooooo oooooo
^^OJCJr^ CyJ'-JJ-r^ J^'^ifJJ tO-J »^ K-xJ^ r^J^ \0 CJ J^ CJ P^ -J -:? vO -^
dddoo ddodo ddddd dddod ooooo oooooo
0^000 OsO-^OcO 0^0 ODO CJJCOOs^ K^cO -H>>OC0 \QOOO^
r-lC>JO"'t-fT\ Or-OCAJ O'HOJf^Cy aD-*r^f^K\ l^^Q^K^K^-d■ coOco--^
r— r— vo^aj'-o t— \d t— ^ t— r— r— t— [— r— i— t—t— t— co t— r-coco t— r-t-^r— t— co
vocoT— coco t-'33r-r— co t— t— t— mr- r-vO'^^.'-o r-irNu-sir-o co r-co r-'-o -
»Hir\COvOt— OnvDOvcO-* COOOniTiOn COOJ^f^iOv cOCOsOCOCVJ MJO t— CO <-< r
cor— i^r-t— [— r-r— r-t— r-cot— t— r— r— coco coco r-cocococo t— t— t— r— co c
t--COpr\0JaD .H.-tC\J^n? OJr-(t— VOiH OJOJOiCOCO fr\cO JUDOJ ^-:tCO^vOC
.-tOOOCTN vOr-f^pr^O OJVOOJJ-ITN —iOO^CTn a\COt— <-iO CJtfNMDOr--;
^cyr-.,-«r-t ^^orH^ ,-tOrHOO rHcycoKNCvj cy!C»»owcy udc^voctvOf
•o iTN t— ^o u~\ \o r— CO ^vo irso^o»Hco ^OK^^Ht— k\ t-io\co^icj von~\.-<cyon
vo ^ O sO ^ ^^^OvO^OvO vo I— vo r-\0 vOvOvOiTwO VOUMTvvOvO t— t— COf— t— vj
inirMTMi^iT* vovou^vOiA if\\ouAiAso lA »r\ tn in lA irv */ itmt. Lr\ \ot— t— »ovov-
c0K^^- voiTv Or— ojt— ^- cot— •-('-tco ocoo>vo-* vooot— ia i-<o^^iao
ir»w»f\tr\u^ 'OnO'o>ooj ^o^'3cy^- cyH-t— t— w t— t— cy«yr— vovovot— t— 1—
a «->
^5
' 5 *^ fe «
^°fcS£
o tJ O S »4
5 < ^ 5 (
Impact
437
<» -^ T ■a ^
Icl a
a I
t a
lO ooooo ooogo oinooo se^SS 8SioS8
6 do ddddo doooo ooooo ooooo
rr^ «%0 ooooo ooooo OiAOOO Oi^tfNQO
.8.^1 |SS8« 8e&«& &««S& «§g«&
cu *rvO o o <
o do d d <
t d d o d ddooo
J d d d
ooooo
)00 ooooo ooooo Qooo
o ooooo o <
> o o o o o o
> r\0 o
iTKirso G o ooitnoo orsooo oooo*^ S;"^tiV^i i<.f:-m?-u^ ^ao f-co ^o t-^o
8SI&« «a€S£ S&S«& S«SS« «o&o« °9°°° ss&s« &«
ooooo ooooo ooooo o<
>d ddddd ddooc
isa&s
;g?^S? SSSSS- ?.?.«2S S3fi?S ^gS8tR SS^^S S<S!R^S S^
3
la]
2 ^^S^^S^
d d d -^ cJ
d d cC r^^
::;SS22
Ci 0\0 ^ --<
u-\0 J- o o
80 10.
66 11.
72 11.
90 12.
.52 11.
.52 12.
.U8 12.
.Ul 11
.62 11.
.86 11
r--*
r- cotococo c^
_^ r- t~- ^ O W
to oco <^•^
r- r-w t~tt\
COOO ^ o c\*
2Sie«lR
,H On^ O O
0 ^ 0) 0 CVJ
Sf!S«S
S^lR
t- r-t-a>cot-
S^S^«
w r-co t-r-
f:*-?-S«
CO CO CO COO)
^5 SJif!.
COOD (?*COCO
53
r- ascDooajOS
r-co t- t-co
^'?-'22 o
ss^ss
t-CO!OCOO.
ll°3^^S
m 0 0 0^0^
««a£a
-* Oi
^o r- I- r-r- r-
t-t-r-t-f-
M3r-.ot-r-
-ot-l-r-l-
^^r-r-co
r-coojot-
comto t-(0
r-m
8 ?;8;?,£^
CO iAOn^ i^
S'S^R^^
^££SS
S,S»:«^
SSSSPf
^So€?l
^S
d ^ d -■
t-co-*tr.^ t— cvii-t^^ K\^
OMfNco r- o oco»«%(7\C7v J* J
_* OJ On J W 01 C
OnCOO On t^ OnC
S 3PSS8; SKSPSa ??.£a&?_^^l?,SR SS|.S5R ^s^^ss ?*^*s SIS^
d ddddd 6oo6.i o6^•-lr^ O'^.^'^d ^r^-JrHO OrH-<rfi-< ^ rH -H rt rf .-< ^
S "^"^SSS S^P^fT ^.^EJS^ ^«»3R «^aS5: 'i&i^s;«& ^~P*^ :?^
d ddddd dddd^ d d ^ ^ cj d 01 ^ ^ o ^^^^o o^^^a ^ « .h ^ ^^ -• ^
o a5«5^«*g; SS^o^SI^ ^.^S^'t^-^ *i2.^I^^o^ ww^"i^5^ ®w^P^ P^^^'^ &^')r.
d ddddd dodo^ odoo^ oo^'-to r-j-Hr^-HO o^r-(^r-< ^^-t^^ r-<
?3 AS»^^ ^"^^s -.•^*« ^«~^§ ^fT~^^ ss^a^ a?^
3 CO (O CO On CO <
CO On 0>00 On
« arlRSlSI aaSS^g SSgaR 8»R«* ^£S<«S*, ^*8^3 88SS^ 3
cA
<^o;ai<^<A
<^,0^0^c>.d
rH r^
d <>.d <>.aj
d h^a
K<0 <>
a5a;cA<^a;
0 0 On On On
<^Ov
s
^£S12«
aG3«S<
assaa
aiiSi?^
3 J 1
ii,f;«
^RS«,S:SS.
f.SP-S-i
as.^
r-co r— r-o
^""'^^
CO ON 0.00 P-
■^"^
'-'"'^
CO 0 OnCO o-
<- <>• o^ r- 0^
^
g«^S&
«&iS^;ss
s^»g:s8
F18^
5P5-
S!J«S£S
RSR25
«»
^(;^3^<i^^O
OnO^'O t^
^or-o-ot-
-0 r-v,
0-0 r-
^ r-<» p-:-
>o-or-r--o
s
?^^3l&?
g;2Sg;S
aSRS^g
S&SR2
s;^°
»«*««
S?:2S8
««
t-t-l-t-O
•0 r-r-so ^
.0 .0 0 0 1-
NO NO NO NO r-
NO 1^
-r-t-
vodjco c-r-
t--oa>>o I-
r-r-
0
S^SSg-
3sa?is
;SS8RS<
easRS
?,ss8a
8S33S
;S3?.sa
S<°
>nO'Ono ir\r-NOir\NO nov
d ri .H W 01 « « W KM
3SR3P S£S8« 35-:
ooooo ^^
(QNodtfNd d»-«c«^ir» «irNr-o*o d••^*^'^^^- r-<o t> o "H ?*c*2;25( ^Xi^a
S<S»^5sj» jT^-*^-* r\^<r»^NO C»NO^<ONO No3NOt-P- t~h-t~to<o rocotoa
JSRS «25:;
iS 2S«25 «S
a
3 _.
Is
•a
U
«4 a e q
C CO -. ».
t. 2 £ - ^
^ 0 • s »>
5CSCo
'Jill
• « « B k
438
Impact
If
S ■*
o o
111.
a i-< " H
g) as
ill :
3mI
as
o o o o
O Q Q O
9099 9 ■ 90000 00990 00099 9SOOO
5,SxM *tRIR«R R&KXR ^^»« «SR33
••••• ••••• ••••• __• •_• 00000
0000 00000
00000
p Q UNO
00000
00000
»§sl l§e§l mil l»§ll §&§8§
000
oc5o
0000 00000 00000 00000 00000
0000 OQOUNO OOlAOO
II I
o 000
>\r\QO ooooQ otrvuxQO QOomo 000
JSSs ^3:^^ iR34&K S^RrRRR SJfeS
>ooo 00000 00000 00000 000
Sllll S||3| |§I|S sS^IS a|Sp tS^
0000 00000 00000
00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 00000 000
o o o o o ir» irviAO uMr\ oou
OiAOQO QQQQO
o 00000 00000 00000 00000 ooooo
O O O O O lA UMOOirtLO OOmOQ lOU^OOQ QinoOQ OQOOO 00(
3 ssi^sa 33^s^ ^3^3^ 33S^I ^^334 S333S S%i
ooooo OOOOO ooooo
>o ooooo 000
> o o o o
a^^r4 KNIT*
f-i O O O rH
^iS;»a?| ^.~.^S4 s^s^ i^fig
«3S8SS
^ rH On O *■
^S'o^ i55lfsF
J;:SJ SS32JJ
lA-O-^JsO UN
:8:3P:ll£' «i
iHi
3 ™5i
o^ o^o c^ o
8R3RS
OsOvO O CJ
•-« PcNM^_:}
OOOOO ^r^^
£x §©^^3 2),;?>«3€ ^^«as S^afSs^ &«;^SSi S^SSPl t^J
CO a\(j\CD a
i-a-atf^si ^i^stoji
^5tP R3P8iS
SK2&3
CO o^cD c^co
o c^o o o
«»8
O CJ o
3 O O O C
Sr^ COsQ UN
lAt---3 On
OOOOO
®s,^4fi
o o d w »-t
no>o r-<D <
r^ KN€D r-<
fH r^ 0 o *
$3S
•H OJ OJ
Onknun
d d o d d
ooooo
CO K\tD ONCr
r-ir.r--:Jo
O O O OJ rH
o r^NO 00 kno
^s^g^s
.-t i-l O O r-l
w3eo t-W
OOOOfH tHOfHC
000»-t»-t r-t>HOOi
< Cy CJ W rH
g;8^8i
:3f§:83^ S€;Sc^^ ^S;^S<? ^^^^^ ^^c8g& S^5iiS:3J^
S^^^5
> O O O
t>- •<> t-t-CD I—
OOOOO
a> 00 (D Ql OD
0000^
o <-t ^ ^ r^
&32S8i
J81 ^S:S8^»
000^0
•-4 O O f-l •-«
4 0'>-(oo ooooo oooo<
d drirH^
OJ On«)
^??^.^.
■S"PaN-j3N
3 O knOJ
O On O On On
0\ On O On »-*
p:S8S^S
ooooo
n o vo CO 00
S<S,S,;33
Pi?3
a! fr\KM--ON
f»-KN.!?^(0
€€fi&Sj
On O^ O On O
000 OnO
_4nOn.
^ :^s^^:^ Si
^KNsO_3^K\
CO CO r-(D
-JnOnO UN
^J^a^P ^S:?152 ^^8^
O'l^ .Or?"
I— t--NO t-Q
nO r-Of u
K\On<D o u
) OnQ
^£R8a3
i--r»-ONO
^■Nb ONt-r-
?8?3&^
On r-^0 On.<D
P»>Kg^ S^IOSS^ SJSSfifl Ji^RSJ^ «»©S3 ^J^^^a to^s
O >H i-H iH r^ CJCJfArArA N^»A»A«NfA KNrAtAfArA J-Zt-J-^-lt -alTvirnTvUN iAuNnO
OKMIN W ^CDKM/NO OnCMUNOO Cy-a"UNh-W ~:}<D tC\0 U\ OO U\H « O h-Ov
<^»a»ij jji^sii iiiii siiia s^kt^e^r s^^'st; fiisf:
K\ ^ ir\NO r- o
tStSS »^S3& 8<gg^3 si^ii gisss ssf
J"!
^- -"Eg
a c « o
B ^ -P 8 rH
5 £ 0 C o
« • rH
L. 9 i. •
Impact
439
Bf
b5
5gSl
a f
'l"^|
I ^ o a
ir\o irv
d d 6
o o o o o
O G d G
if\ rNg^iOOO JC'^S"^^ ooiTvOir* lAtriOOifs irtiTNOu
3S \£ s2 so ^ NO \o ^ vJs 35 vJS so \o ^ ^ NO r- r^ r^ r~- 1^ r- r- t*- t
GO dooop ddddd ddd<
ddddd
o o r\tfN
r- t- t- t-
d d d d
ooooo ooooo o<
ooooo 000(
SI§H
ITNO lAO O
RfJ^S-e
o o u^o o
^f^^ oj 0-*
r- r- r- r- r-
t^r- t^ r-
o o o
ooooo
OOOOO
ooooo
ooooo
ooooo
ooooo
o o o o
^O vO ir\
^esss
OOOOO
O O Q Q O
evj r-o o o
\0 ifN*C«\D
O u^iAO o
iTvON O iH lf\
^K^H
o o o o
O O O
ooooo
OOOOO
ooooo
ooooo
ooooo
ooooo
o o o o
lg§
(f\0 o o o
O r-l rH rH .H
ooooo
o o itno o
§S8§S
gs§§s
§S&8i
U-NO o o o
O O O p
o o o
OOOOO
ooooo
ooooo
ooooo
ooooo
ooooo
o o o o
5 iaJn
Ssls^
o o ^o o
f-gj fH o^ o
IrSSk
^^Sl§
Kf;^P;S
o ir\0 o o
l,RRR
o o o
ooooo
ooooo
ooooo
ooooo
ooooo
o o o o
■^h-"?* vo CO CO CO CO a> Q'^ f-* S\<S ooso<^a)
^a^c6 o\r-
j CO iTN ey cj p-« cy <
^.».»
Jt ^ ^ -a ^
tf\^ iri.*-3-
JJ^.»J
rsi/NlTNUNU^
«^u^lI^K^u^
K^it^iAiA
SSi,^
CJ CVJ W OJ OJ
0\-:» iri-3- .*
a«s^i^s
ey cy ^ cy cy
\0 rH J^ rH
S £1 o 2! J
S!S<asi?,
O r^ .-) O .H
RSSS
-»'^"'
J,A.fN^I/N
'""^'^'^'^
'^'^"^'^'^
i^tnifMfN^
^•^^^-^
vO^O^O-OiA
vO>OVO>0
A3#>
3^€;««
^a^s-i?-
■?s'^'Io'?v5
oj 1?. r- r- ^
r~ CT«^5 r-
iSSiS'P
*£i&B
j^ J
.».» J.».»
^^^ ^j
^^-»,* J-
J- J- -a -3- J'
.» J J J J
J- J J J i^
J i/MniA
S'AS'
55-333
i?^^^-?.
^^^^^
7n35 o^ ^ r—
2^S?>«
&€S;?>R
s^^s-
^^^
.=t.»J J^
^^^-^^
-a- J- J- ifN-*
^;.=t J J J
J J J jj
J J JJ
^SI3
ASG»K
*ss?:2»
:^^^«5
s;'g:^s<?i
3^88ti?>
#.K۩^
3i?s^3
•»'^^
jt l^^1^\u^lf^
-'■="^'^'^
^^^^^
^^^^^
J^^^ J
.» jj^j
^^-»-*
^;Rf^
^PPSP
^ I^OOJCO
CO »rv cH o so
CO t— CO On3
*^*33
S r~ rH 3 .*
Ov <7vav'?v
J l<^.a
J- K\tf\tf\tf\
K\J KSKMO,
iOj* ^ J^ _*
KN-*-*^ trs
>Aj K^K^J
I^IAJ KNJ-
KMCMTi^
o o o
o ino o o
rM .H CJ OJ OJ
O ITNO IfMA
O O tf\0 O
cy CJ cy cy CJ
8SS82
o |5iq>o o
88SS
o o o
ooooo
OOOOO
OOOOO
ooooo
OOOOO
o o o o
SS2
O IQO o o
O O O UJUJ
SS^^a
o o u^O o
sssss
SGSSS
o o o o
w w cy cvj
o o o
ooooo
OOOOO
OOOOO
ooooo
ooooo
ooooo
o o o o
o o o
rH rH •-<
rH rH W cy Oi
8?,S»1&
cy cy cy cy cy
8g»a8
O O O O (A
W W CJ OJ rt
2SS8g
o o o p
cy cy cy cy
o o o
ooooo
ooooo
ooooo
ooooo
OOOOO
ooooo
o o o o
o o o
M <-t w oj cy
O (TNO UMTN
CM K^-:* OJ cy
8SS?,S^
SgSJgS
O O O O u-\
rH •-» tH C\J CVJ
88SS
o o o
ooooo
OOOOO
ooooo
ooooo
OOOOO
ooooo
o o o o
^ <-t ^
sssss
O O O U^iA
cy if\-^ CJ cy
S8S?,8
O O (f\0 o
8 8SgS
S:5SSS
88S8
o o o
ooooo
OOOOO
ooooo
ooooo
OOOOO
ooooo
o o o o
o o o
r-( rH iH
•H rH W cy W
O O O ITMA
cy-* -* cy cy
SSS^R^
O O lAO O
SSSSIS
o \r\u\o o
o o o o
o o o
OOOOO
OOOOO
ooooo
ooooo
OOOOO
ooooo
o o o o
N KNCO CO ir\CO t«^ f-
».3J
J -*-*.* .*
J -* -* .^ -*
^ jj.»^
.* jj j^
"^^'^'^'^
tfMr^.A^tf^
u^,A.rM/^
?iSi3
cy r-cy cy cy
CO cy K^cy cy
CJ -* cy \0 t—
J- CSr^ cy CN
S8;^8^?i
SS!.g8^
if\fr\^K^r-
O O HjrH
K^OCO(D
J ll^ J
J ,/^^^u^
.»^ UMAif\
U^J- iTmTN.^
u%j- J.3 <r\
^O J^O^O^O
M3.0 m^O ITS
^oso a^^
a««
^S«€«
?,#-#vSS
H\i\'r^i\'S
€1?,S?-^
ir\«riK\-* lA
^Siss;
^ JJ
"'"'"'■='"'
^^■'-'^
■'--■'-'
JJJ.=»KN
J -*-*.* .*
jj^j^
J J J J
s^«?;
^S«««
^32«gr
a3^^S~
^2PRS
g;A25§
^co'^'^ ^
g«5gr
a-» J
.» J J J J
rrs j^ J- K\_*
'^'^'^•^-^
J J J J
SS;?^
,* o «■* »'\ ^<^
^^SSS
Ri?>»'?-3
^^^-* OS
J- <x> c^ K\^
cy ^CO K\r-(
3i?vA^
J- lf^ j^
jt ^ ^ ^ ^
iAj.» |/^«^
-*-*-*.* ^
j.» J J
5:§«
asiRS-R
^St,KSS
SA^^cS
f:i?.^f^8;
?s§;Ra
^^<A
"wOOs sAiTSMjtoo (yey<0«Hf— ir\pr\C\K\K\
r rf -» ^f^^-o^'^l«^ ^i— d^oco 0\ cj ^ <-» cy
iH.-4rH r^rHCWCJCy Cy K\K\Jt -*
\co\ocooo cy»^*fsr7
> iH 9v KSOJ O I
^32
ss
•5
|5
•fe
£,
'-S
pi
. ^^g
a i"i
; "»^
9 7^*3 °
»■ . ,.£§
a5«sg
l3"hS£
s;?!?
.2.Sl>
St; i-a::
Ecels
ti^tig..
iz^is
440
Impact
tt
^ i
l?3
ir I
g §loa
a^s
'ate
t-
S'
S'Ssvoon*. cococolRos co(>rHONO^ oji^nr,^ vowN^ojw w^tf\>ovo r-ovoog \oSo\b
>vo^vo^ ^\o\o^^ vovoi^vor- t^t-t^t^ r- 1- h- 1- 1^ r- r- r- 1^ t^ r-t^cocoo) r^t-r-
)dood <D <i <i S o d c> o o o o g o o d o g <> o o d d d o o d d d d ddo
Oif. OOOO OiTvO (fsOiTiO O OO O OO OO •0<C^C>
r-IO r-t^rHOJ rH.-lr^ O .HO'-' •-' ■-<.-( r-t ^f-l r-i t-t OQO
'OOOO OOOOO OOOOO OOOO ooooo ooooo ooooo ooo
OO OOOO ooo o ooo
5 CO CO CO t- t--co t- t-oo o 0\ O •-( CU OJ ^
Jdd ddddd d d d d d d d d d
I o ooo
> o o o o <
MAO £\rv if\Q tf^
3COQ&»0\ »f\(© ir\
5 d d d d d <
J '?\ vfl 5 ir\ tpv5
JS2S& 2SS2S S&&8S !S'&I&&£' SB&SS
joooo OOOOO ooooo ooooo ooooo
> d d d d ooooo ooooo ooooo o
> vS ^O 3 ITS ^5\3tf\^3 iJSvO^SiTv \D^o7\"uN\^ uV
ooo jPnTMA
OOO ooo
ooo oddd d d d
ir\\r\tr\ ooooo tfMr\ir\
CNrHON a\0(?vf^-5 iTvCO o
too ooooo ooooo
S ■i^'^g&St g^&S^^ 5^8^^S^ K^^^^^l
JXO <M CdvO (
3 CC l^^^o Q> i?Sn<
^J«^«^^
'^'^■^'^'^
u^j^jin
«^^^,n,^
'^"^"^'^'f^
'^'^'^'^'^
,A^«>
saaasi
?!,s<af<s
cy w cy cy CJ
.H .H r^ r-l .H
535SS
^ iH iH rH f-H
t-0\0s0 O
O (H tH rH O
gSot
'^'^'^'^'^
'"'^'^'^'^
ifN^^^iAin
uMrMrNu>NO
'^'^'^'^'^
"^•^"^^^
NONONOUJ-O
>OND,A
RRSStP
fr\tr> OJ »0 K\
r-cO OS t^co
^HMfMng;
ss^si&g;
S8i£8^8
r-o Os oco
aas;^:;^
2!8^
^ ^ -* -* -*
J- j-^ J- J-
J J J J J
J J J- J J
■^j^ J- '^
J ITNJ U^J•
J ITN^ ITNITN
UMfMA
-* K>COCO K\
IRSSSJ?
CO -J CO K\CO
S'RRRS^
^ r^-:f »r\vo
5^?S^
#.^#,s;s
«P^
J J^ J J
^^^^j*
J- -^ J- J- J-
J- J J- J J-
^ J- J- J^
J^ J J J J^
j^ ir\
03 Ov Ov CT\ ON
cjj cy oj cy oj
g^ssasi
cy c\i cy cvj cy
OS ^ On On ON
88(8^SSl
SSSSJ 81
21S3
-»^^^J
jj^jj
JJU^ITNJ
-* ^ -* -* -*
J JJJJ
•^"' "'"'•='
^^ja%j
'"'^'^
«*«?:5;
^S'S^S^*
JjaR*?
gRKK*
s^s^^s-
*S*R3
CO it^CO CO o
s-sa
J .^j J J
J J^^ K>
•='-^^'^^
^^-'-="^
•'•*'^'^^
KN^ PTNJ KN
KN J- 1^ J- -*
^ JIfN
oooSS
SliJS&g
S&2&&
&&g§S
s:!^S'2S
ooooo
s2Gs;s
SSl^
ooo
ooooo
ooooo
ooooo
ooooo
ooooo
OOOOO
ooo
00&22
2S22&
22SSS
ir. £- u-' o o
o o o ^ w
2g822
82222
228^S
sss,
.S22 22&00 lS'o2&S SBSeeS &222S'
,2^5S oir\ooi/> oootfMTv ir\if\ir\(50
)OrH^ '-•'-t'H.-HO .-(.-H.HOO OOOOrH
> o o o o
82
OO ooooo ooooo
OO oiTNOOo trsoooo
>o ooooo oooo<
',■& 222&& S&S&:
looo ooooo ooooo
)ooo ooooo ooooo
>oo ooooo oooe
;2s 2228S' eei&j
loooo ooooo oo<
)oooo ooooo ooc
ooo
o o tr\
odd
\Sso^.H oSScoo wcyw'?4ir\ u^WiHcy'?* Oiorr\^»rv ^ j* irs^ ir\
5 SSiSag a£!28!P; g^SISCEJ iSKRSf
\tr\mir\ir\ CO KMOi® c
^S'fi.^i
t ?,?,*,?; ^3?.5S 3RS:SA '?>'S.S;S« ««#.??." "S^^~
>tr\ («~\ KNCO ir\K\cuc-cO (nmcpcpfTt »r\KMrMr»K\ •C\t'^'OK^•0 »r\pr\»riir\KN
)cocococO cot— cfNOOT ra r-vo ^co <di— cot^co oooocor— co 'Ot— r-co t~-
pgcy
NfflOOJg ir\K\JlAj<^ JK\^^^ ^Jj^pg
^ScO COCKCTvOnOn C^5(
151 S3
28;
5 a
o o S d ts
Impact
441
8
a
8S12^
£ I
5^ a
S '^ s
Sto a
o o o o o o
m
o o o o o
r— r-t— r-r— r-t— ScyM23 cococooo
ddood ddddd oooo
ooomo «r\ooo«rN ooif\o
ooooo ooooo oooo
G o d S o dddoo oooo
ScO COCO O^X> C
> d d d'dd (
coSo
d d <
&«§«§ g««§§ «§§S§ s§||
ooooo ooooo
;fi3
jeesR g?
ooooo
i«S«
>oooo oo<
> o ooooo
) r- CO "^^ !«-%.-.
D ooooo
OOOOO
ooooo
ooooo
ooooo
OOOOO
OOOOO
6 d <> a
w oj oj cy oj
D ooooo
sslla
O lAO »f\0
ooooo
lls^^^
§§§sl
sl?§
ooooo
ooooo
ooooo
ooooo
OOOOO
OOOOO
ooooo
oooo
-. ff\K\^ c-O
\£) ^O vD ^£) ^X>
gllgg
ss^ss
O if\0 r^ Qv
gf«P8
o ^ ^ tr\
o <H t^\b
D OOOOO
ooooo
ooooo
ooooo
ooooo
ooooo
ooooo
oooo
o i-t o rt K\ oRjK\)ri
or-r— oir\ cy\Oj3to*--
i^
CO^ O rH Ov
AS«
CO o o Ov r-Q
- O O O J- OMi
p-- o ir\co vo j'OOirsiHO
OJOOCjvO jhC0-*OO\
c\j o o ^ ^o ^covpcyiH
O .H cv O W ir\cyONr«-\^
ooooo
o o o mo
d <i S G G ooooo
ooooo ,952.1^9.
ooooo o o <
o o o o o <
o O O J-vO
OOOOO o <
OOOOO o <
ooooo O o <
ooooo o o <
O iH oooo
ooooo OOOOO
OOOO
d d d d
J o o o o o u-\o
\oo ooooo ooooo "^SjOiO'O oir^ooo oooo
)000 ooooo ooooo
ooooo ooooo
ooooo ooooo
o o
oooo
3C0 t^co fXi r-vj
ooooo
ooooo
o o o oo ooooo ooooo
ooooo ooooo .9 999S
ooooo ooooo ooooo
ooooo ooooo ooooo
ooooo
lOOOO OOr-tOrH i-*000
-3 S&5
!Rr£^? SIS«2J
«&S!?;8 SS.'SRS:
r™ 00 o^ c\co \
OviTMrNj- O vOChOOt^
cocoo\c^(K t-cocotor-
SiSRSS «S;S!S^ ^*S25: gp^^Pi ?SS«'i^ S^S^8i« ^S*8R 22S;«
^•<^CJJ u~\voOltr\(f\ Oirsf— i-HifN co<-<OsK\j' "^QiO^Q ■st^^^^Tt K\K\ifNtr\i^ ^-^^-9
) ^ irv3 coa\o.HOj r-<^ocycj ^^^1X3 t-^cocoo o ^ ^ j 'S r-coJVoo -^cvjcj^
^^o O O^O ^O "
ooojooo oo*
NlTSvO «00^0^0^
scss? fipi^F:?; ssafi* «a
)(^^iri^ Or^CT»i»^^ <VJ--C0^5^ NAO\Ot~
lOJfyCVJOJ trNtrsOJCVJ<-4 WCyOCTO »i^^&\
^ o«w2''^ ^St?
iss«5 ^is^se
•4 S k.
° fcls>5
E 8a>5v
S «"?:?°
.5SS8.2
iSS,
442
Impact
^3S ,
« 9 «
M ^ M q
II
It
t 0
CO 0\ C\ c
d o o o c
rN!f\otrMr\ ooooir\
M? On t- ON CO ^C"*^t~Kr
<S S O G <> O O G G G
&i O 0\ O 0\
G A O r^ O
s««s
''^©Q'^o OirMTNOirv iTNOooo ooooo qooqitn irvQa
«&§&« SSSSS 8S8;^« «&&&& &&&«« &«5
OOOOO o <
ooooo
^Ol^^o^^\ 0!0<?i'^«r\ oa~MnOQ ooo
-COOJOm QOOvftjCy CO^MmiS CQ-d-Q
JCOOvOvCO O\0vC00N0N COOvOnCOCO COO^O^
OOOOO
NO O O
!r\ooo(> |iMr\pQ
OMr\«^t-Q t-^ 5»^
cOOnO\OnO O^Oi&^Ci
)000 OOOOO OOOOO OOOOrH oooo
jriifMTvOQ ^*^^ f^S. o ir\ jf\ ir\ ir\ jrvoj?"^
!SSS
i 6 6 6
>SoO ooooo
d d d d d
> O O O O O O rH <
OOOOO
CO tecocoSco
OOOO
»0 OOOOO OOOO
!.«S
vO(0 •-« r-
^^4S
00 r-o
t-eooo
S tH pr\ S^ "AlRSS rH ^ CO !
OJ tf\o6 -^5 SocoZxFr- 5r-v6o5r— o^cr-cor- *?v'?\d5 F-\4
\ONOvo vO'O
CvvO O ^CO
OncO iJs O O
3 VOVONO^O
jvo >X>\0 t-^O
&;»«?
) ITN OJ «-H »f\ »H ITS CTvO
8 8SJ;
o o o o o o o <
o o o o o
<> o <i O <D
ooooo
oooo
> cy KN ^ .»r\
d d d d
ooooo OOOOO
^OsOnOOn O\0\O\0\0n
I--VO \OCO (
OOOOO
OOOOO
OsOsO 0\0s
d d d d d
O O S O G
OOOO
>0000 OOOOO OOOOO
d d d d d
OOOO
0\G 0\0\
7\^ab\
S 2
OOOOO
O O O J--*
ooooo
> O O O O
s OS OvOsO\
ooooo OOOOO ooooo
O On J CTnJ-
d d d d d
OOOO
OvO\0\^
-* -* (/N uS
OOOOO OOOO
O IfNOvO <
d d d d <
?53AS
»0000 OOOOO o<
CO K^^O^O^ r
cjvo-*oir\ ^^voco*
ir\MrHt~-o\ t^in»f\oi
^0^0^0^0^0
NvOCOKNrH .-tcyOM?-d'
^KPS^?
IfMTNVOVOvO
vo vO vO iTvvO
v£) (TwO*^
VO
^OU^^O^O
^
^OvO^^CU^
^o,r^,r^u^t-
^0^0^^^0
^^ri^Si
COvo W trx^
«SiSg
t-i
S^SS
w
?;25^^?
•ssss^g
£2gi«
\0S0\0V0S0
\o^\a<^so
>OVD>0-i
-o
^O ,fN.OvO
^O
^o^ovo-o^o
UMn%oin-o
IfN^ONO -O
asKMTStH .H
S«SR^
O^ OMT
Slot
^
sss&s:
M58^
mvo'O'-o vo
V0>0V0^V0
^^^^
VO
>o>o-o<o
^
•^-^^^"^
"^'^-^'^^
"^^^'^
Sf;3?,:^gf
SSSlR^
CVJ ^ ch o ^
?^©^'iS^
3SSSS
l^gpSS
PiPS^
t^S'oN&Jirv
PSSS^S:
«£fi;i?i
^5^««s^
o«o CU -a •«
cy ir»\o t~- 0\
2!&?,^f(
SP«^
O ^ .H ^ Oi
tr\tc\tr\^ ^
ITNO UAOCO
(uco r-o\
<^S.»»S
ASSSS-
«5 vo 5-5-5-
5^?RJ^R
?vt;^SS
3«S3S
ARS^RS-
r-a r^ rH >H r-4
i?vS&SS^
SstySS
5^55S«
3?;ass
KSSS
I s s
8.^
U 9i fO C U *>
Of ^ a a d
O • O o -•
£ <^ N ^ U S
Impact
443
3 ^5i
^ 5 tf\o
5-1. a
I. o I. g
i b
e M
sa
^o^o<^ w_3-oc\r<r> H-v^r^r-C' c\i<Dir«0'_i o <y <o r^ o^ to^xyo^O -^oocuo^
OrA<-4 »Acy<DCO^^ .-i»A^(Cr* »AnO u^^O f^ iANi5<Dr^t4 <^-^'i*d'l tOlAcyO-'^rH
s-&^ J?*::
^^r--^ IT-raCV-jr- O- O-^ O^ CD r- Q-^COr^(D .-1N^5'<]
>l^_:j_:J CM »^ 04 lA »'^ K^_iJ■^0 ^ K irvt— (^llf^ey jknO^
! ^ ^ r^ O <-I "-^ d -i o o o cy »A CJ03»rirA|A K\_5-:Jc
KM^-iT -:t-:J^
o^uMAr- ^NOr-r^cjc
c3^!C T?;s;^^S, iSStRSS ^885^_ ^^^^^ ^.'<;^^? ^^^^^^
odd G o d S o o <5 d S <i ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ .-i'cJ d <3 d d d d d d r^ i^ oJ oJ
<-:jcj0^co l/^c^^-K^^- t-KDcpOK- i'^iai/nJpc u>o_^kv-^ t-o^ iA_:»qsoj
<a-. rAw^ r-roifNKNCvj ^^O-rJw WptnIaO'S) ^^Ti^l^ N r< c Kl nD if^
sojcoa- aomo^co^ eoo^o^too^ (ocotddi-I odt-<<Hr^ Jw^ooo^
iTvJ l/^ <D-Oir\ot-- r-«<p<tta- c>rr\K>r-iA h-r-K\<\)t- Jirs-O^oeM ir.cy^Kv^ovO
CO CJ lA WCyflOC^ ^OK^K^^OO^ C>>0 ITNCM »^ CyODO^lAi-* I/MA0^«0 UN lf\-J»^ oo-:tu\
«;>Aj ./u^u:,-:,; crooad^ <^°'£jaa s'si'^d;! S'Sis^Si Sji^2;^d
c^'>_J o^c^_^OKv K^K^aiKMJ^ irvOiAWETs SCt-u^f^t: tttf^iC^**'*' Cil-J-4<y 5f^
(vj K\ v"- K>M^j(M^ r-sOf^r-r- t-mc^o^ij- coo^r-eoo o IS o <J o^ oo^»3eoO'-<
)00 ooooo ooooo oooo*
r^f^o ocvioovo sooNOt-'^ r- to ir\ .-• no -aM~.f-r^o r^NOK\o*t* NOK\r-^ooo
KN^O IT. iA>ocDKNO o (o H^ ■-' -< >^c^<^i<-•^*^ ocj'^_:j_J i4dcy_:t'-< H^cy J '*^^'*^
g;i?;?<
S^S^&IS?
ceo o cf on
Kf:S:£&
ggrgl^SG
8(!?S:t8(
&S^&«8
ooo-o
0000--
d d d r* d
O K\0
-:?0_3I^^O
OnO r>- HNsO
KNW>o K-r-
a K\0 O H^
^t-'-^t^ f<^
h-n0-3O.O->
J«^j
irv-3^m O CO
CDD^r-O)
S=;£JS2
rH HNCO <D KN
iC^:C;3S
J^f^ lACO C^'^^
oj cJ <y
^-SJCPS
•^^ "C- 'Z. '^ 'j>
&:8!8*'?P
£Sr?,S,S:
a&2i&&
S;8!2iR8!::
o o o
d d d d c5
d d d d d
^r-l ^ l-l d
6 6^ 6 6->
W»S»S SS*SS MiSWW WUblU
•-•^(D-oo ir\*o_:}a>o t^or-r-'O o^sO_:jw
cjwJ^cj-i ^ojfAojcj soojdir^ ><5sdojd_:J lAJ ct* ^ ^' ^ vo J lA d »A
WcS^S SS»** Cd3ESM)M MMWW» S3«*» »*»»»■•
^0^'000 r-to-^ — cy r-«lr^lJ^K-cJ (MOfojt- Jir\r--H_^ •^'^Cr'OQI-^
ddddd ddddd d d d d d d d d d i^ Jd<-t--*^ •-loi'J'Jdd
>NOrHO o r^ (c qi o «'-«KNr-t^ <^^-<^K^><> o^r^wooq
tddd ddddd ddddd ddddd d^i^d^c
'_j iTico^'^r- ir»f*-c^a)(0 P'^r^vo^ no iS^t^'^'Ps t^"^ ir\tf\^ KN?*a>Pbtfs
ixsa f!;»;3x?;R g;«s.33 r^:iv.s sv^mss ^ass^^z ajf^ssis*
-<o<Df-^<D r^r^i^cd 0^ cr d d d dl-Jdo^c^a>
t^r^r- t^r^i-ir^ri riflj^f^fl r-!f^t^(^t^ t^^^t-^r^s^ ■^5'3■^^45^o ^<J><Jrl-^<oflD
tr^yc o ^Ol/^cy-9ao <y CO '^ r* K\ K^<^K^H^o^ ir\^ itmTi-o -:jo_:T»rnr» cd _^ e o ir^^-
^_iJ lAr-OKSKN J d o a3 (^ cy-i<-J<y>o qjt-Icr'^t-^ d^cJ»d'^ coiAt-Jdcr
^,4^ ^ oj cy oi CM i^K\»r\_ij ^uma^'O ^-^-l^^-r*- i^ co to o^ (t^ &«
8S3 a^ix::^?; r^-s.^s.:^ ^^:^sf, s««2c3 ss^g^ ^i^::^^
^N-^ •Hhfcycyp^ cycycycyn -^ojcy^fy ^ ^ *h cy oJ ^olwcgcJ rJc^ci'^^'^
o — — S a"
** * c2 « odd
• ♦* O 1.
a (- O
♦> 3 u. J- « ««
* .„>■£■£
a fe St ^tifc
C Ti " I Its
.3
Ml © «v.OOOO «•
I i s 2|| t IS
♦» , • ». u — — c
"^ o 12 a. **
d 5 w ©'Ot^O •£
tf «• u cy <C irvcD -^ ^^
^ ii? ♦> I- i^i^i^w^ « n
it s Si
o Si
: a
a IK M t
J85
55fi1
II
444
Impact
ir
4^ u a
. „ « «
as
& o
>■ o e
< g B
(i (0
o t-cu J- r-
ni tM ovr-CT.
C-OCO Ovo
W OvOCO
o
t-o r-<-« w
«r\co\o iTM^ ir\
CO - t-JOO
2215 :5S
.-1 ir\0_J <Tv
rH r^ rH CJ •-.
K^aS^
IR
pr\0 Cy (TNKN
ar^sis^?;
K^Sg^tR
SS«'i£«
^«S<Ss^
SSp^S
R
?^82A1R
O W g;OC0 W
OOOOO 00<H0^ 0<H.H^»-«
iHOJCyWiH rHOOr
-OCO t-T-
J vi) t-r-o
^ j^ -» r-^
^-o <T.r-cvj
O w r-«<^
to J K\.-l lf^<^
'""'-^'""^
loas^""
rH OMAH^r-
OOMDOCO
®'w 12 S w
^ S^KNKN.^ ^
3k«g:s^
SiSSSS
SS81SS
irN iTvmo J-
S«S«?^
\^ 8 CM CO r^&
OOOOO O"-"©©© Or
) O O O O Or
1^\K^^-JCT^ ^r— Onc\jct\ r-ojONtcvON cjvooqOcj •-t«H\0'-ta!)t
r^t--t^r-r^ r—t-^r-cot^ aacor-coco cococoovco cor-r-cococ
I t~ VOJOJO\ (OCOr
) r- r- t— r-cor^cor-
\0<00c0^0 r*-CO»HONO OOCOOO 0^ 0\.C^ CO OS Os CO c
O OOOOO OOOOO OOOOO OOOOO OOOOO OOOOOO
> O ^ ^ r^
.H r- cu -. so
vo r-r-o r-
CO l<^r-co cvj
CO w -<voco
cj cu K^K^K^K^
■"'^'^'^'^
coco O00>O
\0 CO .H KSi-t
.H rH r-(
I^^SJ^S-S
f-l OCO Ov.-.
*H fH >H »-i
58^^^
f.'KS^J
3 ^'t^<£^
Si.S»8(S
pis A3 pi
SS5S-SS
> o o o o <
)00 OOOOO OOOOO OOOOOO
■f-cocovo ^-c^ou^co f-cocoiAco r-co^^t
:o-a.os ^JF^.
i o cJ d 6 C3 (
)00 OOOOO o<
3: X S M 3
IS 3WS3W 33333 33333
•g s
£ E
•as
5SSWS WWWW5 S«»SW 33XSX »»»»3 WWWWWS
j-om.-!^ r-irNrH^Nt-^ ajcvjo<2-a r-FTMHOOs rr\corHO'0 o^cy_*g;G
O i-ic\joorH .-(fr\00N-\ OrHi-HOo J■K^^^^^f^^- j'^oONr-io •h\ocO'AO^
)00 OOOOO OOOO.O OOOOO OOOOO OOOOOO
\ J' vo uS \o-^kSooco ^^or-CT^-d- cjONCT^r-r^ON
> d o o cDoodo csddoo ^dddcDo
JVC tr'*^o-Tt-* '^iOSyc-"^ lAt-j'Cr'O^
^ao &\r-r-ir\<-i t^o^o^Jt^ kP,ojcjOocvj
jvo -^^^o^t-- ^o^ot^r-^ r- r- t^ r- r- c—
SSS^R
g^ass
8
J Oco O
.H cy K>oj
S3"R;^
!R^?,^S
S8S2^^
cssss
5;iS<^S
r-
.-t h-vO --*
SJSSSS
t-r-coco r~
r- r-\o c^ r-cD
OJ 1?\'3 O f— J-
to^sovo ./^
~^*^^^
vo
-O-OSOVO
sO>0>0 IIMA
'^'^'^^'^
r— r- r- r-^ ^o
CO .^t- so .A
or-c^J^-.-
CO
^-r^^<0
OCDC^SO.*
so o O t-- lr^
^O^Os^sO
1 -
p. a
itt
^tt ■ s
-So,
O 3 S
£..1
1
.
u«
aioim
CUBS 11^-6 {snuM)
SRID
«.r.t.
rhj^^^
IKII SIRiSSn
sna-iHPLiTniss
U
innw antnsxs
8p..l
«.rt
Eon.
mrt
E>ut (Urdu-
«r
;'^1S.
„
'';^
:fL"'B,
mT'
lot Qlrd«r
?«»1
OirUr
Jl?
M.F.H.
lUP...
P»rt
""SlSi"
V.P.B.
But ««<t
Btr...
Str„.
SJrt
BtTM* Dg l2
ItoBOlflw
atr...
\^
ll.Rjri.r
6trM>
^y
lhEnin*r
Qlrdw
01r.w
P.r
Pw
c«l.l
5
7 8 9 10 11 12 13
11* 15 16
17 18 19
20 21 a
23
21.
— 2r"
28
18.9
1.31i
u,
7.75
"
"
"
0.20 0.01
0.20
0,01
0,20
7,21.
8,52
0.7) 10.U
0.20
2.5
1*7
El
2.13
7.QI1 6
59
7.82
0.2U
5.2
0.22W
0.75 o.lli
5.20
0.92
0,19
I..8U
1 51
16 I
S
0J|61>
O.U75
fc2?
7.26 (
I49
6I1
l:«
0.J1
O.OliW
5.V
olej 0.25
0.92 0.J2
I+.95
5.32
?!"
0.25
ojj.
5.21.
2.56
5.09
2:E
0)295
0.J80
2^88
5.00
\'Jk
9.32
9.37
1.07 15.2
1.06 15.1
i"»
li.,B
I5J.
25.3
130
Uo^
2.»5
O.J^
luTl
6.70 8
4
7.62
o.ot,
0.5
o.sew
5.0if
2.6it
0 87
1 98
0 87
2 26
0 5)
1J.0
17 2
129
ia.6
?jS
luM
6.65 »
25
7Ji5
-oil)
0.J5*
l*.6ir
0.97 0.)5
1.56
0.1.7
3.32
5.10
o.e; n.8
2.15
?1
a
hs.t
3.85
0.U78
1>.61>
6.75 8
6.31 9
59
7.67
o:S
1.2
K16W
15I5W
0.7; 0.?9
1.22 OM
1.1*6
2.55
0.53
0.57
ts
o°:SS
5^56
?.H
10.05
o.W 6.1
o.lfl 7.0
1.95
3.97
23.8
1.8.9
122
S.5
3.70
10,0 8
0.1i61
li-Tl
6.26 e
7I1
7,50
-o.oe
-1.1
0.70*
9.21'
0.58 0.55
1,06
1 oe
1 38
0 80
7 (»
9 77
iW
\t
OJtSl
k.75
6.36 9
2.1.
0,61.11
S:2? 1:11
U.i
7,58
».J
t.2S
9.5 «
0.1j61
U.71
6.52 9
te
8,75
7.87
0.29
3.8
l.OJW
0.9eir
0.79 0.71,
2.55
5.26
5.35
0.850
2.92
15.60
1.75 21u9
5J.B
67.5
7.09 5
0.97
11.5
O.76H
l.Jl 0.81
2.1.5
2.31.
o.l«eo
1^65
1:2
1£0
MS
5.6 1
0.1*65
7.00 8
26
7.63
0.05
0,7
o.ww
1,2W
0.97 0.90
1.08
1.B9
1.22
1.1.5
1.06O
1.55
8.55
1.51 21,2
25.1
19B
67.7
U.60
2.2 B
0.519
U*7
6.71 9
86
8.29
0.71
9.3
o.9aii
12 .9W
\M 0.92
!:S
2.39
1.21.
1.92
1.92
1.060
1.78
8.50
12.25
1.16 20.7
1..H
50.9
JS
S:S
U8
71.0
5.M.
5.3 «
lu65
7.1.7 6
69
0.50
6.6
0.I1W
0.97 1.01
2,21.
1.37
1.6)
1.61
1.190
1.55
B.W
51-7
200
72.1
5.1Z
6.2 •
o.l«
14.70
6,22 8
71,
7JJ
-0.10
-1,5
0.721*
9.5W
0.78 1.05
0.92
1,65
1.1£
1.16
1.22
1.255
0.99
6.16
10J.0
I 12 15.9
2 28
S.l
5.W
I..OS
Ud
e.al.
J.UK
1.11.
9J.7
2J.5 51..5
5J.5
2Qe
79J.
5.«
lu56
1J.90
K:J
0.W0
i:g
9^.7
2«
BS^
5.»
U3 1
7,15 9
IB
8,16
0.5a
7,6
OJiJl
1.18
2.72
2.16
1.595
11.90
5.78
ali-0
0.1i60
It. 71
6.70 S
7,80
0.22
2,9
o.si."
7.1W
1.70 lj,3
lel9
2,11.
1.95
1.11
1.92
l.«0
1.11.
8.W
ii.oe
1.36 19.5
2.90
f^:Z
U.69
1.W
2,)B
1.715
1.39
8,55
12.15
1.51 a J.
lu05
SOU
7.5W
3.01
1.97
1.53
2.56
1.715
1.38
9,05
2.01 28.5
1..S6
56.2
tJ
&;
ae.o
6.23
oj.77
luU,
6,61 9
u.
7,88
9.1W
1.16
2.72
1.50
2.26
1.21.
8,1.0
11.86
206
^•1
1 1 1
8.51.
12.6
0.70R
9.2W
\'Vl ^'V
0.77
2,97
2.12
1.1.0
2,09
1.81.5
1.13
8J.5
12.79
IJa 20.0
l.,«7
57.5
205
6.35
U8 8
o.iae
u-a
6.99 9
3"
8,19
a.o
0,61»
B.OW
2,87
2.16
1.53
2.22
1.880
1,16
12.26
l..li.
t eirdw 0.01(5
LOCCdIOIIVE CUSS 1
Ihaor^tMl
xux
ntssu
SQU-AUPUTDDBS
HUDTK mutU \
E>
t 01rt.r
<•!« Olritr
Avsne
• Both Olrdarc
tut OlnSer
• •It 0
r4..-
LMd«4
Anrftft*
Sj»,J ttrnt
Boll !«.rt
7r.o
k kcd Bkm
T1.1.
i ud Suaur
lR.Ct
^««t
SPUD
timsigi
Ibu
fr^^wnaj
E*>t
<m BTfae
t
B
at Sft—
t
la
DtfUvtl-m
k«t
»..t
P.r
Dti^uIo
Dr>^o
"n'^
Dja-'.o
BMt
h.
■.r.s.
«.P.S.
Put
laabca
v.p.s.
CH..«.r
01r8>r
...I
Str.M
Cut
Btnww
Crt
Str<»
"b"
lk8»lPln'
"'•"
°b"
ll.e.Ul.r
""••
kh^lPln-
Olrdor
Glrd.r
Stroat
o«rt
BtrM.
Cnt
CUl
2 5
1.
5
6
7
8~
9
10
U
12
19
11.
15
16
17
18
19
20 21 22
^
21.
«
24
27
28
153
U.e
ajo
0t55«
tia
8.16
6.99
8.58
»
0
»
0
0.96
0.31.
0.95
6.52
9.93
0.34
Ibl.
U51.
9.8
191*
9.0
aTi
e.9«
8.81.
8.60
0.0«
0 2
0.171!
2.08
O.IJ.
Sg
0.1.9
8,80
9.28
0.61.
7.8
0.29
5.2
155
13.5
1:?5
s:a?
1..1.0
8.60
8.69
e.TU
0.14
1.9
0.26B
3.0!
0.1.8
O-llS
9.09
9.99
(1.95
11.1.
0.91.
3.8
150
19.5
1..59
8,<e
9.58
8.60
a22
2.6
o.^a
tJW
0.M
S79
0.78
Vi
5.51
0.72
0,13
5.50
9.11.
9.52
0.96
0.B
10.9
157
150
25.0
1.96
0.5^
b.51
8.65
iai6
9.1.0
0.82
9.6
0.51"
9.611
0.1.8
0,19
2.55
c.lA
1,61
0,1/
0.21
2.15
8.81,
10.55
0.66
8.3
1.54
15.1
2S2
1-99
0.5I.J
kJ9
8.1.6
9.62
9.*
0.1.4
5.U
0.16»
1.91
o.U.
0.19
2.92
0.91.
0.25
1.96
fc59
0.22
1.79
8.1.4
10. U5
0.90
3.7
1.1*
16.2
lis
lbs
29.1*
2*52
S&'
Ito57
7.82
9.76
8.79
0.21
2.U
CSS"
6.5»
0.1.8
0.24
1.85
0.66
0.59
2.06
O.SC
0.50
1.96
8.52
10. M
0,14
2.0
1.1.6
16.2
fe?
8.75
1^55
6.26
9.58
6.92
0.'91.
Vo
o.a.11
2.8IT
0.61.
0.56
1.T7
0.51
0.17
1.06
0.51!
0.1.2
1.1.0
M*
10.1.0
0.1.0
I1.9
1.1.1
15.7
U47
3.18
O.5U5
1..59
e.oe
9.61.
8.89
0.25
2.9
0.59«
Ib6>
0.61.
0.1.9
1.91
0.78
0169
1.21.
0.56
1.2e
6.65
10.90
0.1.9
6..0
1.91
U>6
1?!
U-5
3.28
0.551.
1^55
7.87
«>5e
8.72
0.11.
1.6
O.U.>
5.W
0.51
0.52
0196
Ob 1.4
0.67
0.69
O.U>
0.59
0.61
8.U
10.06
0.25
5.1
1.07
U.9
U.0
5.32
Ou53<
IbU
8.16
9.76
8.96
0.58
U.U
0.3r«
0.90
0.55
1.70
a95
0.68
1.1.0
0.92
0.61
1.52
9.01.
10.69
0,86
10.0
1,70
1£,9
im
151.
ise
W.9
It?
1A5
U7.0
1.7. 0
5.W
J. 71
5-71
a 552
I..50
I..UO
7.68
10.26
9.07
0.W
5.7
a76ii
6.^
1.26
o.5«
2.17
1.45
0.75
2.20
1.1.4
0,64
2.20
9.11.
11.90
0.98
12.0
2.91
52.1.
a.521>
0.5«
0.551
7.78
6.90
7.66
e.ce
9.38
10.16
9.86
9.82
8.77
8.95
-0.05
0.19
0.57
^).6
2.2
1^5
0.5^
ol67"
0.1.5"
Ib»
Ukl"
7.6»
5.211
0.97
1.17
0.80
i.d.
0.61.
0,65
0.64
0.64
hfo
r.58
O.U.
1.72
0.85
0.85
0.52
2.09
1,16
1.26
0.62
1.38
^1
0.76
0.76
1.58
1.70
0.62
1.82
I:S
8.50
9.09
10.11.
10.16
10. JO
11.57
.0.10
0.31.
0.»
7.1
-1.2
I..2
11.U
1.15
1.17
1.51
19.5
£4
2S.7
1^
151
191
1*
iM
1.7.2
M.U
W.7
50.2
5.72
5.TU
9.91
2.51
0.51.5
0.5Z2
0.5«
0.5M
0.579
1..59
kU
I..92
I..52
1^27
7.^
8.22
e.oe
8.5*
7.75
9.98
9.96
10.1.0
9.5!
11.52
8.78
9.09
9.21
8.81.
9.52
0.20
0.51
S:?6
0.91.
2.5
5.9
7.3
3.0
0.72"
o.uun
0.75"
o.t«i
U3*
6. 1.11
5.1«
e.7»
0.9"
15. 8W
0.62
0.66
0.61.
0.97
0.58
0.66
0.67
0.73
0.7U
0.75
1.21.
0.98
l'.51
S:r6
0.70
ilu
0.84
0.87
0.95
0.95
0.97
0.67
0.67
0.71.
2.15
1.50
0.70
0.62
0.67
1.50
uoe
0.76
0.77
0.81.
0.92
0.61
0.80
1.77
1.18
6.1.4
8.81.
9! 28
8.91
10.50
10.5I1
11:2
12,76
1.22
0.15
9.7
8.5
-0.5
11..5
1.51
2.67
9.79
16.6
17.2
29.8
i»
190
lis
IM
UiO
51.!.
wot
t25
1..29
It. 50
1.0«
5.U
7.U
2.08
o.l«
0.528
0.591.
0.528
0.525
IbU.
lb 1.2
U.IM.
7.78
7.9T
7.72
8.U1
9.18
10.50
9.96
10.91.
10.26
10.61.
9.U.
8.96
,'o:l
0.1.6
0.58
ill
1.U5
8.7
6.9
16.7
0.*)!
0.5«
1. 16»
0.IJ11
0.51.!.
11.01
6.5"
■IS
0.95
0.56
0.66
0.90
Lorr
0.79
0.87
0.97
l.ffi
0.61.
0.75
0.5»
1.05
1.16
1.96
0.87
0.78
1.28
1.02
1.12
1.11.
1.26
1.92
1.1U
1.21
0.76
0.62
0.97
1.06
0.96
0.76
0.61,
1.18
0.91
0.99
1.12
1-17
1.14
0.97
0.75
6.70
8.54
8.94
9.26
8.12
11,66
11.28
11.01
11.03
10,84
.0.51.
al.0
0.20
U12
•aoU
6.4
1,.9
2.1.
13.7
-0.5
2.67
2.29
2.82
£.01.
ue5
29.7
n
22.7
20.6
12
60.0
U.7!.
6.9.
0.52s
^i*!
8.16
9.52
8.61.
0.26
5.0
0.J9I
0.22W
9.01
2.6II
l.U»
0.7s
1.6»
0.95
1.08
1.26
0.88
0.69
i'o?
1:§
o.»
1.27
U14
1.60
1,21.
I.U5
0.91.
1.11
9.06
8.2U
10,88
ll.W
o.se
0.06
11.9
1.0
1.89
21.0
27.0
6i.,e
5.12
2.21
0.525
U.1^
8.12
9.58
8.78
8.92
0.17
0.1.6
0.20
0.91.
2.5
IbO
1*60
1.92
1.99
1.52
2!2l
1.71
1.29
1.90
1.25
10,11
11.81
■•s
23.9
2.82
31.1.
159
U2
158
71.2
5.25
a7»
9.a
0.526
0.550
0.5U.
lull
t59
6.50
8.1a
6.96
9.58
9.11.
9.1.8
o!o6!
0.1WI
1.U1
1.12
0.71.
2.1.3
1.96
1.79
1.94
t^
1.92
1.51.
l.'7l.
1.20
0.80
9,82
9.72
ii.E
0,64
0,54
8.1
6.9
tu
28.6
27.0
181
ISO
72.8
75.7
IF
9.7s
5.7«
0.552
0.B9
IbUo
li.35
6. 50
8.91.
9.01.
9.1.5
9.08
9.59
8.96
9.01
9.18
0.60
5.0
7.0
o.oUi
0.97s
o.90«
0.5W
1^98
5.5s
1.16
1.60
1.66
1:51
1.62
0.79
0.99
0.91
2.68
2.05
2:91.
0.97
1.16
1.15
1.58
2)17
iz
0.87
1.07
9.67
10. 5U
10.90
11.57
11.72
12.00
2.11.
6.2
29.2
26.2
2.98
2.79
9.01
90.S
59.5
^!*_
' ""'
— ^^
'-
'
uvt 2L M
• t«k«B
rro« T»b
. 6«.d
• r. th
. ...r.1
. oru
. l.pu
>l b.tto.
fUne* Btn
■ ■ for MOh gird
■■■
tlM th» plna kr« In pocltloo
» bMdpl S«uti,.
„
Asmoi
STITI
snssses
Ea
at elr<
•r
8.16
A
«nc*
8,58
le««fitrl<
ItT
• TOlu
0.051
0-^55
0
0.065
0,951
"
Impact
445
s
'O ^K^a a
11.1
9.1
11.1
10.2
8.0
SSS8t3
n 1
8
«S8
oo o
o o oo c?
5ff.|f
^^^^^
§55^*
«^SS2
8!P8 88
8^81?
M
«^ i
a
ft
o a>o o o
o o o o" o
«0 UVKSJ
a^»»8
o o odd
!9Sa8^
do o do
-»a;3sa
8i?^P4
»^^€2
,*oo'o',-
i
h-
SP^S
ss-gs©
B*»&»
8S58Ȥ
KBSSfS
!^SI!^3S
?i!?;8!,f!iS^
?!«S(C;
jjj
JJJ-S-S
_ct_^ir\-3j
ir%_3ir\^^
JJJJO
"^"^'^'^'^
l/MrSirMTMTS
ifMA^irs
til
nO
^^?^^
-4-5-5^-a
g^SsJR
-5-5-3-3
sill
15«
»
ss:-
«Njir.ir.iiN
u^c^o^O'0
WK\K\^^
-5-3-3.5
2m
t3
ooo
o o o
oo o o o
o o o o o
do o do
88»8S
8888»
c?o o o o
a»»8.8
o o o o o
8888.
o o do
i
l| 1
S
www
31S11
.3-3J.3
i
a
ooo
o do
2»888
8R^»»
8.8»88
88SC88
8888S
a»!?88
O OOO o
8i58.J5
oo oo
^1 1
a
322
tUKN-Jt^-a
S»S88
8!?^»»
O O O O O
J-JIA-O UN
8.8»^»
do d do
8 8»8!5
8888»
MinKvJ-9
a»»88
do do o
8888
o o o o
jll
.
J^kl^^K,
W O^KvW
s,aRa^
agHS,p
^o5.8^
:s»i3soa
68^15
S 8
i 1
CO
o o o o o
Sim
o o o o o
o o o o
o o o o o
1411
o o o o o
o o o o
1 ^"
<j .^o o o
O W O «H r^
^^:^22
^^^^_o^
KNJUNO-J
-ijiAcIrt
1 i
1 s
>o
S&&IP8
o o o o o
^8»^S
o o o o o
m27
o o o o o
O O o o
i
-
11^
R^:^^4
-Jj-3-aj
RRSKR
-5 -9-} -9 -3
sepB
4-5-3-5
u
'°s
-a
^»4
SPfrRS
P®$PS,
spsa^
Si^^RR
5<4k;5
-
?1?
5873^7?
'?1^'f«?
;S3P»®
5»#«a
%m
ii
~
«j.O0J
a«^33
iii^^s
irvcDNOtoo
iSiiH
li
-
S5§
§&«}»»
essnig inm
»§«§« 3S;i3§ 3^525
SS32
I I
6 i
« a
8
it
** ii _ .
•g « ^ V -^ % 9 **
9 ^
'i t £■ '^
inis Z^.
^ I
i 2
= I
I I
I §
1^1
'if
Hi?
o a
C .
<> li
i 8. il
|ii(jj:58 I'
^ j.5-3~ - g
Q *£ ^ 5 S •
I?
2l
12
446
Impact
I'"
S3 t
j:g
US
si £
Isli
H O
la
gssiiis) siscas^
&
?.f.BS»
SS&S^
as(ss2
K7«8SS^
s^?i,;?,s
OJ^S tf<^
s^K^a
^Sia
^
AJRSR
(O J CO l»^co
^ a? ifMA^
coco *^KNCO
J r- J vo K^
?,?^ASS
«P^
■'
rf ^ -* ^ -*
^ J ^ ,* J-
^ ^ ^ J -*
J J .rs
<D
jr (v. o.
CN- oj ONr-a>
or-oi^-<
--.^C-VO
OvCTvCWO
KN^O (VJCMOi
OiCVvOmO.
prs«,r,
i
ooS22
2:^883
gS2S'S
ssg«:i
S-Si^ic^S
82222
i^2aa2
g«S
ooS22 2^S&S «S2ie8 £'S£'8:5 8;
S2222 &Si'»2 2a:
«
2:022S
222gl&
s&sss
28282
8G222
:Q22S8
a«^
°
oo
OOOOO
OOOOO
OOOOO
OOOOO
OOOOO
OOOOO
OOO
M 3 9 > «
3 3 > 3 3
3 3 M 3
3 3 3 3 3
3 3 3 3 3
3 3 3 3 3
3 3 3 3 3
3 3 w
r^^ C^C?s^«
irsvO J' ^Os
r- r-«rsco ^
«^o. oco l«^
O ^ O^ CO
^ I^NO o o
o OJ r-
^ o o o o
«o«oj
•-4 o d d
J rs J «^f-
*^^ vo *^ r~
o-oco«^co
'^-^''
H3 3 3 S
3 3 3 3 3
3 3 M 3
3 3 3 3 3
3 3 3 3 3
3 3 3 33
3 3 3 3 3
3 3 M
o
e8««8
esess
«S8o«
SinSCR
SSS38
•SZi^filf.
3-lSS;iS
liSS
OOOOO
OOOOO
OOO o
OOOOO
OOOOO
OOOOO
OOOOO
o o o
J orotooj
0^ OvCNJ OCVJ
c^c^(y-cur-
^CM«^or-
O^^^CK
^m-^oij
^^^^^
K^u^ lA
O O WCUO
O r^ -^.r^C^J
''°'^°"'
""^""^'
"^■^'^"'^
ot-^r-i-
'"~'^°~'"
■=^"^2!
S«2S3
«&:£;^2
sassa
2SS!«a
S«««S!,
s#,2;r^
cc^-^^-cc
5,0^
OOOOO
OOOOO
OOOOO
o o o o o
OOOOO
OOOOO
OOOOO
000
cS
SSPPS
3Pg;?°^
aspss
£S£S«
«»?;?»
S8£8S
CO b>a5 -H cr>
&*a
■"
^^»^j
«> J *^
s
s?««s
8iSi8«2
g'SSSS
?asisiAf;
Aacrg:*
S^S<3?>
S-^KSiR
R2S<
S ^S-^f^i 3*SK» X5X5S 3K3:S* S^SSaS «SARS 333^8 PS2
ir\(0 rsrNOv Ov^Ofi^ r-(^o^<^
s Sasss sasaa saaas a&::Ea r^rjaar: gacJSa aaacs r^sr:
2 s
I a
I a
s 1
II II {I
^^ * « *
(3 3 <
5 3
3 c»
illl
sss I
33^;
6
6 fe :: e
■ —
USUI
TRESSBS
122' .
CUEB U-S
h
")
Cd.l
2 5
I-
h
LaM*d
5
But
6
Hist
auitr
7
Anne*
&<t
6
Spaad
Strcii
9
!fr»ot
10
Roll Bffcct
11 12
E*»t Olrdor Troolc ond
Buaer Blov Brroot
^ IV~mlo
atroBe r^jfiZ kognlflor
Rooor Bio. Erroot
Dynulo
Str... Dbk2 Mogninor
ATorogo - Both
Trook ood Huner
atr... ti,.2
Cirdoro
low Effoot
Dyrunlo
tognlflor
Boot
UAIIMn. STBEaSBB
Boot Olrdor
7ot»l I>p..t
Totol In^ot
atrooi Cont
X3«
5^
0.57
5.51.
lu76
5.06
1..91
0.10
0.10
19
21
1-86
23
5.16 0
21.
25
2.1
26
V
U8
19.9
1.5k
5.5U
l..e7
5.01
1..91.
l:Z
0.6
m
26.6
1.99
5.5U
I..90
1-99
1-95
0.6
0.11 8 z'.Z K
o'Ifl
2.66
0.20
0.20
5.07
5.21 0
31
6.5
0.15
3.0
1£6
50.1
2.15
3.55
1..90
5.06
1-99
0.06
1.6
0.06 E 1.2 s
.08
2.50
2.50
5.10
5.19 0
Jk
7.1
0.13
2.6
Jg
J5.6
U>.0
'•52
2.0,
5.52
lb 90
1-61.
tz
1-90
1-61.
-o!27
-0.2
-5.5
0.05 1 1.0 E
0.15 B 2.6 E
0)30 o!l2
0.30 0.15
2150
0)35 0
0.30 0
'15
19
2'j3
1.58
0^32 0
0.30 0
09
13
17
2:1.6
1.77
5.10
5.28 0
3k
3k
18
7.1
7.1
5.8
0:29
k.3
J:J
W
131
U.7
2.95
2.96
5.51
3.55
1-99
U.65
5.11.
5.05
tSf
o!(^
I'l
0.02 B O.U E
0.05 S 1.0 E
0.13 E 2.6 E
0.16 B 3.5 8
0.01 E 0.2 E
0.50 0.15
0.50 0.17
0.50 0.17
0.35 0,19
0,70 0,20
2.91.
1.81.
3.50
0.U0 0
0.1.5 0
19
2.10
lit i
17
2.63
5.39
5.51. 0
63
13.2
0.k8
9.5
U9
I£.6
3.0E
5.56
1-93
1-96
1-96
0.05
?"f5
0.1.6 0
2.58
5.35
5.50 0
59
12 J.
O.kk
8.7
12}
211.
Uu2
i45.9
3.15
5.25
5.52
3.5J
1-91.
I..90
1-90
5.19
1-92
5.05
0.01
0.11,
0I2
HI °o
0.65 0
22
a.
2:S
0.1.0 0
o.ko 0
0.68 0
19
21
1:91.
3.01.
5.U3
5.29
5.60
5.28 0
^:g I
67
53
8k
lk.1
17:6
0.22
0.29
0.78
k.5
5.7
15.k
122
121
209
195
209
52.5
55.5
57.5
».3
60.0
5.70
5.95
lull
luli
0.9 >
6.9 s
l..6>
3Je
5.57
5.1*
1-76
1-99
1-60
1-60
1-77
5.26
5.19
5.1s
5.U9
5.1.6
5.15
5.15
5.12
o;i3
0.21,
0.21.
0.21
I.I9
1-9
1-3
0.10 W 2.0 W
0.19 w 3.9 »
0.19 » 3.9 »
0.20 w U.1 ir
0,70 0,26
0.60 0.29
0.75 0.31
0.60 0.31.
0.60 0.3U
2.70
2.07
2.1£
1.76
1.76
'oil i
0.70 0
0.60 0
51
36
38
W
1.2
1:1
1.1.6
2.11.
0,60 0
0,52 0
0,72 0
0,60 0
0.75 0
29
32
35
37
38
2.06
1:98
5.1.6
5.1«
5.55
5.57
5.76 0
5.fi. 0
6.19 0
6:!6 0
70
.73
.2
.61
lk.7
15.3
13:k
0.70
0.56
1.13
l.B
1.30
13.9
11.5
22.5
20.k
25.7
196
U9
60.3
a.2
us
Italil
2.9 a
6.9 »
5.50
1-71
1-75
5.59
5.2U
5.15
5.00
0.21.
0.(S
1-9
1.8
0.29 » 5.9 "
0.09 » i.e »
0.60 0.35
0.50 0,37
1.71
1.35
0.55 0
0.70 0
.la
IS
1.31
1.56
0.58 0
s
1J.9
1.1.7
5.51
5.25
5:91. (
:g
11.6
10.3
1.06
0,68
21.5
17.k
210
«.5
us
9.7 I
1..6a
5.56
1-99
1.6
0,21. w 1(.9 F
0,60 0,38
1.56
0,65 0
lj6
1.1a
.1.2
1.U8
.ki.
0.97
19.2
19.6
197
65.9
k-H
l..7»
5JJ.
1-91
5.66
5.21.
0.35
6.7
0.26 » 5.J »
0.1.0 0.39
l.<«
o,Uo 0
1.7
0.96
oilto 0
M
0.93
5.21
6:06 t
.k5
9.5
m
66.S
lu6l.
7.9 «
5J.6
1-67
5.1a
5.0U
0.13
2.6
0.23 n U.7 w
0.50 o,ta
0,50 0
.50
0.50 0
.1.5
l.U
5.17
6.01 0
M
6.6
0:95
uo
67.0
!..75
6.6 1
5.52
1-70
5.56
5.0U
0.15
2.6
0.20 w U.1 w
o.to 0,13
0.93
0.I4O 0
.52
0.77
O.I4O 0
J.8
o.au
5,10
5.78 0
.3k
7.1
0.72
lk.2
190
67.7
14.90
9.6 1
3.K
1-71
5.1.5
5.06
0.17
5.5
0.21 W 1-3 ■
0,50 o.ljl.
1.11.
0.U5 0
53
0.85
o.UB 0
1.8
0.98
5,21
5.90 0
• k5
9.5
o.ek
16.6
212
69 Jt
U.95
3.7 B
3J.7
1-61
5.1.6
5.0U
0.13
2.6
0.28 » 5.7 »
0.50 0,U5
1.11
0.55 0
.51.
0.52 0
50
1.06
5,11
.35
7.k
i-i
199
«.o
lu99
7.9 8
3.te
1-66
5.55
5.21
0.30
6.1
0.19 w 3.9 »
0.50 0,1.5
1.11
0.55 0
.55
lioo
0.52 0
50
l.ol.
5.56
6:10 0
.60
12.6
20:*
213
70.6
5.00
3.1.9
1-69
5.37
5.M
0.12
2.U
0.19 » 5.9 "
0.1.0 0.1.8
0.65
0.50 0
58
0.86
0.1.5 0
52
0.86
5.08
5.87 0
.32
6.7
16.0
US
71.0
5.l>>
l.>M
l-S
1-52
5.51
5.02
0.11
2.2
0.35 w 7.1 w
O.W 0.1.8
0.91.
0.50 0
58
0.86
O.U 0
53
O.W
I1.97
6.01 0
.21
k.k
0.95
18.6
200
72.1
5.12
2.6 t
1-70
5.«
5.17
0.26
5.3
0.31 w 6.5 11
0.50 0.50
0,50 0
0.83
0.50 0
55
0.91
5.20
6:i3 0
:kk
9.2
1.07
117
76.5
5J4O
U.1S
3J.7
1-60
5.W
5.01.
0.13
0.30 w 6.1 »
0.55 0.55
0,55 0
67
0.55 0
61
5.15
6.03 0
.39
19:2
201
77.5
5.1«
2.5 1
3J.5
1-75
5.76
5.25
0.31.
6^9
0.36 w 7.3 •
0.55 0.57
0.96
04.0 0
«
o!58
o.W 0
65
0:75
5.26
6.16 0
.52
10:9
1:10
21.7
202
79 J.
5.61.
7.1 I
}J6
1-61
5.6U
5.35
Oj£
8.5
0.35 » 7.1 »
0.55 0.60
0.92
0.50 0
73
0,66
0.52 0
67
0.79
5.36
6.31. 0
.60
1.28
25.5
lli
90.9
5.73
6.U>
3.1.5
1-7U
5.1.8
5.U
C95
0.20
I..1
o.a w I..5 IT
0.60 0.62
0.97
0.60 0
76
0.79
0.60 0
69
0.87
5.31.
6.06 0
.58
12.2
1.02
20.2
as
92.2
5. 63
9.9 I
3.1.9
l-«
5.27
o.ol,
0.17 " 3.5 w
0.65 0.65
0.70 0
78
0.90
72
0.91.
5.28
5.97 0
.52
10.9
0.91
U3
9luO
5.95
3.37
5.15
5.69
5J.2
0.51
loll.
0.90 0.67
K51.
0.75 c
81
0.93
71.
6.05
6M 1
.29
27.1
1.36
27.3
20l>
95.0
6,0}
5)6 »
5.1.5
1..91
5.55
5.18
0.27
5.5
oijl 1. U5 ■
0.70 o.«
ak
0.95
0.75 0
76
0.98
5.51
6:51 1
.75
15.8
1.29
25.5
m
95.0
6.0}
1-5 •
5.57
5.35
5.65
5.50
0.9)
0.90 0.69
1.30
0I95 0
81.
1.13
0.92 0
76
1.21
6.20
.U.
50.2
i.ka
29.2
U5
67.0
6.17
1.9 S
3.39
5.09
It
5.1a
0.50
10.2
0.15 » J.l w
0.90 0.72
1.25
0.85 0
88
0.97
0.68 0
80
1.09
5.99
6.56 1
•^?
25.8
1.52
30.0
207
69.0
6.21.
0.6 9
5.ie
E:J?
5.27
0.56
7.3
o.oe » 0.1. »
0.80 0.7I.
0.85 0
90
0.9U
5.90
6.29 1
.Ik
21-0
1.25
21-5
206
60.3
6.26
7.7 I
iM
5*1.0
5.15
0.22
1-5
0.12 » 2.1. w
0.60 0.71.
0.65 0
90
0.72
0.62 0
83
0.76
5.U5
6.05 0
.69
lk.5
0.99
19.6
205
mA
6.5U
1.9 1
5.W
1-77
5.76
5.27
0.J6-
7.3
0.53 » 6.7 w
0,80 0.76
1.05
0.70 0
92
0.76
0.75 0
81.
0.69
5.57
6.1.6 0
.81
17.0
l.ko
27.6
•on. (
.1 Ul .t
, t,
»«, 1« 00
l>an< 6.
7. 1),
16, £2. .nd 25 u-
. etJcu, nm TUI. 9 ud u. th. .nn
[TT
tho top «ad
bottOB rUngo itro
• for oooh glrdor.
(
bl 111 .t
(
t) DlMlU
a ■!■ 1
.1 .ol.nn
i, !• th.
dl.t.n<.
•, .Ithw north 0
• •"*"• "'
tho opMi to
tho
"■"■ "''"'■
»t tho tlM u
tio plM aro In pool
tlon
» bMd*d iMth.
TABLE 18
>• BTRAIB CA(
122' .
■ oiROEB en
Jt
-^^
STRKfiSES
,-
LOCOllOTIVE
UBl B-A (BTEU)
St~4
«-..>.
tbMratloftl
But
Ittit
ud
SpMil BfHot
Boll Bff«ot
EMt 01rd«r Tr«ok uid
Hm„r Blm Bff.M
Boa-i
:,Yrtr
ATanigo - Both
Traek and HuB«r
Oirdor.
lUXlWH STRB8SB
w.it 01rd.r
Col.X
a.F.B
s.r.s.
5
It
5
OirdM-
6
7
Hist
Btr»9*
9
Cant
10
Strsii c«at
strM.
iiHie
l}ynule
ii.oan.r
Str... I^te
Dynudo
ItagplflT
^t
Unlor
1";;:,
fitraoa Cent
,:«i i^'ot
Str... c«*
13)
I*
9.0
0.58
0.71
3.22
5.21
6.ce
6.14
5.85
6.18
5.91.
6.16
5.7
0.10 F 1.7 w
15
0,10
0,12
0.50
0.)2
0.1.2
11.
15
16 17 16
0,05
19
O.ol,
20
6.0I,
25
5.90
21,
25
0.3
26
0.05
27
135
137
13.3
25.0
1.05
1.98
3.21
5.17
6.2U
6.51
6.30
6.1.6
6.27
6JJ
0.51.
5.6
9.1
o!o6 n l!o lr
0,03
0,w
0.10
0,13
1-00
3.19
3.57
3.26
0,05
0,25 0
.03 8.33
0.06
0.19 0
03
6.33
6.2],
6.56
6!56
o'.a
5.6
5.6
0.39
0.71
6.7
12.1
150
US
25.2
29 J.
1.99
2.52
).21
3.21
6.11.
6.22
6.20
6.31.
6.17
6.26
0.23
o.)l.
3.9
5.7
0.11 » 1.8 w
O.IJ. » 2J. 1.
0.30 0
0.15 0
0.25 0
■,10 1)50
.11. 1.79
0.30 0
0.2U 0
0.31. 0
11,
5.00
2.1,0
2.52
6.61.
6.76
6.36
6.59
0.78
O.IJ,
15.0
7.5
10.3
0.91
0.51
0.71,
15.6
8.7
12.6
Its
IW
2.75
3.18
5.22
3.20
6.18
6.36
6.1.6
6.36
6.52
6.36
0.58
0.1.2
6.1.
7.1
i"l: ii;
0.69
0.69
0.59
0.31.
0.5U
0:21.
3.79
0.52 0
0.61. 0
0.51. 0
0.30 0
o,u. 0
.20 2.61,
.26 2.1,6
0.60 0
19
3.16
6.68
6.97
0.66
11-5
1.12
19.1
155
U.5
3.28
3.21
6.22
6.16
6.20
0.26
L*k
2.'27
1.31
1.66
.25
2.61
7.05
7.00
1.03
1.15
19.7
195
U.o
3.52
3.15
6.13
6.28
6.20
0.26
I..1.
0.05 V 0.8 w
0^26
0,29
.28 1.93
0.56 0
27
2,07
6,82
6.72
15.5
0.87
11-9
IB
13.9
)Ji7
3.1U
6.21.
6.06
6.15
0.21
3.5
0.01 > 0.2 B
Isi Ul£
0.52 0
0.1« 0
28
30
1,06
6.1.8
6.78
6.58
6.50
o!li
0.76
7.6
12.6
0.73
0.65
12.5
15t
167
IM
152
1^.2
1*.5
U7.0
M.o
W.2
3.66
3.«
3.71
3.71
3.72
3.2U
3.1J.
3.1i.
3.22
3.2)
6.26
6.22
6.20
6.20
6.11.
6.16
6.52
6.21.
6.50
6.38
6.21
6.27
6.22
6.25
6.26
0.?7
0.55
o!31
0.32
1..5
5.6
1-7
5.2
5.1.
0.03 W 0.5 «
0.11 W 1.8 11
O.IO W 1.7 »
0.15 I! 2.2 »
0.20 « 5,1. W
0.J9
0.51.
0.1.9
O.S
0.59
0,32
0,32
0,33
0,33
0.3J
1.22
1.69
1.1.B
1.79
1.79
o,lA 0
o.le 0
0,U9 0
0.71. 0
0,61. 0
.35 1.26
55 1.1,0
36 1.56
56 2,06
.36 1.76
0.1,2 0
0.52 0
o.ie 0
0.66 0
o.£e 0
33
31,
35
55
55
1,26
1,5U
1,1£
1.91
1.79
6.61.
6.76
6172
6.60
6,80
6.71,
7.01,
7.02
o!7U
o;76
10.3
12.3
13 .'0
11.6
0.75
0.95
0.99
1.19
1.17
16^2
15.2
20.3
151
WJ.
).7U
3.22
6.l£
6.50
6.1*
0.52
6.8
0,13 « 2,2 r
o.a
0.31.
1.88
0,62 0
.56 1.72
0.65 0
35
36
39
W
1,5-
1 80
7 06
17.3
1,26
1,51
0.73
l"39
191
I9e
190
ia.5
50.2
51 Ji
3.91
).96
lu06
t.25
7.7 B
5.6 1
3.15
3.20
3.10
5.20
5.96
6.1.2
6.33
6.21
6.1.7
6.26
6.56
6.56
6.22
6.3!*
6.31.
6.38
0.26
0.1.0
O.to
O.IJ.
1..7
6.7
6.7
7.1.
0,51. » 5,7 »
0.01 w 0.2 »
0,09 K 1,5 1"
0,25 » 1-2 »
0.72
0.36
0.52
0,51.
0,J7
0,38
0,1.0
0.1.3
1.95
0.95
1.30
1.26
o,e 0
0,!2 0
o,ie 0
0,69 0
1,0 1.72
Ul 0.76
U5 I.ll,
1.7 1,1.7
0:51, 0
0.50 0
0.62 0
i!e5
0.67
li37
6l67
6.78
6.65
6.75
7!l6
6.58
6.65
7.21,
o!«
0,76
0.65
0.73
22iu
12.5
17.1
23.6
IW
51-)
1-29
3.2 »
5.15
6.59
6.1.1.
t.i£
O.I.B
e.i
0,12 » 2,0 11
0.15
o.kk
0.31.
0.59 0
1.8 0,61
0.27 0
1,6
0.59
6.51.
6.63
0.52
6.6
0 98
16 7
i!a
57.0
L.50
0.5 »
5.15
6.10
6.1.2
6.26
0.32
5.1.
o!2l, W Co 11
O.IA
o.lfi
0.90
0.52 0
53 0.96
0.1,8 0
51
0,95
6.51.
6:9U
0.52
8.6
1.09
ie!6
11,0
56.5
1-62
3.5 8
S.llt
6.1.3
6.36
6.1.0
0.1.6
7.7
0.06 w 1,0 »
0.37
0,51
0.72
0.1,0 0
55 0.73
0.38 0
53
0,71
6.80
6.76
0.7a
15.0
0.91
15.6
185
60.0
U71i
5.06
6.21.
6.88
6.56
10.1.
O.ltfi w 6.7 W
0.1fi
0,51.
0.91
0.59 0
56 1.02
0.5U 0
56
0,96
6.75
7.1,7
0.71
1.62
27.7
186
62.8
1-96
9.0 s
5.15
6.18
6.20
6.19
0.25
1-2
o.» w 1.5 »
o.l«
0.59
0.83
0.52 0
61, 0.81
0.50 0
0.81
6.67
0.65
lo!6
0.67
11-9
lUt
61_s
5.12
5.7 •
5.22
5.96
6.55
6,21.
0.30
5.0
0.36 w 6.1 w
O.U.
0.63
0.70
0.52 0
68 0.76
0.1,6 0
66
0,75
6.1,0
7.01,
0.38
6.3
1.19
20.3
139
66.5
5.25
7.0 s
5.17
5.95
6.21.
6.10
0.16
2.7
0.23 w 5.9 •
0,37
0.56
0,1.2 0
72 0.58
0.1,0 0
w
0,56
6.52
6.66
0.50
5.0
0.61
13.6
lak
67.7
5.3I»
1.2 I
3.10
6.19
6.19
6.19
0.25
1-2
0.08 » 1.3 w
0,5U
0.66
0.79
0.61. 0
71, 0,86
0.99 0
0,83
6.73
6.65
0.71
0.96
16.7
182
68.1
5.59
9.2 S
3.11.
5.92
6.58
6.25
0.31
5.2
o.la » 6.9 w
o.Ui
0.69
0.61.
0.56 0
75 0,75
0.50 0
75
0.0)
6.36
7.15
0,31,
5I6
1.30
189
69.9
5.52
lj.2 I
5.10
6.02
7J.a
6.71
0.77
IJ.O
0.T7 » IJ.O »
0,1J.
0.73
0.60
0.31. 0
79 0.1,5
0.59 0
76
0,51
6.1,6
7.71,
0,1J,
7.5
1.89
32l3
138
71.2
5.<e
3.9 »
3.17
5.67
6.75
6.21
0.27
1-5
0.62 F 10.1. F
0.51.
0.76
0.71
0,1.9 0
82 0.60
0.52 0
79
0,66
6.21
7.21,
0,19
3.2
1.39
25.6
181
72.6
5.75
1-1 I
3.12
6.10
7.08
6.59
0.65
10.9
0.57 11 9.6 w
0,61,
0,79
0.81
0,50 0
66 0.35
0.1,7 0
63
0.57
6.71,
7.56
0,72
1.53
180
75.7
5.98
1.1 a
5.12
6.22
7.06
6.61.
0.70
U.8
0.1.5 11 8.1 w
o.al.
0.97
0.59 0
93 0.63
90
7.06
7.61,
l.ol.
17^3
1.79
50^6
US
T7.9
6.15
8.6 >
3.17
6.0L
6.U>
6.22
0.28
U.7
0.26 w U.I. w
0,62
0,91
0,66
0.69 0
98 0.70
0.(6 0
95
0)70
6.66
7.09
0.61,
10.6
1.21,
Impact 447
discrepancy may be the lateral forces. Assuming that these lateral forces are resisted by
the span acting as a horizontal truss, tensile stresses will be produced in both flanges of
one girder resulting in a decrease in the vertical compressive stress of the top flange and
an increase in the vertical tensile stress of the lower flange, whereas the reverse would be
true in the other girder. By using the average of the top and bottom flange stresses, this
lateral effect can also be eliminated to a large extent.
The stresses in the west girder of both spans are usually found to be larger than in
the east girder. A part of this increase is due to eccentric application of the load in this
direction as has been pointed out. The remainder can only be ascribed to the rolling of
the locomotive which was, for some reason, usually to the west. In a few instances the
average stress in the east girder is the larger, indicating that the roll in that direction was
more than enough to counteract the eccentricity in the opposite direction.
The basic tables of stress and deflection tabulation (Tables 3 to 10, inclusive) have
been broken down to show more clearly the various impact effects which will be con-
sidered later. Tables 11 to 18, inclusive, refer to stresses in both girders of either span,
for the four classes of locomotives. Tables 23 to 26 deal with deflections as measured in
the east girder of the S5-ft. 10-in. span and Tables 27 to 30 give the deflections as
measured in both girders of the 122-ft. span.
At the bottom of these tables will be found the stress and deflection factors, which
are the ratio of the measured stress or deflection at crawl speed, to the theoretical values.
The theoretical values were computed, as previously mentioned, from the gross moment
of inertia at the center of the span, assuming a constant section throughout, and using
the average of the left and right wheel loads.
These stress or deflection factors, as might be expected, are not unity and vary with
each of the locomotives even on the same span. They may be affected by either the
change in span length under load when the girders have flat bearings as in the case
of the short span, or by the change in actual axle loads. The axle loads used in the com-
putations are the scale weights obtained when the wheels were all at the same elevation,
but as the span deflects under load, the center wheels have a tendency to drop and the
equalizing system transfers a portion of their load to the end axles.
The measured deflections should obviously exceed the theoretical values as they
include any settlement of bearings or shortening of the piers under compression and the
girders are not of uniform section throughout their length as assumed in computing the
theoretical values. The deflection factors as found for these two spans agree closely
with the average found for all similar girders formerly tested and reported in the
AREA Proceedings for 1936, Vol. 37, page 794.
The theoretical loaded frequencies for the 122-ft. span are based on the average
deflection in the east and west girders as measured by the electrical and mechanical
deflectometer. These frequencies, for all runs of the two steam locomotives, are shown in
column 5 of Tables 17 and 18. The frequencies of this span for the two electric loco-
motives, under static loading, are given in note "d" at the bottom of Tables IS and 16.
As previously pointed out, both deflection instruments were on the east girder of
the SS-ft. 10-in. span so that in computing the loaded frequencies for this span, it was
necessary to correct the measured deflections by the roll percentages as found by the
strain gages. These corrected deflections and the theoretical loaded frequencies for all
runs of the two steam locomotives are shown in columns 5 and 6 of Tables 13 and 14.
The frequencies for the two electric locomotives, under static loading, are given in
note "d" at the bottom of Tables 11 and 12.
448 Impact
9. Impact Effects as Found From the Test Data
The data, as taken from the field records and summarized in Tables 3 to 10, inclu-
sive, were analyzed for the particular purpose of segregating and determining the mag-
nitude of the various dynamic or impact effects of the moving loads. The results of
this study are as follows:
Speed Effect
In taking off and recording the mean stresses and deflections, it soon became evident
that the mean stress or deflection increased with speed. In column 5 of Table 11 the
average mean stress, for the first three runs, which were at crawl speed, is 7.57 kips per
sq. in. An increase in speed is seemingly accompanied by an increase in mean stress and
for run 248 at 99.5 m.p.h., the average mean stress has increased from 7.57 to 9.07 kips
per sq. in., or an increase of 19.8 percent as shown in Col. 7. A corresponding increase,
although to a lesser degree on the long span, is found for the other locomotives as will
be seen from Tables 12 to 18, inclusive.
This increase can be partly accounted for by the centrifugal force, resulting from
the load running over the deflected span. This force increases with the square of the
speed, and may be approximately expressed by the equation:
F = P
( g^^ ^
V 16 v^'d )
in which:
F =: Centrifugal force in pounds
P = The moving concentrated force producing the same central deflection as
the distributed static wheel loads in pounds
V =■ Velocity in feet per second
d = Static deflection of the span in feet
L = Length of span in feet
g = Acceleration due to gravity (32.2 ft. per sec. per sec.)
The measured speed effects, in percent of the crawl stress, as given in the tables,
have been plotted for all four locomotives on both spans in the upper diagrams of
figures 28 to 35, inclusive. For comparison, the theoretical values as determined from the
above equation are represented by the smooth curve. It will be seen that except for the
Class P5-A electric locomotive, the agreement between the actual and theoretical values
is not close, the former frequently exceeding the latter. On the 122-ft. span the dis-
crepancy is more marked. While the measured effects are not as large as in the short
span, nearly all of them are greater than the theoretical values.
As a further study of this interesting phenomena, the theoretical influence stress
curves were computed for the two electrical locomotives on both spans, these curves
representing the stress at the center for any position of the locomotive. The ordinates
of the actual average stress curves were scaled from several records at intervals of 20 ft.
for the long span and 10 ft. for the short span, and are given in Tables 19 to 22,
inclusive.
The area of these stress curves, which may be represented by the sum of the ordi-
nates, is a measure of the total work done, and here again, it will be noted that the sum
or area increased with speed. For test 248 with the PS-A locomotive running at 99.5
m.p.h. over the 5S-ft. 10-in. span (see Table 19), the average sum of the scaled ordinates
is 44.55. The sum of the ordinates of the theoretical stress curve, for this locomotive
(Text continued on poiir 457 )
Impact
449
5S
vO nO ^ -o nO r- r—
o o o Q o ir\ lAir.
ooo ooo ,00
p
g
d 00
000
^8
3
S;
333
Cs>0 0
°5
*?
0
833
S8S
SS
€
0
000
000
0 0
^.
0
000
lAso CO
ss
^
0
8Sg
000
0 0
>-
r-
mcor-
0 OS
0
3
000
8Sg.
RS
CD
r-
oor-»
(DCT^CT-
0 CD
?
r-
8Sg
8S3
S8
43 3-sooD o^os
3«
^Q to O K\ »o»_^
^o ir\0 o 00
450
Impact
4S
5S
si
s
o
gss
g^S
S!!R3
r-
C;
KR3
^53
333
"
8
o
^ UMT*
•H iH .-1
^^g
SS!R
JS
o
^
ITiO O
jiA j
w
o
s?
«•!?«
«8tf^
3&g
^
u^
u^
l;^^OvO
ITN-OsO
•O vO-O
■a Vi
O
°
SSa
s«s
2SS
^O
so
-o-o-o
■o-o t~
r-t-r-
K
o
ss^
oi/\o
8S!f;
m
-o
o
-o-o-o
o-o t~
t^r-t-
5) "^
o
t?
«!R«
R?,!0
o o q
£
■o
vO
vO-OvO
sO-O-O
sO-O t~
-4 o
o
-i
S»8
^ Cii-O
Q ir,iA
Xt
s
s
s&s
i^i
•fvl
•
tf
8
s
© r-uS
?,sg
g&8
t>
1-4
<5
ooo
ooo
O O <H
1°
H 0)
rH
t-4
og o
ooo
Sg8
.
•O
»
s
ooo
8g8
g,s^
^
•-'
'^
rt rt w
rt rt OJ
w W -1
4*
£
'Ss
s
ooo
ooo
lA j j
jiA j
«.
W>
s
o
ooo
ooo
CJ IT.-:!
8?,g
a
"^
"^
OsO^
.0,0 r-
t— oc~
e|
:
-o
o
■a
ooo
OstD <M
vOso r^
r-r-<D
Sg2
f^
s •
«
g
o o o
S3S
gS3
3-g
^
vO
<l
^so r-
r-t-iD
.0 t-<E
o 3
Cm
-
mJ
■3
S8g
°.°A
• ID
a
^
d
^0
2
d
^S8
ggg
gg8
St
°
l-t
°
ooo
ooo
O O pH
h
t- d
^
M3
o
^3S
^^^
&gg
.11
535
^
s;
8
23S
S5S
s^s
o
^
«-.«
Or^rH
-.w«
«
^
^
J
o
r-l
8
SSg
OOO
OOO
g3S
vOMJ-O
5Sl
»
8
8SS
O O Q
8S3
lii
e a n
Q • •
• e •
333
ir>
•o
>oo ir\
sO^O^O
r-r-o
[2 o
o
o
~o
8
ooo
,0x0-0
8gg
OOO
Oi rH 8
88g
8S8
"
se
s
-}
ooo
lAj J
^
^
S
S^g
ooo
ooo
d ^ o
^
s;
S
g&3
g.sO c^
gg8
^
o
°
ooo
ooo
O O r4
S
1 4
at
-»
<DOt-
•-KD^
'l-^'i
h
3
J
<^i?»
SR«
•agg
u
%'
1
^
H5
aE^
H£
Impact
451
"I
ii
a a,
5 i;
pa
3^
r-
jrj
SS»
a2s;
iffRSIO
o
:S
S2I;
r— CO >0
rH rH rH
«i:ss
^
s
(T-
^?«
t-r-r-
P2»8
o
O
o o o
o o o
o o o .-.
■XJ ^
5
8
"2
S8S
o ino
^'^'?'9
£ •
r-
s
irtir>o
cS
«^
KS
K^K^_:J
jj~^
J-3 J J
£) "^
3
3
S,!R3
UNO O
RfiSiS
£
J
^
J jj
J-3 J
jjj J
S
o
s;r!r
UNO ir>
iiNr->o
;ft!&SS
-
»
S
£3^
§g^
^^^^
•
^
s
O lAlTv
UMAlTi
UN-OJ
IR33^
"
°
°
o o o
o o o
o o o o
5s
rH
8
o o o
Of- IT.
«H .-1 •-«
CD OD C-
8&S
rH rH rH
O O O
3PiS^
4> •
11
4>
O
o
sss
3S?.
o O O «
2S!38
•
•
» 9
■o
■P -0
o
822
J J J
S8g
-3 J "N
o o o o
o o o o
• i
!•
it
a
Vi
o
a
•
^.
s
ii
J J-3
888
JUNl/MiN
gsss
£8gg
d
3
<-t
rH rH (-1
www
^3 3
o o o
^£3^
^ d
S
o
g2S
8?S
23&gl
5S5
•o
-0*
;3
^S2
SSI5
rH rH rH rH
k
U)
Si
g
SSS
^&S
&3gg
o
o
o o o
o o o
oooo
<H
5:
8
8SS
o o o
S3S&
S i <
% .
o
www
o o o
w w w w
oooo
III
O
3
o
o o o
j J j
82^
Q O O
oooo
J~^«NJ
B B ■
nan
U U 1.
M ■ •
aa3
"
^.
s
S^S
SS3
s^sg
522
d
Ji
3
?,3R
S&?,
333?,
s
°
O
o o o
o o o
oooo
^ EC
:
r^
<D ^^
rtUNUN
Jir\<ot-
1°:
%
-3
S«3
s^ffiS
sses;
li
1
g
W W rf
|8g
^^m
452
Impact
tag
Eh ri
3
^
S,>3S-
^^ r-
a
(^
sss
S2S
88 8
U/
s
s
282
22,©
282
T) t-.
so
I
(-1 i-< «H
io t-CO
gps
5 .
g
°
°wc?
1?;;^°
SSR
J
-3
J J J
J jj
J jj
• -o
r-
S
o o in
t^ r- ON
&S8
J
J
jjj
jj-^
J jiA
-< o
8
iff^S
j J J
fi
^
»
o o o
iH iH rr\
O UNO
Sin^
•
«
8*.
s
g jCg
m S °
gese
■■
°
°
OOO
OOO
OOO
"
■So
t-
8
8Sg
§83
g 2 °
•
H «
2
S
888
Sc3J3
SSiS
•
"
ff.
s
8 ° 8
8S2
8 88
i-t t-t t-i
w
<-.
S
o
§2 8
S&g
ggs
I
w
°
SS3
SR^
g2g
^
•^
jjj
jjj
-3 1AJ
t-.
V -o
J
o
c-(r> o
^s^
°
~.
o
iAm^ j
22S,
OOO
J J J
u
^
s
s
H^A
lAJ^
SS8
«
s
g
ggg
g§8
OOO
°
°
OOO
OOrH
OOO
a
•a
15
OOO
CD a? (>
rH rH iH
r-< f-l >H
8 23
°
«
o
^
82 8
88 8
8 8 8
r^ r^ >~t
«-t
O
ss s
o o o
f-f-^
• •
^
s
823
OOO
OOO
®
o
J
333
333
^
73
s
sss
^2 8
H^r<N j
%°.°.
-
a
r-*
888
2^8
rt cJcC
«
s
s
s ° s
ss s
ggg
°
°
OOO
OOO
OOO
13 X
•
J
sO t~<E
rtlDsO
in JO
w a
1
J
J^S R
R»P
P^c^o
t£ z
•
6
»-4
r-l iH (H
t-4 r-4 rH
S§S-
t B
S5
Impact
453
*> ■*»
' is
It
31
s
SljSjd
'^6 6'^'^
13.9
10.1
8.7
15.U
7.6
^pdS
-17.7
-16.7
-18.8
-15.5
5 ^-
•
s
SfS"
§§^§§
sills
ItSsl-
fǤi&
M&§f
fell§^8
odd
d o d d d
d d d d d
d d d d d
d d d d d
d d d d d
d d d d d d
1*
s
lf\0 t^
Blls
33333
■lAuSmlAlA
rrSss
0 0 I/MAO
KN-JJ ir\ UMA
ooo
6 6 6 6 6
d d d d d
d d d d 0 d
5
8.
lAO-J
irsj-»>o J
NO UMAUMA
r--r-i-- r^NO
sOnOWVUSIO
O^O 0 iH 0
0<OnO-» .<id
S
s
"
'
H^rH d (D d
a5««.^so"
S!:Ji~2
o-'ajjoj-^-
rAco ^ On^
^cSddo?^-
*-•
i
^
§sl
o o o o o
§ig§g
^§g?^ §lagg
iim
I§??^g
odd
ooo oo
ooooo
d d d d d
o d o o o
6 6 6 6 6
0 d d d d d
'
**
«
1 II
^
8gS
l/^J-:t
ooooo
K\0 O rH C\J
irMfM/M/MiS
kkII;^
KRunSvS
ooooo
3S3?-3
0 otr\o 00
3:333 »t
d d d
d d d d d
OOOOO
o* d d d d
ooooo
d d d d d
0000 00
at
1 ^'
^
ooo
ddd
(D»o><J Ocy
fif ot
JW Ol <M W
§S3SS
o d d d o
(\J UNCI lf\J
OOO if\0
&&s8a
d d d d d
JJO (MJ
§§«s§
66066
§§§§1
6 6 6 6 6
H>r- 0 w J
U-.0 u\ 00
^-B SB8
6 6° 6 6 6
•**
1 is
a
III
O O O Q O
ilS^Sj
ooo if\0
RS3tR3
^§§,11
ooooo
W <D CD <D a
K-3^ U\ tl\'^
ddd
d d d d d
d d d d d
d d d d d
d d d d d
d d d d d
6 6 6660
4> * 1. a
« ?
^•^•-;
^ ir\a> h-o
-O JJI-J
CT- J CT 00 0
cJrfrfNO-o
J JJ lACO O-
41
► t-i o
o
W^
O fy © Q CD
©E-SaS^
i^-asss
cy irsflO CO c\i
^S'SSS'
I^^S^
i§igr§
c o o o o
ooooo
ooooo
ooooo
ooooo
6 666c d
e
El
k
1
if!
<>
ooo
o3§l§
2JC^d-Ja;
KNOJ W .H ftl
egcMW (« - CM
ooooo
0 0 0 d 0
666 6 6 6
1
jlsi
r-
Mcg (M
JrflAd^
NO- ^^J^
d r^N^ ojv^
d<Dv<J lAo
»Aeo 00 t^eo
nOnOnO 0.1- CD
•^^^2'°"<^
O 4J >
E5 ^
NO
222
§ssgl
IS'§§I
ss^lel
S'Is'SS'
!§§»§
S^S^II^
666
ooo oo
d d d d d
OOOOO
6 6 6 66
d d d d d
ooooo 0
s
S, in
IB
SlIsS
SSsSs
33^35
slSSi
ooooo
d dd dd
d d d d d
y
^
2! d V a
ll§
BISs
33533
O O O lAO
0 Q irso lA
0 0 <D OQ f--
sgss«
^Bl^l
a
1
|5 sa
odd
d dp d d
d d d d d
d d d d d
d d d d d
ooooo
6 66 6 6 6
^
KN
III
SSsIS
l^lll
S|Sgg
?:S3SIS
666
6 66 6 6
d d d d d
6 66 6<S
6 6 6 6 6
d d d d d
6 6666 6
M 0.
«
pr\-0 0~
-0 lACIJ JO)
^s^sa
K^(^K^K^iA
^I/MTi^OnO
Irfl^l
CD JOB (D i/v r-
So-
t
gas
%lss^
»^»K-&
^HS's'
&«8 2;3
r4 r4 ^ M 0]
l§3tl
M^ats
II II II
k I.
£5
it-
k 04
i^
it
5^
3-3-9
ddd
II II II
Si
if
Jo -o
.s;5 tt
it .
S! s
454
Impact
i i&
S £&
g 8
I ii
s| s s
Ui
>oo ooooo o
OiTvOOlTv OOOOiTilTS
OOOOO oooooo
ooooo oooooo
585
1*00
395
590
uio
1.15
UOO
1.00
1.10
|!J^S8:5
rH Ch CT> t^lTN
J' K-\ K% K> fO\
o u^g o lA
o o o o u-\»f\
D O O O O
ooooo
ooooo
ooooo
ooooo
oooooo
^.^.'^. o "^
^_ CN 0\
OvCO CT^K\-a-
CT, OVCO
^ CO J OJ CO
■1 "^ "0 ^ o '^.
)00 oo o ooooo o oo
> o o
) O O Q
i--*^ rHCO00.HCO r-i^
JCOCOCOiTN COOOCOO COw
:) CO CO CO K\ o
)Ooo ooooo
>ooo ooooo
o o o o o <
ooooo ooooo<
\0 lf\0
> o d 6 d o o o
On -3' OS J- 0\ OS 0\tc\0\0\<y\
> o o o <
<y\ 0\ tr\ tr\ 0\ 0\0\C
? II " "
a o u u
o ^ ® ^
w u -a "O
i isg
= T" -d a
s
s
1
=tJ
K4
*
Ht
^
|.S^
«H
ViO
,s
^i|
3
Sk.3
ooooo oooooo
ooo ooooo ooooo oo<
_ __r--(rHtH iHOJCVIiHr-t r-tOJOJ<MOJ CyCVJf
o ooooo ooooo ooooo oo<
ooo ddcJdo ddcidci o S t
o tf\iPi<rsir\ir\ oiTvOOiTs oir\ooir\
2; S-S^St: o^SSs; Soooo< S^rlc^i^^ t^t^Co-SS -^"J
> O if\0 o o o
o ooooo ooooo ooooo ooooo dddoo oooooo
> o o o o o <
?85S!
8 0 o o o o o
^n»^^ ^ ,,^,^ trio «5Ert:2~
.'^. "^"^ "^ '^'^'^'^"^ -* "^"O t>\tc\tr\fC\
»oo oo o ddodo d do d<5ddd o d o o (d o
^ 99^222^ 2j2jSSJS OSS5C ooooo ooooo oooooo
K •r\ N-\ ^r^ K^ *r^ S\^^S\3\ osa\0\tDO\ ^t~^ "^-^ t~t~<r\ ir\co K^K^K^ oj o as
)Oooo ooooo oooc
>o ooooo ooooo<
?'0 o^^wr-^- cot^«-t«Hco oco^^-* \ooot^ir\ «HO^OMr\o
>^ !09P!C>!C'2> CT\-*OiHJt r-dsd-*c^ r^K^K^c6c^ cO-iCiOcp'O
irH ?yc«*^tr>»r\ ir\3-ifMfs7\ u^KsoSCd "r-r-r-r- a>c6cK<Soso
K\-* vo^oo
3^S" »P
B n
alls
!3ei
as ooo
S3 S
S3
ss
AIALTSI3 or rtmvxL mnjcTOHn™ raADnoa
(V.rtloal D.n«ctloo, .t C»nt»r of Spsn)
!5 - 10 OIBlm 3PA, (KAST oisim)
iflcoiCTrre ciABs d-s (stsam)
Sp.M
Siaai-
■ iOD
AT»r.
HMD
BlM-
r«tl(»l
VUI BmiCTIOiS
Sim-
wpUToraa
MAim™ BBnjcTior
1
Bast aird*r
AT#r.
Bast Olrdar Traok and
Bleotrloal In«trii»aQt
Hansr Blow Bfrect
Haohanloal Inatruasnt
Avar.-ffloth Inatruaanta
Baet Clrdar Total Impacts
Bloctrlcal Znotmaant Hschaaleal Instnuit.ATsr.Both lastnaata
IMn
"x"
I>.f.
Xltot.
NiOh.
both
Djna..
Cjjl^ Kagnlf
11 12
Dynaja.
Ib«nlf.
IHpact
iBpaot
iMin
X
io.
Col.l
K.F.B
2
B.P.8.
5
k
Inobsi
5
7.P.S.
6
Isatr.
7
Imtr.
6
Iiutr.
9
laf.
10
Cf .
t9^
Ik
Bar.
Ilgl2
Magnlf.
Max.
laf.
Car.
Per
CSQt
Hai.
Daf. Baf.
Far
Caot
tbi.
Baf.
Ear.
Par
Cant
152
52
0.57
0.k79
k.65
O.kio
O.keo
O.kks
O.OIS
19
0.k25 0
20
015
21
5.7
22 23
O.kSO 0
2k
0
25
O.kSS
26
5.006
27
1.8
126
18.9
1.5k
0.k05
0.025
O.kSO 0
O.kSO 0
O.kSO 0
O.kko 0
0.W.0 0
127
126
26.6
50.1
1.89
2.15
O.kTJ
k.65
0.k05
o.kio
0.k52
0.k29
0.02S
O.OkO
0.008 5
0.010 k
12
00
0.058
0.009
k.22
0.032
0.006
k.oo
020
020
k.9
k.9
0.k90 0.010
2.1
0.k6«
0.015
S.k
125
124
55.6
ko.o
8.52
2.8k
0.k6k
0.k75
k.70
k.65
o.kio
O.kio
0.kk5
0.k20
0.k28
O.klS
0.030
O.OkO
0.01k 2
0.017 2
Ik
55
O.Oks
O.OSO
0.016
0.021
2.81
2.58
0.058
O.Oks
0.015
0.019
2.5k
2.37
OkO
030
030
9.8
7.3
7.5
O.k90 0.010
O.k70 -O.OIO
2.1
-2.1
0.k6s
O.kSS
0.020
0.010
k.S
IJO
151
129
125
21k
»0.2
kl.7
k2.6
kk.2
k5.8
2.85
2.96
5.02
5.13
5.25
0.k6l
O.kSl
0.k68
0.k«
0.k78
k.71
k.62
k.68
k.69
k.6k
0.590
O.kOO
0.395
0.590
0.560
0.k20
0.k50
0.k20
O.kSO
0.390
O.kOS
0.k25
o.koe
O.kio
0.375
o.oko
O.OkO
O.Oks
0.030
o.oso
0.017 2
0.019 2
0.020 2
0.021 1
0.023 2
3S
10
25
kS
17
O.oko
0.050
0.050
0.050
0.060
0.021
0.025
0.02k
0.025
0.027
2.17
2.03
1.20
2.22
O.oko
O.Oks
O.Oka
0.030
0.055
0.019
0.021
0.022
0.025
0.025
2.10
2.1k
2.18
1.51
2.20
O.kSO 0
O.kko 0
O.kko 0
0.k20 0
O.kio
020
030
030
010
0
k.9
7.5
7.5
2.k
0
O.keo -0.020
0.500 0.020
0.k70 -0.010
O.keo -0.020
O.kSO -0.050
-k.2
k.2
-2.1
-e'.2
o.kks
O.k70
O.kSS
o.k«0 -
O.kSO
0.025
0.010
0.005
0.015
0
5.6
2.2
-1.1
-3.k
122
121
52.5
55.5
3.70
3-95
10.0 3
6.5 1
0.k6l
0.k6o
k.71
k.71
0.570
0.365
O.kOO
O.klO
0.585
0.586
0.020
0.0S5
0.030 0
0.05k 1
.67
.62
0.050
0.050
0.035
O.oko
0.66
1.25
0.025
0.055
0.033
0.057
0.76
l.kS
0.590 -0
0.k20 0
020
010
-k.9
2.k
O.kSO -0.050
O.keo -0.020
-lO.k
-k.2
o.kio
o.kko
0.055
-0.005
-7.9
206
57-5
k.07
5.7 S
0.k51
k.75
0.560
0.360
0.370
0.050
0.056 1
.59
0.070
0.0k2
1.67
0.060
0.039
1.5k
O.kio
0
O.kko -O.oko
-8.5
o:k2S
O.kSO
O.keo
"k'5
195
59.5
k.20
7.5 •
O.kkk
k.79
0.5ko
O.kOO
0.370
0.060
0.059 1
•Sk
0.060
O.Oks
1.53
0.060
0.0k2
l.ks
O.kOO -0
010
-2.k
O.keo -0.020
-h'i
-0.015
O.OIS
' ■?
209
60.0
k.25
1.9 S
0.k9k
'►•57
O.kOO
O.kOO
O.kOO
0.050
O.oko 1
■ 25
0.070
0.0k6
1.52
0.060
O.Oks
l.ko
O.kSO 0
OkO
8.9
0.k70 -0.010
-2.1
'sik
196
60.5
k.28
9.5 s
0.k61
k.71
0.570
0.370
0.370
0.050
O.oko 1
25
0.070
0.0k7
l.k9
0.060
O.Okk
1.36
O.kOO -0
010
-2.k
O.kSO -0.050
-10. k
O.klS
O.kSS
-0.050
O.Oks
0.030
O.OSS
0.060
-6.7
9.7
6.7
210
65. J
k.k8
1.9 »
0.518
k.k8
O.kOO
0.k70
0.k35
0.060
O.Okk 1
36
O.Oks
0.052
0.87
0.053
O.OkS
1.10
0.k60 0
050
0.515 0.05s
7.5
197
65.9
k.55
1.9 3
0.519
k.k7
O.kio
0,k30
0.k20
0.050
O.Oks 1
11
0.060
0.055
1.15
0.055
0.0k9
1.12
0.k60 0
050
12.2
0.k90 0.010
2.1
0.k75
O.kSO
til
65.5
k.6t
5.9 «
O.kSO
k.65
0.590
0.k20
O.kOS
0.070
0.0k7 1
k9
0.060
0.055
l.k6
0.075
0.051
l.k7
O.keo 0
050
12.2
0.500 0.020
k.2
7.9
13. S
120
67.0
k.75
5.6 1
0.k65
k.70
O.kOO
O.kSO
0.k25
o.oko
0.0k9 0
62
0.070
0.0S8
1.21
0.055
0.05k
1.02
O.kSO 0
070
17.1
0.550 0.050
0.S05
196
67.7
k.80
2.2 ■
0.519
k.k7
O.kOO
O.kko
0.k20
0.060
O.OSO 1
20
0.060
0.059
1.02
0.060
O.OSS
1.09
O.kSO 0
050
12 2
0.500 0.020
k.2
O.kSO
O.OSS
7.9
212
68.k
J-S
10.5 S
°•^'t
k.82
0.395
O.kis
O.kOS
0.055
0.051 1
06
0.065
0.060
l.k2
0.070
0.056
1.25
O.kSO 0
OkO
9^8
0.500 0.020
k.2
0.k7S
0.030
6.7
199
69.0
k.89
6.5 I
0.k96
k.56
O.kOO
O.kks
0.k25
0.070
0.OS2 1
35
0.085
0.061
1.39
0.078
0.057
1.57
0.k70 0
060
Ik. 6
0.550 0.050
10. k
0.500
O.OSS
12. k
215
70.6
5.00
O.kBk
k.6l
O.kis
O.kko
0.k28
o.oss
O.OSS 1
00
0.060
0.06k
0.9k
0.058
0.059
0.98
0.k70 0
060
Ik. 6
0.500 0.020
k.2
0.k8s
o.oko
9.0
116
71.0
5.0k
5.3 s
0.k76
4.65
o.kao
0.k60
O.kko
o.oko
O.OSS 0
75
O.OSO
0.065
0.77
O.Oks
0.060
0.75
0.k6o 0
050
0.510 0.050
6.2
O.kSs
o.oko
9.0
200
72.1
5.12
6.2 3
0.k65
k.70
0.370
O.kOO
0.58s
0.050
0.057 0
53
0.060
0.067
0.90
O.Oks
0.062
0.75
O.kSO 0
020
k.9
0.500 0.020
k.2
O.kes
0.020
k.S
201
77-5
5.k7
k.O 3
0.551
k.k5
O.kSO
0.505
0.k76
0.070
0.06S 1
08
0.065
0.078
1.09
0.078
0.071
1.10
0.520 0
110
26.6
0.590 0.110
22.9
0.555
0.110
2k. 7
202
79.k
5-65
O.k I
0.k98
k.56
0.kk5
0.k90
0.k6e
0.065
0.069 1
25
0.110
0.081
1.36
0.098
0.075
1.31
0.530 0
120
29.5
0.600 0.120
25-0
0.565
0.120
27.0
116
80.6
5.72
0.1 B
O.k70
k.67
0.k20
O.kSO
O.kSS
0.070
0.071 0
99
0.090
0.08k
1.07
0.080
0.078
1.03
o.kgo 0
080
19.5
O.SkO 0.060
12.5
0.515
0.070
15.7
205
82.2
5.82
k.3 I
O.H5
0.055
0.07k 0
7k
0.k70 0
060
Ik. 6
0.500 0.020
k.2
O.kSS
O.oko
9.0
U3
8k. 0
5.96
O.k60
k.71
O.kOO
0.390
0.395
0.080
0.076 1
05
0.080
0.091
0.86
0.080
0.06k
0.95
o.keo 0
070
17.1
O.k70 -0.010
-2.1
0.k75
0.030
6.7
Ilk
85.0
6.(9
0.k«6
k.69
O.38O
0.570
0.375
0.080
0.079 1
01
0.110
0.095
1.18
0.095
0.086
0.k60 0
oso
O.kSO 0
0
0.k70
0.025
5.6
20k
85.0
6.(9
6.5 I
0.k65
k.61
0.k05
O.kSO
9.kl6
O.OJS
0.079 0
95
0.100
0.095
1.08
0.088
0.086
1.02
O.kSO 0
070
17.1
0.550 0.050
lO.k
0.505
0.060
15.S
115
87.0
6.16
6.k8
0.k58
k.6l
0.590
0.590
0.390
0.080
0.065 0
97
0.090
o.o9r
0.95
0.085
0.090
0.9k
O.k70 0
060
Ik. 6
O.kSO 0
0
0.k75
0.050
6.7
207
68.0
6.25
7.2 3
0.k77
k.6k
O.kOO
O.kOO
O.kOO
0.060
0.06s 0
71
0.080
0.099
0.61
0.070
0.092
0.76
O.k60 0
050
12.2
O.kSO 0
0
O.k70
0.025
5.6
206
88.5
6.26
1.1 I
0.k90
k.59
O.kOO
O.kSO
O.klS
0.070
0.086 0
81
0.080
0.101
0.79
0.075
0.095
0.81
0.k70 0
060
Ik. 6
O.SIO O.OSO
6.2
0.k90
O.Oks
10.1
20?
B9.k
6.55
k.es
0.k98
k.56
0.k20
0.k30
0.k25
0.060
0.087 0
69
0.080
0.105
0.78
0.070
0.095
0.7k
O.kSO 0
070
17.1
0.510 O.OJO
6.2
0.k9S
O.OSO
11.2
(a) All d»fl«ct:
(b) All d*fUct:
(c) Dlaansioo ":
•ff«ct on tl
ns shTWQ la Colus
OB BhovQ aro in li
lOASUKED TTATIC DKTLICTIOf
• ctrlcsl Defl»oto»t»r=O.UlO
cbanlcal DeflvctoBBtar =0.460
= 0.W5
, 10, 15, 19 and 22 ar* talWD from Tabl» 5,
&Dce, althar north or •outb, fro« the c»nt»r of tho 1
I as the "etatlc deflectlone" In tbs 1
blov daflectloaa" for the 1
Klectrlcal Defleotowtar
Hecbanlcal Defleotoaetar
THBORBTICAL STATIC DEFLBCTIOH
(Baaed on grose moMent of Inertia at oenter)
< rrrolutlon per
Br at tha tina the crank pine are
in poBltlon for TTWTliwn^ he
"-'• "K"
laotrlcal and nechanleal dariectoi
letara and their comparlso
DBFtffiTIOS TACTOR
(Maaeurad/Theoratlcal )
Blactrlcal Baflectometar =l.lkO
Mechanical BeflactoMtar =1.532
Ayaraga =1.256
0.00218
0.00256
0.00257
1<9.5
5.5f
5.TI.
J.91
1.^
lt.71.
5.12
5.25
5.38
9.71
5.7«
5.M
14.56
1..55
I..52
I1.27
BU nruonoB
0J.55
OJiTO
0^470
0J»70
Ojj60
0Ji90
OJ<90
0Ji95
0J.95
tm
WCOMOTIVI CLUB ll-A (S^
SBD-ucFurrnns
Cf. D^lf
Bkrt Oirdv Tr*ak uri E
(90 0,007 ii.28 O.QliO 0.007 5.71
(90 0.028 1.07
,085 0.050 0,^
.(^5 0.050 1,17
,085 0.(97
(90 0.C98
,050 0.(^8
1.060 O.CLS IJJ
J.O5O 0,0(42 1.19
).060 0.066 0.9J
-1 Igtrj-^.
■fS. S3:
fs.
.QliO
.015
3.9
7.'
.015
<.9
1.9
0.O5O
5.9
>.«0
J.OI5
5.9
2.!
3.050
-5.1
1.9
0.005
B.015
D.015
l.BO
^.'9
2.9
5.9
-2.<
'.cm
-13.7
.2.0
D.050
0.015
0.025
-5.9
2.9
Il.9
0.025
0.050
0.055
I..9
9.e
10.8
0.O65
12.7
0.O66
j!ii5
12.7
19.
I 7, 8, 10, 13, 19 ■
t teriactloaa for i
it<m»UT OJ^
THSCRETICAI STAITC S
bat girder OJ1I5
Impact
P*\(D (OK^(^^<o KN«)r-<-"0 _jw-^<o^ -otricy»-»K\ >« unksks'O wO-Jtww -tf-S<-<<w
o' o' ° oi o* J »A-: o J lA J p3 h^^'j j4 oj '^'f if o if <>:^s'if rJsJsJr;!^ ;3^4^
§?§ §l&§g iSSIS SfagI g§l?§ l^88§ 3§S3a is^a
^ <$ cS ooood oo^oo oooc5o <3orfdo drfodd oocjoo oooo
OJ(Dt^^ a)(y>ir.Of^ trw^OiAOi wwojoj© <y^f-wo^ ^-. f*-S*o o^^o^oo^ o^o^c^^o
_io(y o»Ac»jiA»H <Jot^cj-i _i-^<ie5<3 -4»<^^(5c^d r-^ J^At^ lAocJr^tA lAiAiAtp
8igS gS-Sg'S S§7?sS 8S!g8S 82(;3^« t3oS8-5 C^'S&^S' S'5'^
odd Sgoog <S o S (^ g cddcd o S 6 tS o d odd ^ <S o <S d dddd
»»» SS'SS^ S':8$:S;o S;?S«:8 S®^S« PP^^P J:^^*^ '?*^'?
odd ddddd ddood doood ooooo ooooo ooooo oooo
oQO oooifMA OOQOO OOOOO oiTsinoo 0!fv*fMr\0 tr\u\ooo OQOO
3SS: RS'SSIS S,S^3a_ Stalls 33^*^. iRsS5!R «K:X.iR*. M«K
^J^ _:JO_:J(7^J J lAOD « (y <VJ <Mf\<y UN (M/NCyWO _a O- O « ©■ UN^O_^^ O O O^ «l
do-o- dwcOwoJ cJJJ«^»? K^<>;j«^J ci-^rAiAcJ cJwJm^o; k^wwoJw Jw<J.A
oioioj ft)(MifNeoir> iT^tDOOo ocDtoo© eoojoorvj irstDiTiOBD W4f\ft^iM/^ unwwo
S§§ sssoS saeaa asaaa sSaas ssaas Sssss Soss
ojM^f^rA H^^Au^K^H^ H^B^J^r.J h^, tr. »«> »A cJ <-? ^ oJ Oj CU »A<-JoI'Jt^ _:? OJ <y »/
tfsoifso oifM/NOO OOOOO ooooif\ ooirMT-us ootr\00 oirsiTiO
ooo osssa a^^&8?i ^,^.?^.? ^.^.^.^.^. ^.°^^.° ^.^.°^.^ ^A°A
«>a)«D (Dt~-r-r-r- t-^w^j ^trsw^w ir^w ^-Jr- _d^ic^<y_s w_at^_ah- _4t-h--*
odd d <-•' ^' -J J rJ rA_:JfA»A »Acy -ilA-i oI-^»ApA<J *«^-:3u^-ift^ _JtArJ»AJ »A^J»A
iTM/sifv ifvoooo ootrsco cifMTNOifs wMTiOOO ouMr\u^o irsoooo oooo
888 ssssg ss^jas sjsaas; saaas ««s?!8! sssas s.o.o.a
S,Si^SS> «!^«5 ~S55S. 8SSRS ^^'c'^'*. ^^':'^': ^.^.^.^
<S tr,G >J o o tS fi o <5 <S -^ ri o tS <-I<yH^-^ir> cuir-f^r^oJ ^njAiAtAd ddo^w
mil tiiii iiiti iiiii iiiii mil till
<S o t$ G S <D 6 a <S G <S d t5 <S <$ ddddd ddddd ddddd dddd
MO-3-^<A -:tO«0^(VI >^^a)lD(^ >C<^-^^^ <MM(^(^«> 00(MO(^ <DO^<D(U
(vJ^r^rHO pArA>4^d d tAJ fi lAi OrAdrJfA cJcJf^lArJ tAr4{0fAK^ ri tC\iJ C4
nm SsSII IfssI ^fllS ffffs slls^ sfsl
ddddd ddddd ddddd ddddd ddddd ddddd dddd
\f^tr\^ O0*rs*r\0 tCV^^'^tC' SGSl*'^'*^R floOOt/MTi (OOffiOquN mnOO *5*1 lAm tfN<o
d d d ddddd ddddd ddddd ddddd ddddd ddddd dddd
HS 511'S^ yl*!* fS'l^J? fISII ^^p^l ^^*p^ p^^^
d d d ddddd ddddd ddddd ddddd ddddd ddddd d d d c'
trifM/v i/\ooifvjN ootfsoo ovvirNPirv ir\oir\oo ooooo oif\ooo qooo
35-?, S.3IS3S RRSKS SKfeRK Sk3»» KC^KRK ii(?v?.RIR SlRKtR
ddd ddddd ddddd ddddd 6 d 6 <S <3 ddddd ddddd dddd
jjj "^^^si :issj3s si-Adi isisi s^rfPii T^idsi if:iii
tU 2HJS wS^SS 5^8^»S ^^tU ^§#5§ SliSIJS S^2
4SS
IF"
15^ g
|S**5
> a
nil
■s s
111?
HI]
as '
::>
.^.h
S&i
s is
3 « » Si
i 1 1 2
8
«> g, S. «D
■s iidddj :;°
:ii,
3 s
* E
Z I
;a ^ p
-is
a "
-i
d5
^%
-1
i I
* i s
. j§ idddj 5?
o *» t "• 9
" S c I ^
-^.*" ^uk £"«g
-""II g||^|gS
J S q 'a I
Hi
•5 -Si
;::£:
si
456
Impact
II.
il.
||IS
•l:a:
^i&i
^ o
llli
> o o o o o rto o
gg«g& SS«B 8S«8S SE«S
>ooo ooo<
o 8«gg3 o8^S& 8S8^« ^?^^? ?°^^^ ^°?o? ^^?^? ?^^
f* xOOx^olyscR CQ&CQOvOv (DCT\.-i!>0 ^^JK^t'^.* \OOJiriRjCJ l^J^^f^\0^ r^iyoOO VOCO>0
o ir\opop OQoop ooo<
i3R;R3
;sa:
> >H O O iH C
o o o o o
8 SSS22 S22SS SSSS SSSSS ?§§?« gSSSS gSS
O OOOOO OOOOO OOOO OOOOO ooooo ooooo ooo
^ O O S O O O (
i-HtH r^^f-t-HO »-t^^f-tQ OOQQ^
Wa 33 BMHWy HH^^H 3»S» X37SX S»»SV S»V»V >»(
M? BS SMHH9 HH33H 3333 33333 33333 33333 33H
?l°§3 IISSS I§I§1 §SSI ISS?S §§§IS ?§§?2 §§8
88S3& 8SS« '^^^^^ 88^&8 S«^«3 !?&&
iTWOr— f*>CO »f\ CM23 On ■-* CD -=r *^ f~ K^a^t^COCD t— CA C^ --■ ^0 O Ol >r\
tfsG <r\ ^o tr\v\ir\ir\ ^^^lf^tr^u^lr^ '^"^iQlf^^ -lom o Ss Sn lf\m If\
\oSr-^Of- r-r-r-t- r-i^r-(^r- p-r-t—r-r- r-r-coi—r- ^-r-r-
doooo OOOO ooooo ooooo ooooo ooo
OOOOlA lAifMrMAO irMfNtAlfMA irMf\tfMP.iA OOOOO tfMAiO.
Jt-*-*a3^ coir>j=t^K> '^'^'5t.'5t/£' "SkS Js-S ?\ ?\iS S\'£''?\ vo^^
-sa;
rN^m^UA iTi iTv^O 3 ^J
1 II II li
1+ ^
J g ». >. V
< ** o « -^
a s
5 Ss
SSIS
1^ I
SS6t I
(S » < M *■
UULTBia 0? VBRTiCiL DBFLBCTOIISTKB B
(VERTICAL DEFLBCTIOI AT CnTTffi OF
122< . 0" OIREBR SPAI
LOCOMOTIVE CUBS ll^ (8TEAM]
MKAI DBnJtCTKna
laatr. loatr, ^^^
■.pa. i.p.s,
ae.o
iuU)
1-53
6.24
Boll irf«,t
0«n*«tlra Cwit
JlJS
l:g
tlm Dgl^ Hftpiincr
o!o)5 0
013 i'.l
3.01.5 0
0.0I4O 0
Xi 1.
1.050 c
oes 2.
as s
OJO !.
0.075 0
0J8 1.
1.060 c
0U3 1.
050 1.
0.065 0
051 1.
0.O7O 0
051. 1.3
1.070 0
056 1.!
1.055 0
057 o.<
3.070 0
?:S? S
Sg S:]
066 0.9
.065 0
067 0.9
070 o.e
.055 0
(771 0.7
.065 0
073 0.1
oau 0.'
3.090 0
0« 0.9
3.065 0
0« 0.7
«5 1.
'.065 0
099 0.:
1.115 0
3.105 0
loe 1.0
3.0B5 0
107 0.7
3.100 0
109 0.9
!2o 0
112 I'.l
HAZiiani ctnjcnon
3.653 0
723 0.0
.658 0
7U7 0.1
3.652 0
O.MS 0
7UB 0.0
'.ia 0
1.671 0
733 0.:
1.687 0
752 0.1
0.713 0
7« O.t
0.70a 0
78J o.c
1.709 0
7au 0.
1.739 0
61.9 0.
1.751 0
622 o.c
0.7311
0.1
1.676 0
1.706 0
831 o.i
0.706 0
616 o.t
o.«,5 0
765 O.C
1.705 0
655 0.
1.665 0
615 0.
1.696 0
0.6a. 0
621. 0.
0.6^5 0
835 0.
0.65U 0
z t
o!67l 0
au 0.
676 0.
0.6W 0
659 0.
l.WU C
6« 0.
>.796 C
916 0.
1.730 t
895 0.
915 0.
0.770 0
Z S:
0.716 0
0.7J5 0
856 0.
875 0.
5o!u
160 25.8
o« 15.3
,09li 15.1
I p«iltl«B far
>• thaorvtlMl
T1)««rwtl««l 1
(tUuur*d/^Mr»tleAl]
i rage iviarKsr - rieabe iriseri ruiuuui nere
Page Marker
Insert Foldout
is a i^age MarSrer - Mease Insert Foldout here
Page Marier
Insert Foldout
s a Page Marker - Please Insert Foldout here
Page Marker
Insert Foldout
Pa^s Mor^e-t - P/e.a5e. XriSe-r-t f^/dotut h&r-e.
s a Page Marker - Please Iwsert Foldout here
Page Marker
Iwsert Foldout
MXR.K6P. - PLeXSe INSeW FOLDOUT Hep.e
INSeW FOLDOUT
I .NIC' rliMKrr I lease', hiMir I'oI<!(hi! In j <
I iujc ri<irk( I
I used rolcloiii
rsye JM.^T\eT - xfeaj^ I^S^H Y^lJ&ttf Jiefe
Marker
eass mser
dooT nece
Impact
457
on this span, is 38.80, or, the increase due to speed is found to be 14.8 percent. From
the measured stresses (see Table 11, column 7) the increase is found to be 19.8 percent.
In the upper portion of Tables 19 to 22, the ordinates of the theoretical stress influ-
ence curve, and the actual measured ordinates for some one run have been plotted. The
increase in area is apparent and it may be interesting to note that actually there is not a
measurable stress until the front axle of the locomotive has traveled an appreciable
distance along the span. This distance simply represents a lapse in time, and seems to
vary from 0.042 to 0.077 sec. If we consider for a moment that these measured ordinates
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ^
irj sfr-GSS <di~JG /<=> ^ - . '
L^i^ntmfij^ai tor^cG ■ j/
_ i ,
^
± _ - -
± — _ X " z - .
i ..
i
. . . _^ _ _ . _ _„_< ,_ _.
/ :
'
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::. -ii <'::!.: :::::
^^
T i ^ '
_^ t*
•^ *'
;"' \t""" "::: ::::■'::
'^'^ ,.'
.-''' %. J '
,
Tic
20 30 40 50 £o 70 80 90 100 no
SPB^a MILES REIZ HOUI^.
SPEED EFFECT
30
•
<
,.
1
• ■* •
> 1
t •
_.J
r
20 30 40 so GO 70 SO 9a
SPEED — Ml L.E.5 PBIS HOUf2.
ROLL EFFECT
SPEEO E.FFE.CT
/AND
ROL-l- EFFECT
LOCOMOTIVE. d_/^SS PS -A
458
Impact
represent deflections at the center instead of stresses, it will perhaps be better under-
stood as something to be expected, as it would require a force approaching infinity in
magnitude, to deflect the span in zero time.
Roll Effect
As the springborne weight of the locomotive, in motion, oscillates about a hori-
zontal axis, it has the effect of increasing the pressure on one rail and decreasing it on
the other rail a hke amount. This rolling action is probably set up, not only by track
in
(UN
llllllllllllllllllllllll /
THeor^e-f-ical incr-ecise (_
ir-i sii~ess c/t-je fa — ]
Cei-iffifljcgal Fcpr-ce < ,
::::::: — i::":::::::"::"""::::::::::::::: ::2:::"
/_^. .
t
— ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::> :::::i::
/ _
i ^
. '
_ ^
:___:.:__:::_:..:_.•:::::•/
_____ • _ ^r
I .'
: _ _ • ',.'••
; ,y :
^ ''
,*'
* ^,-''
■ --^ —
so 30 40 50 GO 70 ao so
SPaECP - MILES RES HOU/e:
SPEEO EFFE-CZT
T
j[
. .^-- J.-
- -
T •
<
^
' •
• ' •
■
1 • , , ' '
'
~r , 1
• X X
. ' ' ^ \
• • '
f
r
in
Ij ID
r
so 30 ^O 30 GO 70 <SO 90
3PEEO>- MIL-ES PEie HOUI^
ROLL. EFFECT
Fig. 29
55-10 QIRDER SR^M
SREEP EFFECT
AMD
ROI_l_ EFFECT
LOCOIVIOTIVE CU/^SS QC^-I
Impact
459
inequalities, but also by the locomotive weaving or nosing from side to side. The period
of this roll is presumably sinusoidal in time, but the spans tested were too short to
obtain any idea as to its frequency from the stress influence curves.
When the track is centrally located with respect to the span, the magnitude of the
increase of pressure on one rail can be found by subtracting average stress or deflection
of both girders from the maximum stress or deflection found in either girder. It has been
pointed out however that the track, on both spans, was somewhat off center, so this
eccentricity must be taken into account in arriving at the actual roll effect.
'
1 M 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
ir-i &f-ness duje +o
Cerrf-i-iFUcgal roi~c&
/
/
c
*,'
7
'
/
•
/
.
/
/
/
.
•
•
/
/
,
/
.
y
.
/
/
•
^
.
1
r'
,
X
-
k
*■
^
a
=
t=
"
L—
_
_
L,
^,
'•
u
-
-
-
/^.S.E.,A Desic]r-i Sped/^icai-ioi—i
a>r-ic=/ /Sa-hir-icL
^fS^Jlea >
1
-
,
•
,
*
,
p
•
•
•
•
•
-
,
.
J
•
•
.
/.o 3.0 3.0 <qo so (Z.o 7.0
5PEEO - I^BK/aUUTIOMS PEIZ 3ECOSIC?
(ir-.p.S = IJ} a93 rn ph.)
ROLL EFFECT
a
(A
^- r
in ^
I.O 2.0 3.0 40 5.0 (S.O 7.0
SPE-E-C - ISEVOUUTIOhJS PE/Z 3ECONI?
(1 n.p.s = 14.093 m.p.h)
5PE.E.D EFFECT
25
1.3
in .
UJ
r
in
In:?
0 "
Fiq. 30
55'- 10 c^if^ae.rs. sp/°>.m
SPEED E-FFECT
ANIP
ROLL e:ffe.ct
LOCOMOTIVE CL/\SS K4-S
460
Impact
At the bottom of Table 11, the average static or crawl stress is given as 7.28 kips
per sq. in. in the east girder and 7.86 in the west girder, with an average of 7.57. The
stress in the west girder is 0.29 kips per sq. in. greater than the average, which indicates
an eccentricity in static loading of 3.8 percent. For run 244 at a speed of 8S.4 m.p.h. in
this same table, we find the stresses to be 6.66 in the east girder and 11.23 in the west,
with an average of 8.94. To eliminate the influence of eccentricity, the average stress of
8.94 must be increased by 3.8 percent which would give a stress of 9.22 in the west
girder if there were no roll. The stress due to roll is then the difference between 9.22
(A
r
~
~
-
""
""
~
^~
~
—
'"
~
■"
r-
THeor-e^ical ii-icneass
In s-fr-sss cdi-/a /o ~
Carrf-r-ifLicjcil Force
>
/
/
J
•
r
/
>
f
/
/
/
/
/
.
/
/'
•
'
^
•
•
**
•
•
>
•
"
-■
^
•
^
—
tn
J. a 2.0 3.0 4.0 S.O G.O
SPEEC?- fSEVCPL-UTIOMS PEIZ 3ECOMC?
(/r-.p.s.= 12. G<Z3 m.p.h.)
5RE.ED EFFBCT
{IMCISE.ASB. IhJ ME/\M STISE.SS)
~
~
-
A.I3.E../\. Dsaiqr-i Specificai
ior-i
and eaHn,<3 I3i-ilhs -\
""
r
,
•
.
•
*
•
•
^
•
•
.
•
,
•
*
•
•
-
,
•
_
_
p.
hi
UJ (D
/.O 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 G.O
3Pe.E.C>- ieE\yOLUTIOhJ3 PEI^. SECOr^P'
(lr:p.3.= IZ.<Z<Z& m.p.h.)
I20L.L, E.FFE.CZT
FlQ. 31
55'-IO Q1F5DB1S SP/^NI
SPEED EFFECrr
AND
(50U1_ EFFECT
LOCOfVlO-riVE CL/^SS Ml-A
Impact
461
and the recorded stress of 11.23 or 2.01 kips per sq. in. which is 26.6 percent of the
average static stress.
The effect of roll, shown in percent of static load, is given for both spans as deter-
mined from stresses in Tables 11 to 18, inclusive, and for the 122-ft. span, as deter-
mined by deflections, in Tables 27 to 30. Roll to the west or east is marked "W" or
"E" as the case may be. The preponderance of westerly roll was probably due to some
track condition or the westerly track eccentricity or both.
lA
lA
r
^
1
-T-
. _
T
1
I
1
i Ti
j i
1
T
1 1
1
j
,
" "H
1
! i
!
U-L4--I--
v-^--
X -U
I 1
1
1
' 1 1
'
i
t;
11
1
\
1
1
i
'
^
■ •
11 1 1 ' i
'
,
ir-i sfr-e
73S cJl-is i-o ,
e
1
''
''
'
L.±«:
1
■
' '
A
-.\
T-
X.
1
i-''"'
1
_i
•
1 .
,--"
''
-^
-
4--'
J-
:::ll:::::
o 10 zo 30 40 so GO 70 ao 90 100 no
Sf='EEn- Mll-E.3 PEIZ HOUfS.
SPE.£C? EFFECT
"'^ 1
T";^ T I ' T
' f
4- ^..^.o--^ -^
1 1 1 ^ 1
A I5B./
1 Desiqr-i 5pedficctf!or-i ^ ^
or-id f-
■Sa-hir-iq ISlSIs3 -,
:::..;;:__ :i.. ;:;;:.;:;_:. :.-.::i.:..i:
T T •
T T X " • -i-
1
1
•
I 11 1
' ' 4-*X X
• ^ 1. I
X. '' "
. ' ' ■
::::::::li:M::i::::::::::::::::::::::::::
r
O 10 so 30 40 so GO 70 ao 9o 100 no
SPE-EO - hvllLaS PEIS MOUfS.
IZOLL. EFFBCl-
FIQ. 32
12a -O QlRPEFZ SRANJ
SPEED EFFECT
ROL.\_ EFFECT
LOCOMOT-IV/E CUASS PS-A.
462
Impact
This roll, in percentage, has been plotted in the lower diagrams of Figures 28 to 35.
It will be noted that, with the exception of the PS-A electric locomotive on both spans,
the values are well below those provided for in both the AREA design specification and
AREA rating rules for steel bridges. It is interesting to note that for all locomotives on
both spans, the maximum roll does not occur at the maximum speed, but at speeds from
70 to 80 m.p.h. or even lower with the class Ml-A engine, and at speeds of less than
40 or SO m.p.h. it is not an important factor. It should be remembered that the girders
of the 5S-ft.-10 in. span are only S ft. apart and this accounts for the much greater
effect of roll in this span than in the 122-ft. span, of which the girders are 8 ft. apart.
'A
in
>^
^^
•
.
''' ^
im sir- ess o'l^<s fc:
'C3se
•
e \
|r
: ,'.:
1
7"
,'-'•
,
1
^
.--' 1
''\.
---''
'i .
.
.-
—
"" . J
So JO 40 ^o GO 70 SO 90
SPE.EO-MIL-E.S PBI^ HOUfS.
SPEED EFFECT
(ir-JCISE^SE IM rvlE^h^ ST/SE3S)
"""-T
"tt
X 4. --
,3 t :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
A.R.E.^.Di3Si<gr-i Spsc/Fica-l-ior-i __
cimc^ /SaHr-ic:^ ISl-i/ss -) T
; " X .:.;_.£.: ; ;_x i
•
1
•
.
^ '' '
,
•
0 .±.-ll' • • 1. ...I _L I.-L.
/O so 30 ^O so GO 70 so 90 100
SP£E.C> - Mlt-E.5 PEIS HOUS
ROLL. EFFECT
Fiq. 33
l22'-0 qiRDER SRAM
SPEED EFFECT
ANC
ROLL. EFFECT
LOCOMOT-IVE CLASS <H<^-I
Impact
463
Track Effect — Electric Locomotives
In impact tests made heretofore, steam locomotives with unbalanced weights in the
driving wheels have been used and it has been impossible to apportion the total dynamic
effect of such engines between the disturbing force set up by the revolving overbalance
in the counterweight of the drivers and that caused by track or wheel irregularities. Here,
however, the use of electric locomotives, with no unbalanced weights, afforded an oppor-
tunity to determine more definitely the effect of track irregularities such as joints and
uneven surfaces and wheel irregularities which might be due to flat spots, eccentric mount-
*~
"^
~
n
~^
n
~
'
-
~
-
r
1
1
^
•
..
•
'
5
.
•
-
THeor-efical ir-ic/~<^ase
ir-i str-ess cdcje to
Cemi-r-i-FL-iaal For-cs \
7
^
J
"
,
•
^
*
-
"-
*•
"
''
s.
^
-
r>
J
J
_
J
^
= =
-
J
— —
"^
—
J
_,
i.o 2.0 3.0 ^.o 3.0 a.o
SREED - /3BV^C^i-UTlOhJ3 PEIS SECOND
(I r-.p s - l^.093 m.p.h.)
SPEED EFFEO-T
(INCISEASE. ir^ hyiE.^!^ STFSE.5S)
1
r
!
1 1
-
r
1
r"'
1 1
1
A.fS.B A. Desigr-} SpGCificai-ion
Oi—icJ ISci+ir->q F^u^les — ,
1
r
,
.
,
^.
-
-
--
.
■
•
,
•^
.
1
.
'
'
.
•
"
1
.
1 •
.
1
.
.
i
•
^
\~\-\-\ k
lO 2 0 3.0 4.0 S.O G.O
SPE.E.O - i^svoL.uTiOhJS pae. SBCor-^cp
(l/-.ps.~ l^.093 m.p.h)
ROI.L. EFFECT
FIQ. 34
122'- O QlRDE-R SRA,M
SPEED E.FFECX
ROl-L- EFFECT
LOCOMOTIVE. CL_/ASS K4-S
464
Impact
ing or an out-of-round perimeter. Perfect wheels on a perfect track surface could be con-
sidered as smoothly rolling loads, and yet could set up free oscillations in the span if the
wheel spacing and speed were such that the time of application of the successive wheel
loads synchronized with the natural period of such free oscillations.
Where the axle spacing is not uniform, as was the case with the electric locomotives
used in these tests, the time of the application of the successive axle loads would vary,
getting out of step with the free vibrations and causing the oscillations to decrease in
magnitude. The oscillograph records, a sample of which is shown in Figures 25 and 27,
o ^
uj
^:»
' >^
dj
O I O 20 3.0 4.0 5.0 &.0 7.0
■5PBED - R-^VOUUTIONS PEie SECONO
(lr-.ps.= IS.GGSm.p.h)
SRELE-a EFFEczrr
30i ■ I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I \ZO
'
.
'
_j
'
,
,
'
.
.
•
.
"t
.
.
•
•
•
^^^
'
^^
«<
^
r-i SiriBSS di-ie fo
Cer-i ir-i fL-ioal For~ce 1
s
,_
oL-l-
Mil 1^10.+++^
*^
._
_^
n
-
A.ie.E.A. Disslc^n Sp&cificafion
and /Saf/i-icg fStjIes ~)
1
r
1
-
.
•
•
,
•
•
.
•
.
.
•
.
'-
•
.
•
±.
•
•
(A
Oaf
S Hi
0
/■O 20 3.0 ^.o 5.0 G.O 1
3R£EO - f^BV^C^UUTI OI\u'5 REIS SECOhJC?
(I n.p.s. = J2. GC33 m.ph.)
f^OL.1- EFFECT
Fiq. 35
12.2 -O QIRPER SR^M
SPE.E.D EFFECT
/AND
ROLL EFFECT
LOCOIVIOTlVE CLASS M I -A
Impact
465
_^ __ - ..-.._ _ -_ .(!
/4.«S.E./^. [Pesigi-i /
Specif^ico+ion ~\ '
- '--::-:::: j----
/
_ - _ _ _1- ^ . . . .. 6
::::_.:::::::::::::::::::::: ::"::;:::::^ — <
.___ T .' . /
•. J * • • / .
-——-^ y
-- --,£ - - , ---
:::::: JLi:::::?:::::::::::::: — ;'
. /
,'
..>,.. ..::::: .^' _.
..: t:
^-' ■^-/A.^E.XV. ISoi-!r-iq
,'' Kulss
,-''
, ° X
UJ ^
[J) lr>
O lO so 30 40 So &0 TO ao 90 100 no
3PE-^D- rvllLES PEI^ HOUfS,
TRACK E-FFECT
(AVBie/^QE. OF £^ST .ANO WEST C^tl^DE-fSS)
piq. 3G
55-10 (^iiepEis. SRAM
TRACK EFFECX
LOCOMOTIVE. Cl_A5S P5-A
'-^ T
T
A.e.B.A. DESiqt^
^ SPEC/F/CATIO/^ \
^::::::::::::::::::::j::::::::::::::::::::::; ::::::::::
--------------- :::::::::: :;j'
,?..
:::::::::::::::::::::::: :;;?!::::::
?
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::;:::: :?':::::•::
__ .._. y --^- -
. - ' :.
: .=:
3 ...'. i:
-f'
■ ■ ,-' \A.S?.H,/A. fSy^Tlh^G
,-' /SUi~ES.
_.,--'
,, "'
0 c
BE
IS J J
1^
J
r
10 20 30 40 50 GO 70 so 90 IOC
3PEE.D-MII-E.3 PBfZ HGUfZ
TIS/\CK EFFECT
(/^VBf5/\qE. OF BAST AND IVBST qnSDEISS)
Fiq.37
55-10 qifSDE-fig. SRANJ
TRACK E.FFECT
LOCOIVIOTIV'E. CLASS QC^-I
466
Impact
20 30 4a SO GO 70 SO 90 100
5PEE.D - MIL.E.5 F>EI^ HOU!^
TiaACK EFFE-CT
(/\VBIS/\QE. OF £.^ST y^hJO WEST Q I IS.ae.fZS)
laa'-o (:qiRDBve. sram
TRACK EFfE-CT
locomotive: ol-ass p5-a
g^l 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 -
r" "
A.e.B./h Desiqm Sped
'^/coHon - 1
IS
/
A
./S.B.^. fectHr-}c3 /
- - - " ' Fk
'1^1 es X ,/
<y-.-...
_,<•■'
'^
; -: .......
::::;.::_,_-.-:..-•-
^^ '
•
J-'''*
• ^ ^
IP
o 10 za 30 40 30 GO 70 ao 90 100 110
(AV£>S^QE. OF B..^ST- ^r^C i^£.ST C^/fSa^fSS)
Fi(5- 39
122-0 CqlieCPEfS
TRACK EFFECT
LOCOMOTIVE. CLASS qq-l
Impact 467
could be interpreted as indicating this very condition, but on the other hand, the de-
parture from the smooth mean stress curve might be considered as due to the successive
wheels passing over a joint or irregularity in rail surface due to uneven tie support.
Regardless of the cause, these electric locomotives produced dynamic forces, and until
more is known about them, they must be ascribed in this report to a track or wheel
condition or both and given the term "track effect".
This track effect, both in magnitude of stress and percentage of the mean static
stress is given in columns 14 and IS of Tables 11 and 12 for the SS-ft. 10-in. span, and
in Tables IS and 16 for the 122-ft. span. This same information, as obtained from de-
flections, is given for the east girder of the short span in Tables 23 and 24, and for both
girders of the long span in Tables 27 and 28.
The various values of this track effect, in percentage of the mean static stress as
found from the tests, have been plotted in Figures 36 to 39. It will be seen that the
measured values are considerably lower than those provided for in the AREA design
specification, but at lower speeds exceed the amount provided for in the AREA rating
rules. There seems to be but a very small increase in the SS-ft. 10-in. span after a
speed of SO or 60 m.p.h. is attained, and with the P5-A locomotive on the 122-ft. span,
the maximum effect occurred at a speed of about 20 m.p.h.
As was to be expected, the effect was greater on the short span, amounting to from
12 to IS percent, while on the 122-ft. girder it was slightly more than 5 percent for the
GG-1 locomotive and 9 percent for the PS-A. It is hoped that at some future time
tests can be made with similar locomotives on spans on which the rail is continuous or
in which the joints are welded, to determine more conclusively whether these oscilla-
tions are natural vibrations set up by the rolling load or are simply an increase in stress
due to the track condition.
Combined Track and Hammer Blow Effect — Steam Locomotives
An important source of vertical oscillations in a railroad bridge is the periodic dis-
turbing force of the counterweights of the steam locomotive. This disturbing force, or
hammer blow, is due to the centrifugal force of the unbalanced weights on the revolving
driving wheels. In these tests, as well as in the impact tests reported in the AREA
Proceedings for 1936, Vol. 37, the recorded dynamic effects are due to both track effect
and hammer blow effect. It is quite possible that in some cases the condition of the
track would tend to counteract the oscillations due to the hammer blow. On the other
hand, the oscillations due to the track conditions might be additive to the oscillations
caused by the hammer blow. Since for these tests, there is no way to determine the
separate effects, the only alternative is to report their combined effect.
The combined track and hammer blow stresses and the dynamic magnifiers for the
east girder, west girder and average of both girders are shown under the heading of
Semi-Amplitudes in Tables 13, 14, 17 and 18 for the two steam locomotives on both
the SS-ft. 10-in. girder span and the 122-ft. girder span. The deflections and dynamic
magnifiers for the east girder of the SS-ft. 10-in. span are shown for the electrical de-
flectometer, the mechanical deflectometer and the average of the two instruments in
Tables 2S and 26. The deflections and dynamic magnifiers for the east girder, west
girder, and average of both girders are shown in Tables 29 and 30 for the 122-ft. span.
The theory of vibrations as pertaining to impact in railway bridges has been fully
discussed in the AREA Proceedings for 1936, Vol. 37, page 761, and this theory has been
followed in determining the dynamic magnifiers for the steam locomotives on these two
test spans. The method used in determining the dynamic magnifiers will now be ex-
468 Impact
plained, using the steam locomotive Class K4-S on the 5S-ft. 10-in. span as a typical
example. According to Table 13, columns 14 to 22, inclusive, the semi-amphtude stress
for run 205 at a speed of 89.4 m.p.h. is 2.87 kips per sq. in. for the west girder; see
column 17. The values of DnN^ in column 18 are the stress semi-amplitudes due to the
hammer blow forces when considered as acting statically, that is without magnification,
on the span in the position for maximum moment. The theoretical hammer blow stress
at one revolution per second in the west girder is O.OSS kips per sq. in. and by correcting
this theoretical stress by the stress factor of 0.979, as found in note (d) at the bottom
of Table 14, the actual hammer blow stress at one r.p.s. is 0.054 as shown in note (e).
Table 14. For run 205, the speed of the locomotive drivers "iV" was 6.33 r.p.s. The
value of DiiN^ for this run therefore becomes equal to 0.054 X 6.33^ = 2.16 kips per sq.
in. The dynamic magnifier, or the ratio of the measured semi-amplitudes to the stress in
the span due to the hammer blow when considered as acting statically at the center, is
then equal to 2.87 -^ 2.16 = 1.33.
It should be pointed out that the static or unmagnified hammer blow stresses and
deflections, or DnN~, are computed for the hammer blow as found by the dynamic
method of analysis, whereas the hammer blow deflections as reported in the impact tests
in the AREA Proceedings, Vol. 37, are based upon the static method of analysis. The
difference in the hammer blow stresses or deflections resulting from the two methods of
computing the hammer blow, as shown in Figures 18 and 19, is very small for these two
locomotives. Since certain refinements had been made in the dynamic method of analysis,
it was felt that the hammer blow as computed by the dynamic method of analysis
should be used in analyzing these data as well as all future data.
The average semi-amphtudes and dynamic magnifiers, as found for the two loco-
motives on each span, have been plotted and are shown in Figures 40 to 43. The theo-
retical values which might be expected and which are based on damping factors as
recommended in the AREA Rating Rules for Steel Bridges, are expressed by the curves.
It will be seen that for the 55-ft. 10-in. span the actual values, in the range of critical
or synchronous speed, are well below the theoretical. At other speeds, while the actual
values somewhat exceed the theoretical values, the difference is not serious and it must
be remembered that some portion of these semi-amplitudes represent track effect.
For the 122-ft. span, the measured values, are well below the theoretical values. It is
quite evident that the damping quahties of the span were greater than that assumed in
the rating rules for a span of similar length. It would also seem that locomotive spring
friction had been overcome, and that additional damping was contributed from this ac-
tion. There is also shown a theoretical value of the oscillations and magnifiers, based on
the assumption that spring damping was present, and the agreement is about as close
as can be expected, in view of the large number of unknown factors entering into the
problem.
Total Impacts
The total impact stresses and percentages shown under the heading of "Maximum
Stresses" in the Tables 11 to 18, inclusive, and the total impact deflections and per-
centages in the Tables 23 to 30, inclusive, are the maximum increases in stresses or
deflections, for that particular run, over the stresses or deflections obtained at a speed of
approximately 5 m.p.h. or the measured static stresses or deflections. These total impacts
as given are the combination of (1) speed effect, (2) roll effect, (3) track effect for the
electric locomotives and (4) track and hammer blow effect for the steam locomotives, as
found for that particular run, although it would be only by chance that the maximum
for all effects would occur simultaneously.
Impact
469
The total maximum impacts, in percentage of the crawl stress, for the four loco-
motives on the 55-ft. 10-in. span have been plotted in Figures 44 to 47 and in Figures
48 to 51 on the 122-ft. span. These diagrams show the amount of impact fixed by the
AREA design specification and the AREA rating rules for steel bridges for the particular
locomotives and spans used in these tests.
It will be seen that for the PS-A locomotive on the short span. Fig. 44, both the
design and rating impacts are exceeded, and with this same locomotive on the long span,
the impact percentages as found are below those provided for in the design specifica-
tions, but exceed, by a small amount, the rating impacts as shown in Fig. 48. The GG-1
4.00
/.oo
"
'
"
~
.—
■"
-
~
-p
"■
_ —
■"
T"
~^
j
1
\
■
THEORE.riC/^L. CURVE
/e>ased on A.f^EA)
\
1
\
r
>
\
/
A ^ - * .11 f .
\
r
X=r~a ^
^
-^
^
—
\
_
■^H
_
15% spri^q fr~ia
j-iorn
V
—
-
-^
—
V
r
-
—
^
»^
~
•
\
r
__
.
-
/
t
'
•
•
,
y
•
.
/
\
■
t
^
«
t
'
y
%
p
/
-
-
-
-^
•-
-^
-i
-
L.
/
«
—
-
_
_
-.
_
_
_
_
_
-
~
~
~
-
h-
/
''\
—
-
-
-
—
—
-"'
-
-
—
/
y
± -P^rrA
^
■"Y — / ' *= — ;_-■ , ^ < .,
_
L_
„
_
_
A
^
^
_
_
^
_
_
at cren/t.
r,r,cj 1
-
'2
t
t
^
^
Si
^
=
-
"
t
-
^H-ffH-f+44T
H
n
R
F^
4.00
u^r
h (T)
1.0 20 3.0 4.0 3.0 (Z.O
3PB£C ~ R.BVOUUTIOr\l3 RBfe SBCONC
(I i~. p.S. = 14.033 m.p.h.)
■V "•
-
'■
—
^
-
-
•
THEORETIC-^L CUR^E.
(BasecJ am ^.R.E A]
—
_
L
_
_
—*
_
_
^
_
_
3.0
—
-
-
—
—
-■
-
-
-•
-
-
—
~
—
171
r—
r-
r—
r~
1 —
p
,
•1
x^
/
I
\
-
-
/
>
,
1
■
/
f
\
•
>
/
I
2.0
\
/
>
'
\
/
■
/
•
!w
/*
^
'*
,
4
»
s
\
_
_
__
_,
L.
_
— i—
L.
I
u
_
„
_
^
„
_<
!l
_
_
1.0
—
—
-'
—
-
— |—
—
-J
-
-
—
-V
-
-
-
s
—
1
s
,
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
0
_
_
_
_
_
^
^
_
_
_
.
4.0
UJ k
^ Uj jj
5:U
.^ , i^^
(^ in
O 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 3.0 eo 70
SPEBD- RE\^aL^UTIOt\l5 PBie SECONCP
(I i~.p3. = 14. a93 mph.)
ARE. A RATl^q RUL.E.S DATA 55'-IO qiRDER 5RAM
n= <^.(?<S Vibr-ahoi-is psr~ sscor-td
^l^:%^4l TRACK ANP
HAMMER Dl_OW EFf='ECT
LOcoMoTiv/e ci_ASS K4-5
470
Impact
electric locomotive produced impacts on the short span well below the design allow-
ances but are somewhat higher than those fixed by the rating rules, as shown in Fig. 45,
while on the long span the impacts as measured were well within the requirements fixed
by either design or rating rules; see Fig. 49. The total impact produced by the steam
locomotives on both spans was less than that called for by either the design or rating
rules (Figs. 46, 47, 50 and 51).
The excess in any case can be ascribed to the speed effect which is not now pro-
vided for in the specifications for design or the rating rules. It will also be found that,
^ - oo
^ ""
■
~
^
"
T
'
1 1 1 M r T ■
L
■'fT T'
I
\
E
IBaasd on A R £.-A)
\feafir-iq f?i^les /
'
\
1
■>
\
\
-
r-
J
\
\
^
/
\
/
'
\
-
>
\
^
i
15 ^ Spr.'riQ fn.cHom
1
\
f
k
•
^
/
/
/
'
/
/
/
.
/
■
/
(
•
>
f
•
/■
1
»
'
y
*
,
/
.'
•
'^
•
M
'
■■
^
^Dh^^= 5i-c»i'G sir-GSS ffomX
^
J
L—
Oii
^
^
-^
L.
_\
^_
__
1 ' 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I'l 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
4.00
„ "J 3
7 f 0
L ^ -
1.0 2.0 3.0 ^o 5.0 a.o
(ir-.p.s. = 12. <Z<Z3 rn.p.h.)
40
^
-
'■
■*
■
-
THEORBTiCy^L. CURVE.
(QasecJ <=>r-r A fe.E A.)
'
t
-
/
\
i
\
-
1
\
/
\
J
,
•
r
i
,
r
•
-■
k
t-
/
/
*
V
X
"
^
■
•
\
'
•
s
J
«
V
,,
V
*
•
,^
■N
0 "^
O 10 2.0 3.0 4.0 3.0 G.O 7.0
SPEBC> - ISEV^l-UTIOI\/5 PBI^ 5E.CZON[P
(/ r~.ps = tZ.GG'B m.p.h.)
n=',4.40 \yibr-ai-ioin3 par- secorid 55 -lO GIRDER SP/\M
03:
337
TRACK AND
HAMMER BLOW EFFECTS
LOCOMOTIVE Cl_/^SS tvll-A
Impact
471
in most instances, the excess occurred in the west girder, which, as has been pointed out,
was more heavily loaded due to track eccentricity, and this would tend to increase the
roll in that direction and consequently increase the total impact in that girder.
Lateral Forces
Little has been known as to the magnitude of the lateral forces acting on bridge
spans but in these tests, lateral deflections were measured from which it was hoped that
some idea as to such forces might be obtained.
r
n
~i
Theor^Haal Semi-
Amplit-L.
-3
«
\
( overcome /
'
\
y
-
\
I. so
\
Any Serni-
Amplituicfs £3bo\>e
4-H!s line yvoulcJ
Spning -Frier ion '
\
T/Teot-eHcai 5emi-/4mpli-iudes
pO'/o 5pi~ing fnich'on )
\
\
f
v
\
y'
I.OO
f
N
s
\
\
i
N
\
,A
>i
.-
-
^
1
^
i^
Apparent- Semi-AmpliiutJe^
\
/
\
/
i
■>
K
f
V
%
y
*
\
N
I
•
^
^
^
.'
p
V
'
>■
f
■
<
~~"
-1
-1
-
■'
/
'
~
,,
y
^
-
-i
_aHM^= S+ai-ic Sfr-GSS~'~~
-
o
■ -
^
e;
c
JC
-/
'n
3.
z>i
c
c
er
-77
'«
^
r
^
a.
2.
^ I.OO
I.O 2.0 3.0 4.0 s.o £.0
SPE.BC) - l3E.^ai-UTlOt\/5 P>EJ5 SBCOhJC
(ir~.p.s,.= /i:j..o93 m.p.ti.)
4.0
JhGone-i'
■
' '
■■
"■
■^
-
■"
■^
/Spnir-ie^ fniciion )
Knot ox^&nconnG J
■^
/'
»
1
1
I
1
I
\
'
-
V
-J
Theorei-ical Dynamic
Magni Fi er:9
(lO^ 3pnin<3 Fricfiort)
V
-
1
\
»
'
,
/
•
\
•
V
/
V
s
s
/
■
/
'
>•■
^
-^
'
^^
\
^
«.
>
;
■
■"
-»
~2
\i
Tj
~l
>
■
*««
^ —
«J
i.
_
_
.
^
^
».
^
_
^
_
_
_J
_
_
7.0
4.0
7.0
O 1.0 Z.o 3.0 ^.o 5.0 6.0
SPE.E.c:>-i^a\yc?i-UTioMS pais secomc
(I r-.p.s. - 1^. 093 m.p.H)
A B E..A. IS/^TiM<^ ieut-B3 OATy^ 122 -O C^lRCPER SP/AtSj
n= 3. Sd. V^ib. psr- Sac — ^^^-^
ri,= 4.3S \'ib. par 3<3c
f^ = ^.iO i/,b. per- Sac
p = O. OZ 1 1 '
TRACK /Afs»0
HAMMER BLOW ErPECTa
LOCOMOTIVE CLASS K4-S
472
Impact
These deflections, as measured at the bottom flange, are given in Tables 31 to 38.
While the deflections are generally found to increase with speed up to a certain point,
the maximum does not occur at the highest speed, and even at low speeds they are in
some instances quite high. Neither does the position of the locomotive on the span, at
the time of maximum deflection, seem to be a controlling factor as shown by the distances
"Z" in these tables. (Text continued on page 482)
"
~
~
1
r
—
~
~
"■
~
1 1 1 I I 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
~
~
TheoreHcal Seml-Ampliiudaa
fSpring frlcrior) nor)
-
-
\
'
1
\
\
\
1
1
1
Ar-iLj Sem!-
Amplifuds aboy'e
^his line ^ould .
o\/encon-ie IO%
Spr-ing fi~iciion
I
Theor~e-l-i'cal 5er-ni-
Amplii-LJCiGa
flO% Spninq frlcTion)
'■
\
1
\
'
,\
'
\
,'
/
\
l'
7
\
y
^
Si
-
__
\
^
Appcar-prTf Semi-
ArhplitLJc/es \, ,
y
1
S
>
\
N
J
*!
>•
^
Js
s
>-<
->
~~
\
r
•
^
5<
^
»-
Sj
'
—
—
_
_
•
/
,
<
'.
~^
"
"1
~J
~
—
_
_
/
,-
'DnM^=Sia-f-'C ~S^r-<sss_
,
^
,
'
'
--
-
-
_
.
..
■9
V4
B*
'
-i
,
_
a
c
r^>
/-!
3L
c
j/
<:
-€
?/-
7/
e
^
o
F
Spar
->
\
I'"
\
I.O 2.0 3.0 ^.O 5.0 &.0
3P£BC> - fSE^^OL-UTIOI\/S PE^ SBCONiy
(I r-.p S. = 12. GG8 m.p.h)
7.0
"
~
—
~
"
-
-
~
~
~
1 1 1 1 J 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 [ 1 1 1 1
Theor-e^i'cal Dc/narrrc Maqn,Fiers
i[5pring fniaflon noi )
-
v
—
~f
^
1
-"
I
^
•
1
f
\
\
V
•
•i'
/
i
\
1
^
\
\
,
V
,
^
,
,
_
-~
_
_
_
_
-
_
-r
J
=^
2
^
^
—
—
—
—
~
-
-
—
"^
l~-
—
--
—
—
—
--
^
s
_
,
_-
—
_
__
_
_
\
o
S.O 3.0 ^.O 5.0 a.O 7-0
( I r-. p s = IS.(ZG<3 rn p.h)
Fiq 43
laa'-O (3lRC?ELR SRAM
3. Z3 v^it). per- sec ^
"" ^'bfper- %%% TRACK ANP
02II ^ HAMMER Bl_OW E.FFE.CT
I.O
SP'BE.C)-
A.I3.E A ISATihjq fSUl-E5 O.^TA
r-!i= 3 73
f = ^ . 5/ ^it>. per- sec:
LOCOMOTIVE CL./ASS tvll-A
Impact
473
(IS $> 6/ Si-Ji-J-ir-i/cicy '3/ s>/<9eii. 3>.=3S- )
"1
"
—ri
1
A
1
,
1
-U
—
~
—
—
— '
-3
-^
—
-^
—
—
—
■ — '
-^
—
' —
\
\
1
,
-
- — U
_
„
-
—
—
—
— -
—-\
V
_
—
—
—
t—
H — i—
—
1 1
1
1 ' '
-
-
^
-■
■--
-
-
^
-
=
-«-
--
z
O-
-
-
=t
—
;:;
t=
3
z:
5^
~
~
^
Z
p-
(
-
].-•
-
~
1
, 1
Ji
_:
1^ «
uJo_
,
—
r—
^-
— •
■^
—
—
—
' —
—
1—
h—
—
-9
— 1
h-H
—
1
,
_
-
,
-
_
,
—
—
—
— -
^
—
—^
-^
' —
—
—
— j —
—
Mi
<
uj
<
U
-J
0
0 :
k.'-
,-;
-
-
-
_
_
_.
._
,
1
_j
_
A. _
_ __
„
_
_
_
—
—
-'-
—
—
—
,',/
^-
_u_
—
—
—
—
—
"JT
u
-
r
-
:~
-
~
z
0
J
2
9
--
:z
z
Z
^
51
z
z
=J
=
^
-
lU J
CL-
2"
-
—
E
= '
: =
=
=
=
-
-
1^
Rttv
,
,
,
,
_
1
I _
_
„
_
_
~
~
z
~
Z —
z^
Sj
z
in:
_ „
z
z
~
^
-
—
—
—
IT) -
—
—
1 —
—
—
—
<r-
—
1—
KUL
_
_
_
1 1
,
1 1
u
5
Z
i
I!)
■q-uJ
■D
O X
J
<
0
5 7
UJ ^
2
0
0 in
U uJ
Q
Q Q 0 Q
Ci
'
^ J
_.
,
1
,
_
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—^
—
^
V
\
K
\
uiC
' u
c
•+1(1
I
^>
\
'
' \
z
z
z
z
-
1
z
— ^
~z
X.
Z
z
z
=1
z
-
z
z
r
z:
V'
Jo
z
~
n
\l
E
z
~
-
z
-
_
~
_
_
z:
;z
_
_
_
X
_
_
—
_
^
—
— '
—
^
-
—
—
—
-** r
—
—
—
—
—
^
-
-
-
~
—
--
-
-
~
-J
-
-
-
-
-^
-
—
-
-
-
— ■
r-
—
-
J
--
n.
-
-S
-
-
z:
1
1
-
1
^
—
—
—
' —
|—
-^
—
—
—
—
TT
r
_
__
1
1
_.
1
1
_
II II
2
in
iu
u-5-
0
r
10
UJ
J
u ^
■^ t 7
0 Q:
Q
2
UJ
>
Z 0
^ o
474
Impact
1
- '- ^^ r
7
1 z":::::i"^::::::::
±7 —^'^ _ +
r/ ::._: £ ^_„_
"" c* " - i^i , .-—
c JALT 5 ^ -- --
o_ _,2 . __. x_. °
< ^T ■ -J-
'- 0" •' X-^ - s I
' .0 " """j^"X"t "■ - '-
^ ^> 1 1 _ < 4 a^
0 r'^J ^ *• ° ,
% ;0^^> 7 , < o T
,% t ">» "^ :: (.?''x>"'ic5
->^" : stii— --v--^ ^'-
H ^ \ - - !!-, 5^^°
"" o> .^:: :__: ^^ !.._:"._
D(ii li; T _S -
r'^ ^4- < < o
" tS cr _\ _._
"^ " T,C ^ > _ "
^^ " 0;^ r
._jj .. . „ ^. .,, -,<^---
""■^[li lU^'i"" " r"
-K: p:::"::::::^_:.::_; :.__j^
^\ i
:: :::::::::: ::"-'^:: ::::::: ::::::::::: IlI ii^.
Qw
"^ti> I = IE
lO^ __ ___
:::::: :::::::::::ii:::::::::::::::::::: ::::::_...
1
■^ (J
2
i
'tuJ
•D
0
UjUl
mm
t UJ
^ ^ 5
2
0
in
u 2 -•
Q
<0
!"
h
h
2
5
0
1
in
Y
i
J
(0
Ml
in
ID
-1
J
m
1-
■J
<
^.IIV
0
(V
J
. D
U
1H7
7
^
UJ
o
fY
>
0
(fi
n
H
1
fy
7
u
10
<
<
i
ir>
11.
0
^
Z
I)
o
U)
0
U
in
III
_l
WIV
Q
U HJ
lmS
!^(i)
lo-ia-
t^k
X. uj
UJ^
o X
J
0
Impact
475
P -
1 er
{ IS S 61 SLJUuniozy 'si &I<=J>^J.
Q 0 0 Q
I ^^ ^ w -
476
Impact
^ i <
Qo
1
1
-
A
t^ 0 -
—
J-
"•
-f 't
^
/
__
/
"
0
i
>
X
>
,
/
>
0
a'n
^
J
r-'
U
I
>
4c-
_
^.i.
-
L_
-
~
X
o
0
S-
s
X
o
0
/
ii
-
M;4(
\
/<
/'
o
|9
r.
U
*■,
<
ii|^
•%
1
"
o
-
-
~
:;;;;
X
<»«
o
^
^
k:
~.
s
X
o
s
-
V
X
o
\
"
-
-
-
X
-
~
-
-
__
0
u
0
1
(n
<
UJ
1
J
-)
Y,
^
o5p
z
^
()
U)
C\
2
<
^
0
0
0
0
^
If)
^
1^
(U
.w it)
^^
11 II
o X
U S J
D
10 V
H 0
__ —
i
•> -i
J) I ' A '° o
^ t " ^-^ ^
_. "^ 7 K_ ' i
^^ /
^? <
__0.t: ^M^ _ "x^.
C-^ 5s^ ""X" J
^ ^r ^ ^°
P; J AL fc ^i"
--:-•• ^ < ?« £'
Q'U":^ ^ ^ *" ° X
"^IV S '*' ° '
lO "^ V ^
'^'^ "■ ^.
'^s ? J' >
*^.
Cr ^.
^ -h-^c : ^: :
- ^uio _ S ° '
Tvc V
- ^ X
rS J
^^c \ ' -
^ --t:
--- ""Qiyu
■^djS'
£?<&
S\(r>
zz-jr ::::_:_::::: :
K
(n
a
1
Q
I" J
it
(n
IOq
0
ro
ta.
<bz
o <C
II II
tu
P
0
z i
a u
o
Impact
477
ARALTSIS OF LATERAL ft FlECTOlffiTER fEADINOS
(LATERAL DEFLECTIONS AT CENTER OF SPiH)
55' - 10" GIRDER SPAK
LOCOMOTIVE CLASS P5-A (ELECTRIC)
^: Span
::! b c d e F <g h j
k
1 mm
/\
/\
/\
/\
I 54-'- O" Cer-iFer^ +0 cer-ii'er^ oF beanings \
PL/\hJ OF L/\T£fS/^L. BRAaihjq
Concontratad I^no
r^lnt Loads
Id F:ip«
Required
to Produce
stress
es in Uenbers in Kips
I^r Square Inoh 1
Aotuil
Uteml
>)n80tloni
Due
to Concentrated ftine]
Point Loads |
M&xlmm
Slncle
Equal
Equal
Single
Load
Equal
Loads
Equal
Loads
Utaral
Dime na Ion
Load
Loads
Loads
At
At
A1
Run
Spead
Dofleotlon
"Z"
At
At
At
"C"
"E.G
i J"
"C.E.C,
J i L"
No.
X.P.H.
InchoB
F««t
•c
'E,G i J"
"C,E,0,J 1 L"
A-b
f-6
A-b
£-6
A-b
f-e
Col.l
2
J
u
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
100
U.3
0.02
-9.0
3.20
1.30
1.00
0.72
0.(^
0.88
0,08
1.10
0.06
229
L.6
0.03
♦7.0
1.-80
2.00
1.50
1.10
O.li.
1.35
0,13
1.70
o.iu
101
lu9
0.01
1.60
0.67
0.50
0.36
0.05
O.U.
0,01.
0.56
o.oU
loe
5.6
0.02
3.20
1.30
1,00
0.72
0,«
0.88
0,08
1.10
0.08
230
7.5
O.OL
♦•lii-O
6.30
2.70
2,00
l.UO
0,18
1.80
0.18
2.20
0.17
2J2
10.2
o.oa
♦7.0
13.00
5.30
U.OO
2.90
0,36
3.60
0.55
1..50
0.3U
231
13.1.
0.07
♦29.0
11.00
I..70
3.50
2.50
0.31
3.20
0.31
3.90
0.30
233
13.8
0.08
♦13.0
13.00
5.30
1..00
2.90
0.36
3.60
0.35
U.50
0.3U
253
IJ^.2
0.11
17.00
7.30
5.50
3.90
0.1.8
I..90
0.1.8
6.20
0.U6
23U
20.8
0.07
♦2.0
11.00
I..70
5.50
2.50
0.31
3.20
0.31
3.90
0.30
235
26.1
0.09
♦2.0
lU.00
6,00
1..50
3.20
0.39
1..10
0.39
5.00
0.38
236
28.7
0,12
♦2.0
19.00
8.00
6.00
I..30
0.53
5J.0
0.52
6.70
0.51
237
29.3
0.10
16.00
6.70
5.00
3.60
0.1.5
1..50
0.I4I.
5.60
0.U2
lOli
52.3
o.oe
♦ 11.0
13.00
5.30
1..00
2.90
0.36
3.60
0.35
1..50
0.3U
252
Jli.9
0.09
11..00
fc.OO
1..50
3.20
0.39
U.IO
0.39
5.00
0.38
251
ai.3
0.10
16.00
e.70
5.00
3.60
0.1.5
I1.50
O.U.
5.60
0.U2
105
1.2.3
0.08
♦1.3.0
13.00
5.30
U.OO
2.90
0.36
3.60
0.35
U.50
0.3U
238
1.6.5
0.10
16.00
6.70
5.00
3.60
0.1.5
1..50
o.lj.
5.60
0.U2
107
W.5
0.09 .
♦i.8.0
11..00
6.00
1.-50
3.20
0.39
U.IO
0.39
5.00
0.38
106
51.1
O.Cf)
♦U8.0
lU.oo
6.00
I..50
3.20
0.39
1..10
0.39
5.00
0.38
108
59.5
0.12
♦10.0
19.00
B.OO
6.00
I..30
0.53
5.1.0
0.52
6.70
0.51
239
61.5
0.08
13.00
5.30
I..00
2.90
0.56
3.60
0.35
U.50
0.3U
21^
67.6
0.12
-21.0
19.00
8.00
6.00
I..30
0.53
5.1.0
0.52
6.70
0.51
109
70.U
0.16
25.00
11.00
8.00
5.70
0.70
7.1.0
0.72
9.00
0.68
2U0
71.0
0.12
-20.0
19.00
8,00
6.00
U.30
0.53
5.1.0
0.52
6.70
O.Sl
2U
T<!JU
0.13
-23.0
21.00
8,70
6.50
1..80
0.59
5.90
0.57
7.30
0.55
214?
76.5
0.11
-21.0
17.00
7.30
5.50
3.90
0.I48
1..90
0.1.6
6.20
0.U6
2lfi
76.5
0.12
19.00
8.00
6.00
lu30
0.53
5J.0
0.52
6.70
0.51
2l£
78.8
0.11
-22.0
17.00
7.30
5.50
3.90
0.1.8
I..90
o.W
6.20
0.U6
2IJ,
85.L
0.07
-23.0
11.00
I..70
3.50
2.50
0,31
3.20
0.31
3.90
0.30
21.5
87.8
0.10
lo.OO
6.70
■i.OO
3.60
0,1.5
I..50
O.U.
5.60
0.U2
111
91.8
o.iU
-23.0
22.00
9.30
7.00
5.00
0,62
6.30
0.61
7.90
0.59
2lj8
99.5
0.10
-20.0
16.00
(-■.70
5.00.
3.60
0.1.5
I..50
o.UU
5.60
0.U2
112
99.7
0.13
♦31.. 0
21.00
8.70
6.50
1..80
0.59
5.90
0.57
7.J0
0.55
Dlaoneion "2" In cdIudi L Is the dlatanco that nhefl nimtor 1 is fl-
the time of majtimuD lateral deflection. Distancee mArkecl "-" Indlc
deflection occurred before •t^.f>e\ 'n>.^atnr 1 had reached the center of
BBrknd "+" Indicate that the naxlaiisi lateral deflection ooourred af
the center of the span*
the center of tho span at
e that the rnaximuir. lateral
'o span. Distancee
r whool r.un^'rr 1 had passed
478
Impact
TAhL£ 32
ANALYSIS OF LAIKRAL DEFLECTOMITER READINGS
(LATERAL DEflFCIIONS AT CENTER OF EPAJl)
55" - 10" GIRDER SPAH
LOCOHOTIVE CLASS GC-1 (ElicTRIC)
D!recHor-i
o f rums
Concentrated F^mel
Point Loade
I
In Klp<
Required
to Produce
stress
E in Uembers in Eipa
Per Square Inch
Actual
Lateral Deflections
Due
to Concentrated I^nel
Point Loads
Uajilmm
Single
Equal
Equal
Sintle
Load
Equal Loads
Equal Loads
Literal
Dimenelon
Load
Loada
Loads
At
At
At
Run
Spead
Deneotlon
"Z"
At
At
At
"G"
"E.C 4 J"
"C,E,G,J 1: L" I
No,
U.F.H.
Inchea
Feet
"0"
E, 0 «: J"
"C, E.C.J 4 L"
A-b
f-6
A-b f-6
A-b
f-fe
Col.l
2
3
1.
5
6
7
8
9
10 11
12
13
155
luU
0.C2
5.20
1.30
1.00
0,72
0.09
0.88 0.08
1.10
0.06
156
9.8
0.01
1,60
0.67
0,50
0,36
o,oU
o,UU o.oU
0.56
O.OU
229
10.3
0.02
3.20
1.30
1.00
0,72
0.09
0.88 0.08
1.10
0,06
157
12.7
O.02
3.20
1.50
1,00
0,72
0.09
0.88 0.08
1.10
0,08
158
15.6
0.03
t21.0
U.eo
2.00
1.50
1,10
O.lU
l.Uo 0.13
1.70
0.13
159
18.5
o.oe
5.20
1.30
1,00
0,72
0.09
0.88 0.08
1.10
0,08
160
25.0
0.02
3.20
1.30
1.00
0.72
0.09
0.88 0,08
1.10
0.08
161
28.7
0.03
♦27.0
U.80
2,00
1.50
1.10
O.lU
l.Uo 0.15
1.70
0.15
165
J5.2
0.03
♦33.0
I4-80
2.00
1.50
1.10
O.lU
l.Uo 0.13
1.70
0.13
16e
35.7
O.OU
♦27.0
6.30
2.70
2.00
i.Uo
0.18
1.80 0,18
2.20
0.17
227
39.7
0.05
- 7.0
7.90
5.30
2.50
1.80
0,22
2,20 0.22
2.80
0.21
163
39.8
0.03
♦ 9.0
li.BO
2.00
1.50
1.10
O.lU
l.Uo 0,13
1.70
0.13
16U
I4U.7
O.Oli
♦57.0
6.30
2.70
2.00
l.Uo
0.18
1.80 0.18
2.20
0.17
166
50.1
O.Qli
♦1*0.0
6.30
2.70
2.00
i.Uo
0.18
1.80 0.18
2.20
0.17
226
51.1
0.06
♦ 12.0
9.50
It. 00
5.00
2.20
0.27
2.70 0.26
5.UO
0.25
178
5J4.8
0.10
16.00
6.70
5.00
3.60
0.U5
U.50 O.UU
5.60
0.U2
225
57.0
0.06
9.50
U.OO
3.00
2.20
0.27
2.70 0.26
3.U0
0.25
177
59.8
0.10
+56.0
16.00
6.70
5.00
3.60
0.U5
U.50 o,UU
5.60
0.U2
179
60.9
0.10
♦28.0
16.00
6.70
5.00
3.60
0.U5
U,50 o,UU
5.60
0.U2
176
614.6
0.03
♦28.0
U4.00
6.00
I4.50
5.20
0.39
U.io 0.39
5.00
0.38
22i*
«.U
0.08
13.00
5.30
Ij.OO
2.90
0,36
5,60 0.35
U.50
0.3U
175
71.6
0.12
♦ 32.0
19.00
8.00
6.00
U.30
0,53
5.U0 0.52
6.70
0.51
17U
73.0
0.11
♦I4O.O
17.00
7.30
5.50
3.90
0.U8
U.90 0.U8
6.20
0.U6
223
73.0
0.08
♦20.0
13.00
5.30
U.00
2.90
0.36
3.60 0.35
U.50
0.3U
221
78.7
0.09
lli.OO
6,00
li.50
3.20
0.39
U.io 0.39
5.00
0.38
171
79.5
0.12
♦38.0
19.00
8,00
6.00
U.30
0.53
5.U0 0.52
6.70
0.51
222
80.6
0.06
13.00
5.30
U.00
2.90
0,56
3.60 0.35
u.50
0.5U
167
82.1
0.08
+61,0
13.00
5.30
U.OO
2.90
0.36
3.60 0.35
u.50
0.3U
216
83.5
0.11
-21,0
17.00
7.30
5.50
3.90
0,UB
U.90 o.US
6.20
0.U6
168
BU.0
0.11
♦65.0
17.00
7.30
5.50
3.90
O.UB
U.90 0.U8
6.20
0.U6
217
86.0
O.li*
-22.0
22.00
9.30
7.00
5.00
0.(£
6.30 0.61
7.90
0.59
215
86.9
0.12
-22.0
19.00
8.00
6.00
14.30
0.53
5.U0 0.52
6.70
0.51
169
90.U
0.12
♦ 8ii.O
19.00
8.00
6.00
u.30
0.53
5.U0 0,52
6.70
0.51
218
92.9
0.12
-21,0
19.00
8,00
6.00
U.50
0.55
5.U0 0.52
6.70
0,51
170
95.9
0.12
♦80,0
19.00
8,00
6,00
u.30
0.53
5.U0 0.52
6.70
0.51
220
97.0
0.06
-22.0
9.50
U.OO
3.00
2.20
0,27
2.70 0.26
5.U0
0.25
173
98.5
0.11
♦21.0
17.00
7.30
5.50
3.90
0,UB
U.90 O.UB
6.20
0.U6,
172
105.0
0.11*
♦19.0
22.00
9.30
7.00
5.00
0.62
6.30 0,61
7.90
0.59
Dtnanfilon "Z" In oolumn U is the distance that wneel number 1 le from the center of the span at
the time of maxljouin lateral deflection. Diatancea marked " - " Indicate that the majclinuin
lateral deflection occurred before v^eel number 1 had reached the oentor of the span. Dlatano«a
marked " 4 ** indicate that the naxlimm lateral deflection ooeurred after wheol number 1 had
paeeed the oAnter of the span.
Impact
479
AMALTSIS OF UIERAL DEFLECTOMETEF KEADINCIS
(LATERAL DEFLECTIONS AT CENTER OF SPAN)
55' - 10" GIRDER SPAH
LOCOMOTIVE CLASS Kli-S (STEAM)
Dir<scHor-i
of rums
^
f=>L/\hJ OF L/\TEIS/\L BRACiNQ
Concentrated F^jiel
Point Loads
J
in Kipt
Required
to Produce
Streoe
e in Hembere^n
Kips
Vr Square Inch
Actual
Lateral DefleotionB
Due
to Concentrate(
Panel
Point Loads
Maxinuni
Single
Equal
Equal
Slncle
Load
Equal Loads
Equal Loads
Lateral
Dimension
Load
Loads
Loads
At
At
At
Run
Spe
ed
Deflection
"Z"
At
At
At
"G"
"E.G *
J"
"C.E.O.J
& L"
No.
ll.P.H.
R.P.S.
Inches
Feet
"G"
E,G 4 J"
"C, E.G.J 1 L"
A-b
t-t
A-b
f-6
A-b
f-K
Col.l
2
3
h
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
11.
132
5.2
0.37
o.cii
»19.0
6.30
2.70
2.00
1.1.3
0,18
1,80
0.18
2.25
0.17
128
18.9
1.3U
0.12
♦314-0
19.00
8.00
6,00
li.30
0,53
5.UO
0.52
6.71.
0.51
127
26.6
1.88
0.13
♦22,0
21.00
8,70
6.50
1*.80
0.59
5.90
0.57
7.30
0.-55
126
30.1
2.13
0.15
- U.0
2lt.00
10.00
7.50
5.U0
0,67
6.80
0.66
8,1.0
0.63
125
35.6
2.52
0.15
+21.0
2U.00
10.00
7.50
5.UO
0.67
6.80
0.66
8.1.0
0.63
121*
Uo.o
2.8li
0.16
-11.0
25.00
10.70
8.00
5.70
0,70
7.20
0.70
9.00
0.66
130
UO.2
2.85
0.16
♦28,0
25.00
10,70
8.00
5.70
0.70
7.20
0.70
9.00
0,68
151
ia.7
2.96
o.lU
♦21.0
22.00
9,30
7.00
5.00
0.62
6.30
0.61
7.90
0.59
129
142.6
3.02
O.lii
- U,0
22.00
9.30
7.00
5.00
0.62
6.30
0.61
7.90
0.59
123
14^.2
3.13
0.1I4
- 2.0
22.00
9,30
7.00
5.00
0.62
6.30
0,61
7.90
0.59
21i»
U5.8
3.25
0.10
♦ 2.0
16,00
6,70
5.00
3.60
0.U5
U.50
O.li.
5.60
0.1.2
122
52.3
3.70
0.16
♦lit.O
25.00
10,70
8,00
5.70
0.70
7.20
0.70
9.00
0.67
121
55.5
3.93
O.lii
-13.0
22.00
9.30
7,00
5.00
0.62
6.30
0.61
7.90
0.59
206
57.5
U.07
0.10
- 6.0
16.00
6,70
5.00
3.60
0.U5
U,50
o.U.
5.60
0.1.2
195
59.3
U.20
0.10
- 5.0
16.00
6,70
5.00
3.60
0.1.5
U,50
o.U.
5.60
0.1.2
209
60.0
U.25
0.13
♦ 3.0
21,00
8.70
6.50
U.80
0.59
5,90
0.57
7.30
0.55
196
60.3
U.28
0.15
-23.0
21.00
8.70
6.50
I4.8O
0.59
5.90
0.57
7.30
0.55
210
63.3
U.148
0.13
♦21.0
21.00
8.70
6.50
1..80
0.59
5.90
0.57
7.30
0.55
197
63.9
U.53
0.11
-22.0
17.00
7.50
5.50
3.80
0,1.8
l.,90
0.1.8
6.20
0.1.6
211
65.5
lu61i
0.11
- 5.0
17.00
7.30
5.50
3.80
0,1.8
1..90
0.1.8
6.20
0.16
120
67.0
U.75
O.li*
♦32.0
22.00
Q.30
7.00
S.OO
o,ea
6.30
0.61
7.90
0.59
198
67.7
lt.80
0.12
-20.0
19.00
8.00
6,00
U.30
D.55
5.U0
0.52
6.71.
0.51
212
68.U
i4.85
o.iL
♦30.0
22.00
9.50
7,00
5.00
0.62
6.50
0.61
7.90
0.59
199
^.0
U.89
0.10
-21.0
16.00
6,70
5.00,
3.60
0,1.5
I..50
O.U.
5.60
o.Lz
213
70.6
5.00
0.11
-11.0
17.00
7.50
5.50
3.80
o,U8
I..90
0.1.8
6.20
0.1.6
U8
71.0
5.0U
0.13
-10.0
21.00
8.70
6.50
U.80
0,59
5.90
0.57
7.30
0.55
200
72.1
5.12
0.09
-21.0
1U.00
6,00
li-50
3.20
0.39
Ij.lO
0.59
5.05
0.38
201
77.3
5.I47
0.12
19.00
8,00
6.00
I4.30
0.53
5.1.0
0.52
6.71.
0.51
202
79.1i
5.63
0.12
-21,0
19.00
8,00
6.00
U.30
0.53
5.1.0
0.52
6.71.
0.51
116
80.3
5.72
0.15
-12.0
2U.00
10.00
7.50
5.I4O
0,67
6,80
0.66
8.1.0
0.63
203
82.2
5.82
0.10
-21.0
16.00
6.70
5.00
3.60
0.1.5
1,50
O.li.
5.60
0.1.2
113
auO
5.96
0.16
-16,0
25.00
10.70
8.00
5.70
0.70
7.20
0.70
9t00
0.68
iiU
85.0
6.03
0.15
♦19.0
2U.00
10,00
7.50
5.U0
0.67
6.80
0,66
8.1.0
0.6a
20U
85.0
6.03
0.16
♦15.0
25.00
10.70
8.00
5.70
0.70
7.20
0,70
9.00
0.68
115
87.0
6.16
0.16
-17.0
25.00
10,70
8.00
5.70
0.70
7.20
0.70
9.00
0.66
207
68.0
6.23
O.Ut
22.00
9,30
7.00
5.00
0.62
6.}0
0.61
7.90
0.59
206
88.5
6.26
0.11
-21,0
17.00
7.30
5.50
3.. 80
0.1.8
l.,90
O.W
6.20
0.U6
205
89.U
6.33
0.12
19.00
8.00
6.00
U.30 .
0.53
5J.0
0.58
6.71.
0.51
MOTEi DiawRBlon "Z" In column U is the dlstAnoo that wh»ol number 1 ic froai th
tlao or mutljnun latsraX deriootlon. Diatwicee marked " - " indicate tha
flection ooourr«>d before wheal mmber 1 had raaohed the center of the ap
indicate that the majclmn lateral deflection occurred after -jheol mmber
the epan.
I center of the cpaa at the
: the imxlrrutr lateral de*
in. Distance! 'narked " « "
1 had patted the center of
480
Impact
TABLE JU
ANALYSIS OF lATERAL DEFLECTOlffiTER READINGS
(LATERAL DEFLECTIONS AT CENTER OF SPAN)
55' - 10" GIRDER SPAM
LOCCMOTIVE CLASS Ml-A (STEAM)
of
I 5'-4'-0" Ceri-hsr- i-<=> Ctsri-ter^ of beanjncgsA
PL/\hJ OF L/\TafS/\L^ BR^ClNq
Concentrated ftmel
Point Loads
in Kips Required
to Produce
Stress
38 in Mambere 1
I Kips
Per Equa
re Inch
Actual
Lateral Deflection!
Due
to Concentrated Ruiel
Point Loads |
Maxiinmn
Sincle
Equal
Equal
Sintle
Load
Equal Loads
Equal
Loads
Lateral
Dimension
Load
Loads
Loads
At
At
At
Run
Speed
Deflection
At
At
At
"G"
"E,G * J"
"C,E,C,
J k L"
No.
U.P.H.
S.P.S.
Inches
Feet
"G"
'E,G 4- J"
"C,E,G,J * L"
A-b
f-g
A-b
f-6
A-h
f-fc
Col.l
2
3
1*
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
lU
133
U.8
0.38
0.05
+19.0
1*.80
2.00
1.50
1.10
0.15
1.1*0
0.13
1.70
0.13
13U
9.0
0.71
0.07
+51.0
11.00
1*.70
3.50
■ 2.50
0.31
3.20
0.31
3.90
0.50
135
13. J
1.05
0.10
t69.o
16.00
6.70
5.0.0
5.60
0.1*5
lt.50
o.UU.
5.60
0.U2
136
19.5
1.51*
0.12
19.00
8.00
6.00
U.30
0.53
5.UO
0.52
6.70
0.51
1J7
25.0
1.98
0.15
21.00
e.70
6.50
1*.80
0.59
5.90
0.57
7.30
0.55
150
25.2
1.99
0.12
19.00
8.00
6.00
1*.30
0.53
5.1*0
0.52
6.70
0.51
li49
29.U
2.32
0.13
+55.0
21.00
8.70
6.50
U.eo
0.59
5.90
0.57
7.30
0.55
llifl
3i*.e
2.75
0.17
+57.0
27.00
11.00
8.50
6.10
0.76
7.1*0
0.72
9.50
0.72
m
1(0.3
3.18
O.ll*
t 1.0
22.00
9.30
7.00
5.00
0.62
6.30
0.61
7.90
0.59
Vi-i
U.5
3.28
O.ll*
•» 5.0
22.00
9.30
7.00
5.00
,0.62
6.50
0.61
7.90
0.59
193
I42.O
3.52
O.lU
22.00
9.30
7.00
5.00
0.62
6.;o
0.61
7.90
0.59
189
1*5.9
3.U7
0.12
19.00
8.00
6.00
1*.50
0.53
5.1*0
0.52
6.70:
0.51
15U
l*s.2
3.65
0.13
+28.0
21.00
8.70
6.50
1*.80
0.59
5.90
0.57
7.50
0.55
188
U6.5
5.67
0.10
16.00
6.70
5.00
3. 60
0.1*5
1*.50
o.U*
5.60
0.U2
1146
li7.o
3.71
o.ll*
t60.0
22.00
9.30
7.00
5.00
0.62
6.30
0.61
7.90
0.59
187
1*7.0
3.71
0.11
. 1*.0
17.00
7.30
7.30
5. 80
0.U8
1*.90
o.Us
6.20
0.U6
152
1*7.2
3.72
0.12
t55.o
19.00
8.00
6.00
!*.30
0.53
5.1*0
0.52
6.70
0.51
151
1*7.1.
3.7U
O.ll*
•121.0
22.00
9.30
7.00
5.00
0.62
6.30
0.61
7.90
0.59
191
1*9.5
3.91
0.10
-10.0
16.00
6.70
5.00
3.60
0.1*5
U.50
O.UU
5.60
0.U2
19U
U9.7
3.92
0.10
+ 2.0
16.00
6.70
5.00
3. 60
0.1*5
U.50
O.UU
5.60
0.1*2
11*3
50.2
3.96
0.18
+25.0
29.00
12.00
9.00
6.60
0.82
8.10
0.79
10.00
0.76
192
51.1*
1*.06
0.10
- 5.0
16.00
6.70
5.00
3.60
0.U5
U.50
o.UU
5.60
0.U2
190
53.8
1*.25
0.10
0
16.00
6.70
5.00
5.60
0.1*5
U.50
o.UU
5.60
0.U2
"liiS
51*.3
li.29
0.16
+20.0
25.00
11.00
8.00
5.70
0.70
7.U0
0.72
9.00
0.68
iia
57.0
lt.50
0.12
- U.0
19.00
8.00
6.00
U.30
0.53
5.U0
0.52
6.70
0.51
mo
58.5
U.6C
0.12
+20.0
19.00
8.00
6.00
1*.30
0.53
5.U0
0.52
6.70
0.51
185
60.0
1*.7U
0.11
+13.0
17.00
7.50
5.50
3.80
0.I48
U.90
O.US
6.20
0.U6
186
62.8
1*.96
0.10
♦21*. 0
16.00
6.70
5.00
J. 60
0.U5
U.50
O.UU
5.60
O.US
lUl
61*.8
5.12
0.15
+19.0
21.00
B.70
6.50
U.80
0.59
5.90
0.57
7.30
0.55
139
66.5
5.25
0.16
+28.0
25.00
11.00
8.00
5.70
0.70
7.U0
0.72
9.00
0.68
18U
67.7
5.31*
0.12
19.00
8.00
6.00
1*.30
0.55
5.U0
0.52
6.70
0.51
182
68.1
5.38
0.18
+32.0
29.00
12.00
9.00
6.60
0.82
8.10
0.79
10.00
0.76
183
69.9
5.52
0.10
- 3.0
16.00
6.70
5.00
J. 60
0.1*5
U.50
O.UU
5.60
0.U2
158
71.2
5.62
O.li*
-20.0
22.00
9.30
7.00
5.00
0.62
6.30
0.61
7.90
0.59
181
72.8
5.75
0.12
+36.0
19.00
8.00
6.00
U.30
0.53
5.U0
0.52
6.70
0.51
180
75.7
5.98
0.16
25.00
11.00
8.00
5.70
0.70
7.U0
0.72
Q.OO
0.68
LI42
77.9
6.15
0.15
- 3.0
21*. 00
10.00
7.50
5.1*0
0.67
6.80
0.66
8.UO
0.63
Dlmonfllon "2" In colximn U is the distance that wheel number 1 ia from the center of the span at the
tlmo of nftjcijnum lateral defleotion, Distancoa marked "-" lndloat« that the maxiinum lateral deflec-
tion occurred before wheel nuaiber 1 had reached the center of the span, * Distances marked " + " in-
ccurred after wheel number 1 had passed the center of
dicate that the maximum lateral defle
the
span.
AMALYSIS OF LATERAL DEFLECTOBETER READINGS
(LATERAL DEFLBCTIOHS AT CENTER OF SPAS)
122' . ()• OIRDEE 8PAH
LOCOMOTIVE CLASS I5-A (EI£CTRIC)
i Spar-)
f-> I J k I m nop
s -h u \^ v^ X
^
PL/KM
OF L.^TaR/KL BRACIMC^
1
CBie«ntr«ted nmel Fsint Lokda In
lipa Kequlrtd
stress** in UsBtbar*
In lip*
P*r Squar* Inoh
td Froduc* Aotukl
Lat*r«l Dcflietloiu
Dua
to Couoontratad !^ui*.
Point Load*
SquU
KVH
Equal
Equal
laada
n.^—
Slngl*
Squal
Load!
L*?4*
Load*
Singli
Load
Equal
Load*
Equal
Load*
Iqual Laada
At
Utar&l
Dljunslan
Lwid
Load*
At
At
At
At
At
At
At
"C.K.G,
I.E.M
Bob
ClM«4
Dvflaotlon
"Z"
At
At
"I.I.X
"S.I.K.M
"C.E,G,I,K,M
"M"
■k.w
,0"
"I.K,*
.o.«"
"0,I,K.II,0,Q,«"
0,4,8, D.lT 1
■•.
H.F.E.
Inoh«i
F»*t
•ir
"K.M.O"
O.Q
O.Q.S"
0,11,8, U.ll"
A-b
L-K
A-b
L-U
A-b
L-U
A-b
L-M
A-b
L-M
C.1.1
2
5
It
5
6
7
6
9
10
11
12
13
U*
15
16
17
18
19
IW
U.3
0
229
lu6
0
101
U.9
0
lOB
5.6
0.01
+26.0
I'Sin
0.5U
0.36
0.28
0.25
O.ll*
0.02
0,15
o.ce
0.17
o.oe
0.19
0.9U
O.oe
0,21*
O.oe
230
7.5
0.05
- 9.0
2.70
1.80
1J*0
1,10
0.70
0.10
0,77
0,10
0.86
0.10
a.10
1.20
0.09
2JS
10.2
0.06
flS.O
8.80
3.30
2.10
1.70
i,Uo
0.81*
0.12
0,91*
0.12
1.00
0.12
1.10
0.12
1.50
0.12
231
13 J*
0.06
t68.0
8.80
J.30
2,10
1.7c
LliO
0.81*
0.12
0.9U
0,12
1.00
0.12
1.10
0.12
1.50
0.12
233
15.8
0.07
+2iu0
10.00
3.60
2.50
8.00
1.60
0.95
O.li*
1.10
o,u*
1.20
o.li*
1.30
o.ll*
1.70
O.li*
253
lii.2
0.06
8.80
J.30
2.10
1.7c
1.1*0
0.81*
0.12
0.91*
0.12
1.00
0.12
1.10
0.12
1.50
0.12
1(9
17.2
O.Qb
+30.0
5.90
2.20
I.I4O
loie
0,91
0.56
0.06
0.63
0.08
0.67
0.08
0.73
0.08
0.95
0.08
23U
20.8
0.07
>, 6.0
10.00
3.80
2.50
2.00
1,60
0.95
O.ll*
1.10
o.ll*
1.20
o.ll*
1.30
O.ll*
1.70
O.li*
235
26.1
0.07
-20.0
10.00
3.80
2.50
2.00
1.60
0.95
O.ll*
1.10
o.u*
1.20
o.ll*
1.30
O.li*
1.70
0,li*
236
28.7
0.07
tll.O
10.00
3.80
2.50
2.00
1.60
0.95
O.li*
1.10
o.ll*
1.20
o.u*
1.30
O.ll*
1.70
O.li*
237
29.3
0.07
^i^.O
10.00
J.BO
2.50
2.00
1.60
0.95
O.U*
1.10
o.ll*
1.20
o.ll*
1.30
o.ll*
1.70
o.li*
loU
J2.3
0.<g
\uhfi
1.60
1.10
0.65
0.6C
0.1)2
0.06
0.1*6
0.06
0.5;
0.06
0.57
0.06
0.63
0.05
252
251
105
3l*.9
0,07
10.00
3.60
2.50
2.00
1.60
0.95
O.ll*
1.10
o.ll*
1.20
o.ll*
1.30
o.ll*
1.70
o.li*
ia.3
lj2,J
0.06
12.00
iuUO
2.90
2.J0
1.80
1,10
0.16
1.30
0.16
1.1*0
0.16
1.50
0.16
1.90
0.15
o.oU
♦61.0
5.90
2.20
i.Uo
1.10
0.91
0.56
0.08
0.63
0.08
0.67
0.08
0.73
0.06
0.95
0.06
238
1>6.5
1^.5
0.07
+21.0
10.00
3.80
2.50
2.00
1.60
0.95
O.U*
1.10
O.ll*
1.20
0,11*
1.30
o.li*
1.70
o.u*
107
o.oU
+i^.O
5.90
2.20
I.I4O
1.10
0.91
0.56
0.08
0.63
0.08
0.67
o.oe
0.73
o.oe
0.95
0.06
106
51.1
59.5
61.5
0.06
■♦32.0
8.80
5.30
2.10
1.70
i.Uo
0.81*
0.12
0.91*
0.12
1.00
0.12
1.10
0.12
1.50
0.12
loe
0.06
♦78.0
8.80
J.30
2.10
1.70
l.itO
0.81*
0.12
0.91*
0.12
1.00
0.12
1.10
0.12
1.50
0.12
239
o.u
+33.0
16.00
6.00
J. 90
3.10
2.50
1.50
0.22
1.70
0,22
1.90
0.22
IbfO
0.16
1.90
0.15
21^6
109
2U0
21d
2U9
67.6
70.U
71.0
72.1*
76,5
O.Sit
o.iU
0.22
0.22
0.25
♦58.0
♦65.0
♦65.0
♦56.0
35.00
21.00
32.00
32.00
37.00
IJ.OO
7.60
12.00
12.00
lii.OO
8.60
5.00
7.90
7.90
8.90
6.80
3.90
6.20
6.20
7.00
5.1*0
3.20
5.00
5.00
5.70
3.30
2.00
3.00
3.00
3.50
0.1*8
0.29
0.1*1*
0.1jl*
0.51
3.70
2.20
3.1*0
3.1*0
l*.oo
0.1*7
0.27
0.1*3
0,1^
0.50
1*.10
2.1*0
3.80
3.80
1*.30
0.1*8
0.38
0.1*5
0.1*5
0.50
1*.70
2.50
U.20
lt.20
1*.70
0.1*8
o.a
0.U*
0.1*1*
0.50
5.70
5J*0
5.20
5.»
6,00
0.1*6
0.27
0.1*2
0.1*6
2U3
21^
110
2U5
lU
76.5
78.8
81.6
87.8
91.8
0.30
0.20
0.22
0.31
o.;o
♦56.0
♦52.0
+77.0
♦aU.o
U4.OO
29.00
52.00
I16.OO
1)U.OO
16.00
11.00
12.00
17.00
16.00
11.00
7.10
7.90
11.00
11.00
8.i40
5.60
6.20
8.70
8.1*0
6.80
U.50
5.00
7.00
6.80
1*,20
2.80
3.00
l*.ljO
lt.20
0.60
0.1*0
0.U*
0.63
0.60
1*.60
3.10
3.1*0
1*.90
1*.60
0.58
0.1*0
0.1*3
0.61
0.58
5.30
3,1*0
3.80
5,30
5.30
0.62
0.1*0
0.1*5
0.62
o.6e
5.60
3.70
1*.20
5.80
5.6O
0.59
0<1*0
0.1.1*
0.62
0.59
7.10
1*.70
5.20
7.J0
7.10
0.57
0.38
0.1*2
0.59
0.57
2U7
112
95.2
96.3
99.5
99.7
0.2U
0.27
0.23
0.18
+91.0
♦89.0
♦89.0
J5.00
ItOrOO
31».00
27.00
13.00
15.00
12,00
9.80
8.60
9.60
8.20
6.1*0
6.80
7.60
6.50
5.10
5.1*0
6.10
5.20
1*.10
3.30
3.80
3.20
2.60
0.1*8
oiU
0.37
3.70
1*.50
3.U0
2.80
0.1*7
0.5I*
0.1*3
0.35
U.10
1*.60
5.60
5.10
0.1*8
0.51*
0.L6
0.56
1*.70
3J*o
0.1*8
0.51*
o.i;6
0.36
5.70
6.1*0
5.1*0
1*.30
0.1*6
0.52
0.35
Dljuiiaion "Z" In oolu«in 1* 1* th. dlstano* that i.*:«*l nuaibur 1 1*
lat.ral d.fl.etl.n. Dlatanoos aaurllad " - " Indloat. that the 1
b.r 1 had reaoh.d th* oent.r ot the *p*ll. Watam;.* «i*rl»il
oorrad aftw iih.*l mnaber 1 had p«***d the o.nter of the span.
clmum lateral defleotlon oaeurred before wheel nuB-
' Indicate that th* MTlsiim lateral deflection 0*-
TABLE 56
ANALYSIS OP LATERAL DEFLECTOHETEB READINGS
(LATERAL DEFLECTIONS AT CENTER OF SPAN)
128' - 0" GIRDQ) SPAN
LOCaiOTIVE CLASS GO-1 (ELECTRIC)
a h c <:J e f
Oi'i-iSC-tiort
»-
O F r-Lj r-ts
PL AM OF L/<KTBR/\U Bf2/\CIMQ
Conoontratad Ftmal Point
Loada in
KlpB Saqulrad
Straia
ai In linaban
In Kipa
Par Squara Inoh
to Produov
Aotual Lataral Dtflaotiona
Dua
to Conoantratad ^oal Point Loada
Eijual
Equal
Equal
Equal
Loada
U.-.-I11*..
Slnglo
Equal
Loada
Loada
Loada
Slngla
Laad
Equal
Load!
Equal
Loada
Equal Loada
At
Lattral
Disenilon
Load
Loada
At
At
At
At
At
At
At
"C.E.G,
I.K.M
Run
Spaad
Dafleetlon
■z"
At
At
"I.K.M,
"G.I.K.M,
"C, E.G.I, K.H
•ir
•k.m
,0"
"I.K.M.O.Q"
•G.I.K.M
O.Q.S"
o.n.s.o.n" 1
lo.
M.P.B.
Inohei
Fa*t
■JT
"K.M.O"
O.Q"
0,Q,8"
o,Q,s,u,w"
h.\>
L-M
A-b
L-U
A^b
UM
A-b
L-M
A.b
L-H
Col.l
2
3
u
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
lU
15
16
17
18
19
155
Jul*
0.01
t52.o
1.50
O.5I*
0.36
0.28
0.23
O.ll*
0.02
0.15
0.02
0.17
0.02
0.19
0.02
0.2U
0.02
156
9.8
0.01
♦1*6.0
i*!w
0.51*
0.36
0.28
0.23
O.ll*
o.oe
0.15
0.02
0.17
0.02
0.19
0.02
0.2U
O.oe
157
12.7
0.{g
t20.0
1.60
1.10
0.85
0.68
0.1j2
0.06
0.U6
0.06
0.55
0.3U
0.06
0.57
0.06
0.65
0.05
O.oU
158
15.6
0.02
2.90
1.10
0.71
0.56
0.1*5
0.28
O.Ql*
0.31
O.oU
O.oU
0.37
O.oU
0.U7
159
18.5
0.02
2.90
1.10
0.71
0.56
0.1*5
0.28
O.oU
0.31
O.C^
0.5U
O.oU
0.37
O.CU
O.U7
O.oU
160
25.0
O.OU
tl2.0
5.90
2.20
1.1*0
1.10
0.91
0.56
o.oe
0.63
0.08
0.67
0.08
0.73
0.06
0.95
o.oe
161
28.7
O.QU
tlit.0
5.90
2.20
1.1*0
1.10
0.91
0.56
0.08
0.63
0.08
0.67
0.08
0.73
0.08
0.95
0.06
O.oU
i6e
55.7
0.02
2.90
1.10
0.71
0.56
0.1*5
0.28
O.oU
O.Jl
O.oU
0.5U
O.OU
0.57
o,oU
0.U7
227
39.7
0.06
»21i.0
8.80
3.30
2.10
1.70
1.1*0
o.sl*
0.12
0.9U
0.12
1.00
0.12
1.10
0.12
1.50
0.12
163
39.8
o.oU
t20.0
5.90
2.20
1.1*0
1.10
0.91
0.56
o.oe
0.6J
0.08
0.67
o.oe
0.73
0.06
0.95
0.08
I6I1
Uul
O.QU
♦77.0
5.90
2.20
I.I4O
1.10
0.91
0.56
0.08
0.63
O.oe
0.67
o.oe
0.75
0.08
0.95
0.U7
o.oe
O.oU
o.iU
166
50.1
0.02
♦12.0
2.90
1.10
0.71
0.$6
0.1*5
0.28
O.oU
0.31
O.OU
0.5U
O.oU
0.37
O.OU
O.IU
226
51.1
0.07
♦22.0
10.00
3.80
2.50
2.00
1.60
0.95
o.iU
1.10
o.iu
1.20
o.iU
1.30
1.70
17B
5U.8
0.06
♦55.0
8.80
3.30
2.10
1.70
1.1*0
0.81*
0.12
0.9U
0.12
1.00
0.12
1.10
0.12
1.50
0.12
225
177
179
176
22i*
57.0
0.06
♦55.0
8.80
3.30
2.10
1.70
1.1*0
0.81*
0.12
0.9U
0.12
1.00
0.12
1.10
0.9U
0.9U
1.30
1.10
0.12
1.50
1.20
1.20
1.70
1.50
0.12
0.09
0.09
o.iU
59.8
60.9
6U.5
0.05
0.05
0.07
0.06
♦65.0
♦66.0
♦66.0
♦71.0
7.1;0
7.1*0
10.00
8.80
2.70
2.70
3.80
3.30
1.80
1.80
2.50
2.10
I.UO
1.1*0
2.00
1.70
1.10
1.10
1.60
1.1*0
0.70
0.70
0.95
O.8I1
0.10
0.10
o.iU
0.12
0.77
0.77
1.10
0.9U
0.10
0.10
o.iU
0.12
0.86
0.66
1.20
1.00
0.10
0.10
o.iU
0.12
0.10
0.10
o.iU
0.12
175
171*
223
221
171
71.6
73.0
73.0
78.7
79.5
0.06
0.08
0.08
0.10
0.13
♦19.0
+m.o
♦19.0
+35.0
♦61*.0
8.80
12.00
12.00
15.00
19.00
3.JO
1*.1*0
l*.l*o
5.1*0
7.10
2.10
2.90
2.90
3.60
It. 60
1.70
2.50
2.30
2.80
3.70
itL-o
i.eo
1.80
2.30
3.00
0.81*
1.10
1.1*0
1.80
0.12
0:16
0.16
0.21
0.26
0.9U
1.30
1.30
1.50
2.00
0.12
0.16
0.16
0.19
0.27
1.00
I.UO
i.Uo
1.70
2.20
0.12
0.16
0.16
0.20
0.26
1.10
1.50
1.50
1.90
2.50
0.12
0.16
0.16
0.20
0.26
1.50
1.90
1.90
2.U0
5.10
0.12
0.15
0.15
0.19
0.25
222
167
216
I6e
217
80.6
82.1
83.5
8U.0
86.0
0.15
0.10
0.09
0.13
0.32
♦35.0
♦22.0
♦23.0
♦87.0
♦86.0
22.00
15.00
13.00
19.00
1*7.00
8.20
5.1*0
U.90
7.10
17.00
5.1*0
3.60
J. 20
l*.6o
11.00
U.20
2.80
2.50
3.70
9.00
3.1*0
2.50
2.00
3.00
7.30
2.10
1.1*0
1.20
1.80
U.50
0.30
0.21
0.18
0.26
0.6U
2.30
1.50
I.UO
2.00
U.eo
0.31
0.19
0.18
0.27
0.6U
2.60
1.70
1.50
2.20
5.30
0.30
0.20
0.18
0.26
0.62
2.60
1.90
1.70
2.50
6.00
0.30
0.20
o.ie
0.26
0.6U
5.60
2.U0
2.10
5.10
7.70
0.29
0.19
0,17
0.25
0.62
215
1<9
218
170
220
86.9
9O.I4
92.9
95.9
97.0
o.iUi
0.09
0.37
0.22
0.36
♦90.0
♦I4S.0
♦82.0
♦52.0
♦97.0
65.00
13.00
51*. 00
32.00
53.00
21*. 00
U.90
20.00
12.00
20.00
16.00
3.20
15.00
7.90
13.00
12.00
2.50
10.00
6.20
10.00
10.00
2.00
8.1*0
5.00
8.20
6.20
1.20
5.10
3.00
5.00
0.89
0.18
0.7U
O.UU
0.72
6.80
i.Uo
5.70
3.U0
5.70
0.90
O.IB
0.75
0.U3
0.75
7.60
1.50
6,20
3.80
6,20
0.90
o.ie
0.7U
O.UU
0.7U
e.oo
1.70
6.70
U.20
6.70
o.fl5
0.18
0.71
O.UU
0.71
10.50
2.10
6.80
5.20
6.60
o.eU
0.17
0.71
0.U2
0.69
173
219
172
98.5
100.8
105.0
0.32
0.21*
0.27
♦101.0
♦127.0
♦12lu0
1*7.00
35.00
1*0.00
17.00
13.00
15.00
11.00
8.60
9.60
9.00
6.80
7.60
7.30
5.1*0
6.10
U.50
3.30
3.80
0.6U
O.UB
0.55
U.eo
3.70
U.30
0.6U
0,U7
0.5U
5,30
U.10
U.60
0.62
0.U8
0.5U
6.00
U.50
5.10
0.6U
O.UB
0.5U
7.70
5.70
6.U0
0.62
0.U6
0.52
1
1 munbor 1 is fro
m the 0)
ntar 0
f tha »I
>an at
tha tima of max
imum
Dinenalon Z
liit«ral dafl
ber 1 had r«
ourred aftvr
In ooliiini ii la tha distance ,,— — - . ^ -
(otlon. Dietanoae narked " - " indicate that the nuucijiiQiii lateral defleotlon ocourrad before
Lohed the center of the span, Dl.tanoefl marked " - " Indicate that the maximum lateral defle
i^eel miBber 1 had paeeed the center of the span.
ASALTSIS OF LATEHAL mnECJCMETSR READIHOS
(LATERAL DEFI£CTIONS AT CEHTER OP SPAM)
122' - 0" OIHIER SPAS
LOCOMOTIVE CLASS Kli-S (STEAM)
<a beds F
»•
oF r~LJr-)S
Y
f=^LAM OF LA\TEfS/\L B/SACtN(q
Cono»ntrated Brm.l Point
Loads in Klpa Raqulrsd
Strsssss in Ucmbsrs
in Kips
Psr Squars Inch
to
Produce
Actual Utcral D»fl
Botlons
Du<
to Conosntratsd Pansl
Point Loads
Equal
Equal
Equal
Equal
Uads
ItexlKm
Slngl*
Equed
Loads
Loads
Loads
Slnel.
Load
Equal
Loadd
Equal
Loads
Kqual
Loads
At
Latsnl
Dla«iiBlan
Lo&d
Loads
At
At
At
At
At
At
A<
"C.B.G.
I.X.H
Hun
Sp.^
D*fl«otlan
"Z"
At
At
"I.K.M
"G.I.K.M
"C,E,G,I,I,1J
"li"
"K.ll.O"
°I,K.II,0,Q"
"0,I,I,Jl,0.(i,8"
o.<J,a
.li.*-
Rs.
M.P.B
8.P.S
InchaB
P*et
"IT
"K.ll.O"
O.Q"
O.Q.S"
o.Q.s.n.n"
A-b
L-H
A-b
L-U
A-b
UH
A-b
UH
A-b
L-M
Col.l
2
3
u
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
li
15
16
17
19
20
21
132
5.2
0.37
0
128
18,9
1.31*
o.ce
■tlll.O
2.90
1.10
0.71
0.56
0.1*5
0.27
0,C^
0.31
O.Olt
0.31*
o.oi*
0.37
o.ol*
0.1*7
o,ct*
127
26.6
1.89
0.09
+ 1.0
13.00
U.90
3.20
2.50
2.00
1.20
0,18
1.1*0
0.16
1.50
0.16
1.70
0.16
2.10
0,17
126
JO.l
2.13
0.06
4J4U.O
8.80
5.30
2.10
1.70
1.1*0
o.ai*
0,12
0.91*
0.12
1.00
0.12
1.10
O.U
1.50
0,12
125
55.6
2.52
0.12
+ 8.0
18.00
6.50
WO
3.U0
2.70
1.70
0.25
1.90
0.21*
2.10
0.21*
2.30
0.21*
2.60
0,23
12U
Uo.o
2.au
0.09
+16.0
13.00
U.90
3.20
2.50
2.00
1.20
0.18
I.I4O
0.18
1.50
0.18
1.70
0.1s
2,10
0,17
130
1;0.2
2.85
0.06
+65.0
8.80
3.30
2.10
1.70
1.1*0
0.81*
0.12
O.9I*
0.12
1.00
0.12
1,10
0.12
1,50
0.12
131
ia.7
2.96
0.10
421.0
15.00
5.UO
3.60
2.80
2.30
1.1*0
0,20
1.50
0.21
1.70
0.20
1.90
0.20
2,1*0
0,19
129
142.6
3.02
0.15
+52.0
22.00
8.20
5.1*0
1*.20
5.1*0
2,10
0.30
2.50
0,31
2.60
0.30
2.80
0.30
3.60
0,29
123
hU.z
3.13
0.06
+52.0
8.80
3.30
2,10
1.70
1.1*0
0,81*
0.12
0.91*
0,12
1.00
0.12
1.10
0.12
1.50
0,12
21ii
U5.8
3.25
0.07
+21.0
10.00
3.80
2.50
2.00
1.60
0,95
O.lt*
1.10
0,U*
1.20
0,11*
1.30
O.li*
1.70
O.U*
122
52.3
3.70
o.oU
+11.0
5.90
2.20
1.1*0
1.10
0.91
0,56
0.08
0.63
0,08
0.67
0,08
0.71*
Q.oe
0.95
0.08
121
55.5
3.93
0.09
+13.0
13.00
U.90
3.20
2.50
2.00
1,20
0.18
1.1*0
0.18
1.50
0,18
1.70
0.16
2,10
0.17
209
57.5
1*.07
0.11
+27.0
16.00
6.00
5,90
3.10
2.50
1,50
0.22
1.70
0.23
1.90
0.22
2.10
0.22
2.60
0.21
195
59.3
Ji.21
0.10
+36.0
15.00
5.UO
3,60
2.S0
2.30
1,1*0
0.20
1.50
0.21
■1.70
C,2C
1.90
0.20
2,1*0
0.19
209
60.0
U.25
0.10
+J1I.O
15.00
5.1*0
3.60
2,80
2.30
1.1*0
0.20
1.50
0.21
1.70
0,20
1.90
0.20
2,1*0
0.19
196
60.3
U.28
0.10
+32.0
15.00
5.1*0
3.60
2.80
2.30
1.1*0
0.20
1.50
0.21
1.70
0,20
1.90
0.20
2,1.0
0.19
119
62.2
u.ia
0.08
+2U.0
12.00
1*.30
2.90
2.30
l.SO
I.IO
e.i6
1.20
0.16
1.1*0
0,16
1.50
0.16
1,90
2.1*0
0.15
210
«.3
h.\3
0.10
+ia.o
15.00
5.1*0
3.60
2.80
2.50
1.1*0
0.20
1.50
0.21
1.70
0,20
1.90
0.20
0.19
197
65.9
i*-53
0.11
+it6.0
16.00
6.00
5.90
5.10
2.50
1.50
0,22
1.70
0.23
1.90
0.22
2.10
0.22
2.60
0.21
2U
65.5
1^61*
0.11
+59.0
16,00
6.00
3.90
3,10
2.50
1.50
0.22
1.70
0.23
1.90
0.22
2.10
0.22
2.60
0,21
120
67.0
U.75
0.12
- luO
18.00
6,50
U.30
3.1*0
2.70
1.70
0.25
1.90
0.2lj
2.10
0.21*
2.30
0.21*
2,60
0.23
198
67.7
U.80
0.12
-^tO.O
18.00
6,50
1*.30
3.1*0
2.70
1.70
0.25
1.90
0.2i*
2.10
0.2J*
2.30
0.21*
2.60
2.60
2.1*0
3.10
0.23
212
68 .li
i*.85
5.00
0.11
+50.0
16.00
6,00
3.90
3.10
2.50
1.50
0.22
1.70
0.23
1.90
0.22
2.10
0.22
0,21
199
213
69.0
70.6
0.10
0.13
+11.0
+ii7.0
15.00
19.00
5J*0
7.10
3.60
lt.60
2,80
5.70
2.30
3.00
1.1*0
1.80
0,20
0,26
1.50
2.00
0.21
0.27
1.70
2.20
0.20
0.26
1.90
2.50
0.20
0.26
0,19
0.25
118
200
117
201
2oe
71.0
72.1
76.3
77.3
79 J*
5.01*
5.12
5.I4O
5.U8
5.6U
0.07
O.Mi
0.15
0.18
O.Ut
+2ii.O
+51.0
+106.0
+ 50.0
+ UU.0
10.00
21.00
22.00
26.00
21.00
3.80
7.60
8.20
9. 80
7.60
2.50
5.00
5.1*0
6.1*0
5.00
2,00
3.90
1*.20
5.10
5.90
1.60
3.20
3.1*0
IflO
3.20
0.95
2.00
2.10
2.50
2.00
O.ll*
0.29
0.30
0.36
0.29
1.10
2.20
2.J0
2.80
2.20
O.ll*
0.29
0.31
0.57
0.29
1.20
2.1*0
2.60
3.00
2.1*0
O.U*
0.28
0.30
0.36
0.26
1.30
2.60
2.80
3.U0
2.60
0.11*
0.26
0,30
0.36
0.26
1.70
3.UO
3.60
1*.30
5.1*0
O.li*
0.27
0.29
0.35
0.27
116
2(?
113
2QU
lli*
80.8
82.2
SU.O
85.0
85.0
5.73
5.83
5.95
6.03
6.0J
0.12
0.15
0.18
0.2U
+23.0
+77.0
+53.0
+75.0
+61t.O
18.00
22.00
21.00
26.00
35.00
6.50
8.20
7.60
9.80
13.00
1*.30
5.1*0
5.00
6.1*0
8.60
3.1*0
lu20
3.90
5.10
6.80
2.70
3.1*0
3.20
l*.io
5.50
1.70
2.10
2.00
2,50
3.30
0.25
0.30
0.29
0.36
O.IjB
1.90
2.30
2.20
2.80
3,70
0.2i*
0.31
0.29
0.37
0.1*9
2.10
2.60
2.1*0
5.00
1*.10
0.2lt
0.30
0.28
0.36
0.99
2.30
2.80
2.60
3.1*0
I..50
0.21*
0.30
0.28
0.36
0.1*8
2.80
5.60
3,1*0
I..30
5.80
0.23
0.29
0.27
0.35
0.1«6
115
207
87.0
88.0
6.17
6.2U
0.16
0.30
+53.0
490.0
26.00
Wi-oo
9.80
16.00
6.it0
11.00
3.60
5.00
5.10
8.1*0
2.80
3.90
1*.10
6.80
2.50
5.20
2.50
1*.20
1.1*0
2.00
0.36
0.60
0.20
2,80
1*.60
1.50
2.20
0.37
0.60
0.21
5.00
5.20
1.70
0.56
0.62
0.20
5.1*£i
5.60
1.90
0.36
0.59
0.20
U.30
7.10
2,1*0
0.55
0.58
0.19
206
205
88.3
89 .U
6.26
6.31.
0.10
o.iU
+97.0
+65.0
15.00
21.00
5.U0
7.60
0.29
0.29
2.I1O
0.26
2.60
0.28
3,1*0
0.27
Dimension "Z" in column 1* is the distance that wheel nuiober
lateral deneotlon. Distances narked "-" indicate that the
1 had reached the center of the span. Distances marked +
after wheel number 1 had passed the center of the span.
1 is from the center of the span at the time of maiimum
maximum lateral deflection occurred before wheel number
indicate that the maximum lateral doflootlo
Impact
481
§5
5
^
<;
^
\
^
i.
3
.-
\
>
\
<^
v\
\
'^v
-^
I
X
\
0-
\
^
?
C 0
^
<
^
y
-<
V
U
"$
<
<
<
Si
^
<
^
^
4:
0>
<
<
^
^
s
<
V,
y
73
^
^>
0
s
^
^
<
;
a
S
■f
n
0 B
58
^ e
0^
0 P
Q 0
1 ^--^
ll 5 '.',
il ^ ^'^
°o i .3
1 J
1 '1
o
sasR
IRS'SS'S
s-ssics
r^ass'S
r;S&;52
C(.3Sc.
ooooo
g^SS2
o o o o
sssss
gg^oo
o o o o* o
ooooo
^ o^o^c^c^
sssgs
sssgs
•^&s°s
o o o o o
o o o o o
ooooo
lr.l/^u^l/^u^
ooooo
ooooo
ooooo
g^sss
ssias^
ITvW ^ r-l M
vO-OvO-OsO
S!!)S2S
OD w co-o o
CJ.J.Ol
B ^^w
s?,sss
O O O Q O
S3SS3
ooooo
most— -J-irv
ooooo
ooooo
ifst— _d■-?^-
ooooo
•H .-* t-^ OJ
t--cy 2S
S58i3iS
-iCJ ^ rH .-.
«as2;2
ssiS;2S
^DK^CT.^ o
^^J° W
ss^»
^
P3&SS
sgsss
ooooo
Q O O O O
ooooo
gss^g
o o O O
O O o o
0
SSSiS;?
g^ScdSS
sO.Os0<>>O
S Sy CU^S
.H OJ cu «-« ^
CO K\0-0 «H
rH rr\ CJ ri (M
»t;3RS
■c3S>S&ffi
o o o o o
S&32g
ooooo
OOOOO
ooooo
Cy l/N^r-l W
8S82S
&S82g
S&&8
HJ
O^^CVJCVJ
rtrfrH^rt
-HOJCVJ--
r.CM.W^
1 . ^■^-
S <S rt . ".%_
0-3 3 * -p :-; •
r 1^=.
o
28^S&
SRSSS
ooooo
o a> m eoiD
8?,Sg8
sssss
&S838
oooo
^o o oo
o o o o o
S8888
8SS&&
88888
ooooo
O f*^K^K\K^
§8888
gsss^g.
88888
ooooo
oj ° 8 i>S
88888
W-J'Lf\KNKN
ooooo
O Q O p O
3^Vu!;3
SP828
88888
Sgg,8
38^3
8888
--SSRS!?
sssas
aasiJiSi
J?SS£iS
SdS!2iS
SS2S
S- £
S
u^
o o o
ii i
ooooo
Urn
t^rH O lA-^
V +'♦'7 «■
ooooo
ooooo
OOOOO
iiii
illl
-
o »»S8S
asisgff
S8888
&SSS®
8^382
jisaiss
22ad
ooooo
OOOOO
ooooo
ooooo
ooooo
oooo
II-
K\
R PSSSK
PSSS,5
»SP!iP!
^S««if
MNO ir^oc
P 8«xO«J
.....
-5 -S^^K
^3333
:33S5i3
SSRg^R
^RRsa
ii
t
3 ^£5&3
sssss
^gg|S»,
SS9IS
33ls«
ISISs
S2§2
£.05
rest
482 Impact
In order to arrive at the lateral force present, the span was considered as a hori-
zontal truss and the force, acting at the center, or at other panel points, which would
produce the measured deflection, was computed. For the SS-ft. 10-in. span, the central
force was found to be as high as 25,000 lb. for the P5-A electric locomotive and K4-S
steam locomotive, and 29,000 lb. for the Ml-A locomotive. On the 122-ft. span a central
force of 65,000 lb. was found for the GG-1, and from 43,000 to 46,000 lb. for the other
locomotives. Had these deflections been measured at the top flange, where the force was
applied, they should have been somewhat larger than those recorded, with a consequent
increase in the magnitude of the force necessary to produce them.
The force causing this lateral deflection is largely due to the nosing of the loco-
motive, caused by the oscillations about its vertical axis. Considering the force as applied
at a panel point, it does not produce particularly high stresses in the girders or bracing,
as shown in the tables. If however it represents the lateral pressure of one wheel, and
that force were applied to the girder betwen panel points, quite high local bending
stresses might be found in the top flange.
10. Conclusions
These tests afforded an opportunity to measure and compare the dynamic effects
on the same spans, of electric and steam locomotives running over a wide range of speeds,
up to the probable maximum speeds to be expected from either class. The instruments
used were of such number and type that it was possible to obtain simultaneous readings
in several parts of the same span, providing certain information not heretofore available.
A great deal of interesting and valuable data was obtained but it must be remem-
bered that these tests represent but two spans, and while there is evidence that certain
factors are more important than had been general!)' realized, it is recommended that,
until they can be verified by other tests, there be no revision of the impact allowances as
now provided for by the AREA design specification or rating rules.
The analysis of these data was particularly helpful in that it resulted in a clearer
conception as to the desirability of investigating certain factors in future tests.
From the data, as found from these tests, it seems logical to conclude that:
(1) With the possible exception of speed effect and lateral forces, the impact allow-
ances, as now provided for in the section on design of the AREA Specifications for Steel
Railway Bridges, and Rules for Rating Existing Iron and Steel Bridges, are ample.
(2) In these two spans, at least, there was an increase in the vertical force due to
speed. These forces are of such magnitude that they require further investigation, and
if it is found that they occur in other spans, it will be necessary to include some allow-
ances for them. While there has been evidence of such forces in other tests, they were
not so apparent, due to the fact that runs were not made at such high speeds and the
instruments used were not suitable for their exact measurement.
(3) Further investigation should be made as to lateral or nosing forces. While this
is not so important in the design of new structures, definite information as to their
magnitude is necessary for determining the capacity of old structures. The forces as
computed from the measured lateral deflections as found in these tests, are somewhat
greater than those provided for in the rating rules.
(4) In these tests it was found that the track effect did not increase with the
square of the speed as provided for in the rating rules, and the measured values, in all
cases, were less than those called for in the design specification.
(5) The determination of impact by the measurements of stresses, when suitable
instruments are used, is more satisfactory than determination by measuring deflections.
This is especially true for short spans.
Impact 483
11. Acknowledgment
The Committee on Impact and the American Railway Engineering Association are
deeply indebted to the Pennsylvania Railroad for the use of the most complete data
covering these tests. They throw much needed light on several aspects of the impact
problem.
Report of Committee 3 — Ties
John Foley, Chairman,
R. S. Belcher
W. C. BOLIN
W. H. Brameld
H. F. Brown
W. J. Burton
R. E. Butler
F. G. Campbell
S,. B. Clement
R. L. Cook
H. R. Duncan
C. F. Ford*
W. E. Gardner
W. R. GiLLAM
B. D. Howe
C. T. Jackson
W. D. Simpson, Vice-Chairman,
J. E. LOCKHART
A. F. Maischaider
E. F. Salisbury
Raymond Swenk
Sverre Thorvaldson
C. D. TURLEY
A. W. White
Committee
* Died June 9, 1940.
To the American Railway Engineering Association:
Your committee reports on the following subjects:
1. Revision of Manual.
No report.
2. Extent of adherence to specifications.
Report of observations made during 1940, submitted as information below.
3. Substitutes for wood ties.
No report.
4. Tie averages and costs per maintained mile.
Progress report, presented as information page 486
5. Investigate and report on the dimensions of ties, and bring up to date the in-
formation presented in the 1924 and 1932 Proceedings.
Progress report, presented as information page 487
6. Cause and control of sphtting in railroad ties.
No report.
The Committee on Ties,
John Foley, Chairman.
Report on Assignment 2
Extent of Adherence to Specifications
W. D. Simpson (chairman, subcommittee), R. S. Belcher, W. C. Bolin, W. H. Brameld,
H. F. Brown, W. J. Burton, F. G. Campbell, R. L. Cook, H. R. Duncan, W. E.
Gardner, W. R. Gillam, B. D. Howe, C. T. Jackson, J. E. Lockhart, E. F. Salisbury,
Raymond Swenk, Sverre Thorvaldson, A. W. White.
The following statements regarding the ties and their surroundings observed during
1940, are submitted as information.
The committee as a whole examined in June and in November, 1940, the seasoning
and creosoted stocks of six railroads at the yards of six wood preserving-plants in the
Mississippi valley, five west and one east of the river.
Bulletin 423, February, 1941.
485
486 Ties
Four of the railroads represented procured their ties in the territories traversed by
their lines. All six railroads obtained their supplies in Arkansas, Louisiana, Missouri,
Oklahoma and Texas.
The majority of the 3,000,000 ties observed were oak, with gum and pine next in
number. All of them had been purchased under AREA specifications and marked to
designate AREA standard sizes. Their inspection as a whole left little to be desired,
except in the case of one railroad, some of whose ties had been accepted when decayed,
were undersize, and were not well manufactured. Since these ties came from the same
localities as the other, better ones observed, only laxity in the maintenance of standards
can account for their poorer quality.
The sanitary condition of only one seasoning yard was unsatisfactory, though
none of the commercial yards equalled in cleanliness and orderliness the railroad owned
and operated yard among those visited. In the substandard yard referred to the vege-
tation constituted a fire hazard and decayed ties sunk into the ground are not suitable
sills for seasoning stacks. In general the stacking of ties had been well done, but in one
yard the number of misplaced stringers and of ties touching each other in the layers
reflected disregard for probable decay.
Two of the railroads had their ties stacked eight to a layer of Sizes 4 and S and
nine to a layer of Sizes 1, 2, and 3; the other roads' ties were spaced nine and ten to a
layer, respectively. The wider spacing did not result in more split ties than prevailed
with the closer spacing, which corresponds with observations elsewhere in the past, and
refutes the contention that accelerated splitting from wide spacing is more of a problem
than decay from spacing too close to permit sufficient seasoning.
All the locations visited in 1940 were under observation several years ago, and the
improvement in the ties and their care is so marked in most cases as to reflect con-
siderable credit on those responsible for it. The change for the better demonstrates that
"where there's a will, there's a way."
Report on Assignment 4
Tie Averages and Costs per Maintained Mile
John Foley (chairman, subcommittee), W. J. Burton, Su B. Clement, H. R. Duncan,
A. F. Maischaider.
The statistics of tie renewals appearing on the folded inserts (Tables A and B for
1939, and Table C for the last five years and averages of them) comprise the data
reported to the Interstate Commerce Commission by railroads in the United States and
to this Association by Canadian railroads. They were given advance publication in
Bulletin 418, June-July, 1940.
Comparisons between railroads are practically only when allowance is made for
variations in practice which would influence the costs in columns 3 and S of Table A
and column 6 of Table B. The different prices at which ties are charged out are due
not only to the factors listed on page 309 of the 1929 Proceedings, but are affected by
whether or not these costs include expenses for adzing, boring, incising or ironing any
or all ties, for freight on preservative and ties to the treating plant, for inspection, etc.
M
n,
F.
n.
he
id
ill
:d
d-
er
jy
as
ee
or
fie
n-
at
a
U
;:^-1
l^^^is
3:5
[hill
:l is
"5
IISss
lag-
■J
". la
I ^
iff;
i'S
[Js I d I
S I S3
I
a " " e °.
■a ;|l
° J = t
3S
1 ". a 3 3
3&^
M
n,
F.
n.
[le
id
ill
2d
d-
er
jy
as
ee
or
he
at
a
\2
3
5
l2
5 ^
I !i
3 6 «
a » «
'^ « S
3 i
3 "
I
4 J!
s
gggSE
ssgjg
S?I3S
3 sB??
3 S-sS?
^
sggsg
gssss
iS?2s
O O^r-iS*
sgasfl
1 is§s
Hals
llgss
SI
:38i
3fi
„
CT>
Ss32i
SS3SS
£?SS3
S SSs§
sgj^s
D -VI CO c- e-
^^J ONUS'S
si
3 -J
ess
-
ScSgJSS,
SSfgS
1 55SS
3S;5,!fS
CO Son Si <o
NO
' '?' '
3 ' o33
^,^, ,
2
, ,?,
S
es
-
SSS153
3;;^S,3;S
»S5 S
S5S8~
ssa
sssiq^
S SS8S
S&^£S
ss?s
»s
*"
'~* "^ *"*
.....
. . .
o .. ..
0..0.
. . o .
.. o ..
•
'
IIS§S
-^asa™
33,3 ' 3
^ixs
Sisal
ge?25
SSSsS
5
Is
si
^
O^e-^cs*
KS-JSS
,^<v^«.
.. .
RS S^
E1S>KS5
^"? , ,
,'5>°.^°
I?^Ku\3
■? , , ^*?
o o
3 O O O O
o oo o o
o o o oo
.. o
o o o o
ooo oo
1
~
SsESS
333SI
S3 s
8 ' ' S
?^ S5
SJ^^J^ J
SS
sasa
3S»3S
§ !S|
•s
-
i
c
l-s ill
5
1
Ills5
11 III
i
i
•Isl
i
1 s
* " „
5 Stit
1
t3 u a 3 - O -
a S a 5 S i; 3
|£3gt-3s
•lis?
2 '" ° s !^
•^ 1 s
.3 1.;
y i|3
S
& a
lli
Ml
3
1
111
11
I ? S ? 8
5 5 2 3 *
i . -sa
'•2 8° ^
St I ^ 3 S
s^ ': ^1
11 'J
«. I
3 53
n,
F.
n.
he
id
ill
2d
d-
er
>y
as
ee
or
he
n-
at
a
*2
t-
a I , ■;
P a 5 3
i 1 ^
H 3 "
1
1=
!=
Cort of
new wooden
croee tie
renewal e
per
thoueend
equated
groee
tcn-
mUee
o
l??'?*^
S3?S,«
51132
"SSlS^C
"--•
52^p
32
SSSS^S
nJSKS;
2 g^f^ tN o
5S1
3112
IrA:
^SKS!«
I
1
^«i UM» oc
J
^
sIpIS
ill
3i^SS;»
as
IS
2 165 231
5 999 031
7 023 905
5 554 630
fil
iii
iiii
03 ^CD
|SSSS
5yass
ojm<o i-S^
Per cent
crooe tie
renQwale
all tlee
in tracka
»
■^T^-^T
-cx-^^^s
^o^,,.„
r<^0^
tf^ i/^ .-, --loo
IN, IM
'^'?"?'^';
;7^r^
1
n-ooc-
m"" "^
....
...
OJ »..<M ^rH
o-o^
'"■'"'-*
""^■"3
S"'-':::^
00.-
Coot of
naw wooden
renewals
per
mile of
maintained
track
-
Sss"^
JSgSS
5f»^2
S5S33'
S~S5 '
CM MCM.
ss
3S333
-35S
3=3-
-si
I-3I
jHsg
alasl
0 u>(r.,H CM
asass;
sgsss
S531S
g£3
Xeiubted
average
coot per
wooden
tie
^
3535S,
EJSSSiS
?S^3«
5?RS3S
sac:;?
sss^s
oS
»JSS3
SS2;3S;
?«S!,
~"^?
3.3g5
05,33
SSSKS
.,-0<M^
S¥S1
o^-.^-,
rH rH rH rH
..
^ O -H-I.H
r^-.^
rf^^ O -1
O^^-H^
0-100^
O-H-HO-
Number of
new wooden
croee ties
laid In
replace-
ment per
mile of
maintained
track
^
ssss;^
3S*S?
"§3^3
-H (r^co *eo CM
53*5'
"2°s5
rA rH
"»S°S
s^ss^
"55
oo fojoS
SS3IS
SS"ss
J33SS
^SS°s
sa°SS
ssg
Total
number of
new wooden
croee tlea
laid in
replacement
1939
'
iiSsiS
ssg^s
y'^i^o^
I5£?s
Sa
K5?SS
gas
OS CM ffvrnON
.H CJ vO e--*
§S5?s
Is5
Average
number of
cross tlea
per
mile of
maintained
track
-
!!!!!
o w ™ ^ ^
sSsIl
aSSsSS
Ss5§s
!!!!!
gs
!!!!!
!!!!!
!!!!!
gss
s§SS
ssgja
Sidil
SSSai
38&»23s3s3
IhS
~
i?as3
H O O .» vfl
5a ~g?
;3sssc^
Ss^SsS
s^HS
m
si
idiif
mil
m
§51
Mil
isiEi
S?££g
pill
"°°^s
0 IJ^*«
--''
1
L_
1
Til
t
S
ll
it § %
Si"''.
11 e J g
1
1
i
ill!
s t! a s a
lls§l
ll
alt
mil
1 1
C M f >■
1 £ si S 2
1
SI
1
i
1 t!
its
lilt
■s « * a ■a
s
s
1
.s 1
lllll
i
1. S
s si
sll
5
1
||l ff
i
«1
III 11
A
as
1:
2! 5
1 1 1 5 i
1 f e «
11
ilili
1 i
Hi
57
n,
F.
n.
he
\d
ill
3d
d-
er
as
ee
or
he
fl-
at
a
V-
i2
t-
I s; 1
lit
Q rH ^
a T I
a I I 3
11
JO u -
I.So3!
1^1 s ^3 :
;-8 S£ .
ft III
5 g'a S"
lit""
111:
h '^ X p fl
i ffl S m 1
1 S S|
E S
as •
s^a" J!
.,'S>,-S -d
n,
F.
n.
he
id
ill
2d
d-
er
>y
as
ee
or
he
n-
at
a
t-
■1 1
is
0*5
I ° I
3 I a
11
s :
Si
ii
& E
° I
55
s ■**
8
If
-COC^ ^ "N
„ Qjj^Q ^
,,^_
.„J
™.„.„.J
-•
0 1^*
-0 /^P- CM '*
fg -H CM 01 ,-
"'~°"°
CM^OO
'"'*^'"""
s
rO^^tO t-
^0^-u>
„,<^,^,^
^0^^^
30 H t-O t^
UM^~1^
0 c.i~
-.oo*t-o-
OJ t-C» CM ,4
»eO CM
s:^^:-
-"
(M U\CM e-
irv-BtA
CN U\^P.i ^
-M •* rn^O fN
CM tCCM»l„
0-I>c^
"""■"■^•*
cA.;c^,i,5
= .^-0,0
3-,-,w-
"■'-
2
^^<^,^<0
0 r-) -* 0 CSI
t- 000 ■* 0
^^ *^ e^o
VN«>^^0
H«o.
ir\Oeo r^CO
.J-c^O
"SJS
» '■ICO CM <t
coci-o..
^.o-oco
.Or-_J
°"""''
■^a™""^
^ '1 .0 ^N .'■
^ CM l/^r^a3
^^^ ^"'
CMCOCMC,,
H« -1
-"""'°-'
'■"'*■"■'
""""^-
"---'-;
ii.;
5
252" 2
s;2S52
rA tC 'Acg *t
^^Aji^S
O^-J^J!,^
^>-5u^^™
j.4S2a
:j:^n:^
sss;^:^
23S
CM ^ oe^
S2J3"
371":;
i^-l-
2T4P
il-cS
S
ilSHS
!;IiS""
r-oo H ^ 0
^^-^^
:^2^:j5
H
T^r^t
s;-:^2j
S^2
%221
^S"3"
:533:;
l:-!:^:
3J4SS
r4n:
25;^
s
^o..O-iu>
0~^->./v
^^^^*
■* rHCOOO "1
v^«,--1«,
o.^.NO-'
»«.,.ir.
»~f-a,ro
»<M«.-a>
0 »o.» -
00 0 CO
^322
25J5j
i'Xl'S'i
2n".i
P^^^
».J)cp
^'■"^"^'^
UNOJltMr^
mto^mi
.J -1«H~
~i^,^™„
""^"^3
■"""■*
^'""'""
"'-""'
^r-^-
i
II
1
1
It
w*"*
rH <M ■*
3SS3°
S'SgSJ.
"3§3S
»3|s;g
SJg
S3§^3
■35=1
sags'?
"SS
SRSg
35Sss
SI?"?
SS3SS
S23s:
3SS
tr»
« W ^ M CM
SSKS3
s5533
^ssss
'*23s
S5s
gs3»2
23SSS
asidss
^ia
3 '51
53S39
•s«
IsSss
sggss
353SS
=S3
5
gyjss
SSSKS
s^SSs
rH r^ H rH
3SK3S
123
e^oS^iS
SsSS'
ggss^
g^H
^Sss3
S5
5Ss
233-s
S5SS1
SsSsa
5I3
5'
Igsss
259^^
sgsss
f^CM ,H -^
~2a3?
3,3s
^ssss
33533
rtgSSS
r^ CM fM
s?ss
sssS"
3K
ssg
§5S3s
SSSSI
siS
gg;3^K
S»?53
<B2^
S33g^
mrH H rH
^-3S3§
SS5
||SSS
rtcMCMOco
assss
SS|
^'ss
S353S
§3
!■§§
-SS^S
5532?
SRS35t
» H ^^ ^ •♦
5SS
s
SSg^S
^sgsg
3^32°
S3s--
sags;
SSS'S
SSs
^ssss
Sg£S,3
3SE
«"3»
S35S;
ss
SKS
3S3*3
gssg?
S3SSS
sH
1
sl
>;;
J
^1
S^S§°
~Ss--
-08SS
5SKS3
=3..|
SS^iAS
SdS,
^^ ^^ ^
»SM=
2?£SS
-s
g'SSS
3325=
233^ S
5SS"s
CM rH r^rH CM
35aSSlS»
s
^SSSS
ss?s?
"§?^2
^ ss ^s
!XgSS5
..g.g
S^2
»s,ses
assgjg
S3SS3
~S5
»-§s
35233
H-IS
JaaSS
£SS2a
s«"SS
3 S3
s
gSg&K
ss»°^
gSSK§
SSSSR
SSS3S
rH CM
s33
3-^53
ssa^s
sss^.
-B^
sssg
35S35
3 3"»S
''Ss's
SsSSs
gS^RS
5^1
Si
§§35'
3Ss"'
3sl°S
3 "s.?*^
"33^3
KJ?gf!^
SSS
S3S--
«^S^5^
5SSRS
-53
S3SS
SssSs
35SSS
Ssis"?
5HS3S
s33Ss
l§S
s
1^3?'
S^S""
3^^H2
SSSKS
COCO ^ CM *
rtS(3rtg
sSI
sssse
SSSdS
!R§K:S5I
'S3
-^^•sl
SSSfs
aS5«s
ggsas
32535
5351^
3»S
s
gssss
3S3-S
SsS^S
3^555
SK3;iS
3Sg!!g
3 * ff?
S^S's
JSKSS
^3K?S
°SS
2S^g
S33S?
SHsas
2§S?=S
aSss?
S'S^s
sss
1
i
lis
m
s 5 « a 3
«« sss
till]
1
I3III
i
1
nil
Usss
i ill
0 MC3 J J
•s
. it
0 ^
EPS
lis
Sal
i
1
e 11
i is =
"- i § -a s,
Its
Hill
1
1
J|s||
1
S t
"is
Hi
i
i
i
° % -i
i
1
1355:
i
0,
■&l° 1
■as iSi
sss'Ss
1
c
^ ."I
a ,i « 5 1
1 |3,j
1
il
lie
= .- g cs '
- ;: .5 M E
of i
i
•ip
the
ind
all
ted
id-
ver
by
tee
for
the
142
bt-
s
i :
' I
.3 3
V;
i i «
o ^ 5
"■Hi:
S s =
s ^
?.5
C-. WSVsoD f^
==
1
j
'^S'^3~°
^A4AA
■'^"^'^
— --^s
- ----
-'^"^
^^O^J
SJ.Sl
S5
g
r^rnco e^.o
3^3'^^
t^44^^
2214'S,
3:^:^23
SSS"^
" ',23 S
Sli^SS
23;255
:^^5:j
ss
Sa
9^
o^,-,o
li-^U^^ ^O rO
.JCOO^OJ^
^,H^o
^^-i-»<>.
^ ./^H«>,-
UN^,-„H
a> OCO -Nr^
0.=
1
" "
.OH WN^CO
H -,,-.0,.
'^■* ^°° "^
jJ,OUX«U-
^ ir\^ ,^^
•""
2
O OnO -* o
inp
~D\^-4 A\^
S444S
'a'^''
'^;:3-^'^a
:^ ^S5J
jns3
^.A^^o
S11S2
S3
s
»^^^^
O r-l CM ^ lA
<^0 (/Nf'lH
0 ^^^^
.^„oo~
-* ^=^c-^
^^„^„
^^^^^
'
-^
f-^-^^-
^ ^ (>J ITN
' s™'*^
""■^S™
rtl OJ ro(N rn
■"'"'-"'"
3'^-°--"
"-^'■^^
tr>t^
^.-^».»
^ r^r^txy O
^^<M^~,
CMO».~l,
^^^^^
e- ^ U>fy m
^^^„^
~,OOH»
0H,0«,
3 2 *~
■^-o-^o -*
to ^ ftlM ^
^ >H » IM
""-'33
.H "1f->c^ f-i
"'"'""''
-*'--'■'
CMCMCMCO^
int^
•
•
II
:i
J^StoEIS
S3233
52333
^553S
-H 0 ^ 5^
s, ogl2
0 fOO ^0
55? 3 s
s«
S
|»i3H
§sSSs
S3 Hi
53a53
"5352I35SS
S Sgrtg
5S52^
SB s s S
H ^H h2
IS
5
2ISS-
3^353
sssgs
ss^a-
sss?a
3SS3s
° 325§
sysss
?3£'?^
sSS^S
|S
J!
^
s»ss^
i?Kj ;5^3
{^?c5S S,
S'gsas
S3SS5
5^ SSSJ'
3 5SS«S
H^ov.0,^
33
i^
^osi ^ ^ ^
r-< rH H r-t r^
M l^ H
H lArH f>J "^
H H H H
H H OJ rH OJ
■s^
3 3 IN 1^!3
SAZ^S
0 (^ ^SR
^S
i-
^^^^^
■^ "^ H
H H CM H -t
^
tr^f^oj oi
^^
0^^^^
SSSS'SS
SgSKS
,Ot-<^^
1
■^a:?ss
-
jJ^CM^
tl?
3S?&g
:3£S5S
ss:s?;si
3K
saass
S35SS
1
IfN S
*-«
2^
SKSaa
£S2\S1S
Kjs!;?rt3
rtSKSS
SSlSSS
^JQ»{j^g;^
£ 3;5Kl?
H ?^ HTO
rtSSSS
^SSSS;:!
S!f
8-a
s
C'J M r-» '-^^
(M H f-1
^^^^
^^^^^
RSSSS
=o
35KSS
g~SS.33
^ 3532
^^,^
JJ^H-lO
„^^^^
3»
8^
^ .H ,-1 rH
"OH c
■^ H CM H
HHH ^
?S^SS
SSslKS
ssass
sscss
■vo-at^-o
OlA^u.
^
^Q fMOJ ^
fi
s?
"S
!^
2SSS-
nn^~rt,„
oKSiSS
3S^8S
£SRSd
^ r-OsrHO.
§3S^3
ss33s
S?:si&s
sa
J
C\i ^r^ -t f>J
■^
S^Ss^
oSSjS
-oo-^oo
^ UN^CS,^
^sr.s
^^
^C/NOJ C~ ^
SS
5
3n'"a3
:?f^^:?'~
rH
33SS;"
SJhSIhSI
1 S
;
i
1
I
-la
lllfl
fill's";
If I 95
li 1
1 « ^«
mil
II ill
i
E-
1
11 HI
3 s .3 .3 5
3
i
1
B
1
l3lsl=
^ 1 "' "^ " "
E 1
1 s
11:1
1
.i II
iiili
3 a 1 3 5
s
1 -i " "' =
§
II2
.'='3
ill
l|f
III
11
15 re
3-
g i1
^t" .-■3 ="
3 5'^ 1' I '. ■?
Ties 487
Report on Assignment 5
Investigate and Report on the Dimensions of Ties, and Bring up
to Date the Information in the 1924 and 1932 Proceedings
W. J. Burton, (chairman, subcommittee), W. C. Bolin, W. H. Brameld, H. F. Brown,
S. B. Clement, R. L. Cook, W. R. Gillam, C. T. Jackson, J. E. Lockhart, A. F.
Maischaider, E. F. Salisbury, W. D. Simpson, Raymond Swenk, Sverre Thorvaldson.
The following report substantially completes the work on this assignment, and the
recommendations at its conclusion are submitted with a view to their adoption and
inclusion in the Manual in 1942. Consideration of the proposals during 1941 by all
concerned is desired.
At the 1939 convention, in response to this assignment, your committee reported
on the present practice as to tie length and discussed the tie functions from the stand-
point of length. The report embodied the conclusion that an increase in supporting power
of the roadway could be obtained by an increase in tie length at less expense than by
other means and that considering cost, 8^ -ft. ties were a better buy than 8-ft. ties, as
the longer ties will give added support out of proportion to the added tie cost.
At the 1940 convention, and in response to the same assignment, your committee
presented resumes of the 1924 and 1932 Proceedings and also a tabulation, complete for
the Class I railroads of the United States and the principal Canadian roads, giving the
percentages purchased of each standard size and length of crossties. This report in-
cluded a discussion of the present practices, especially as to length, pointing out that
precedent, rather than effective service, appeared to govern choice of length to a
considerable extent, at least in certain regions.
Recommendations
Based upon the studies and data mentioned above, your committee offers the follow-
ing recommendations for comment and criticism, with a view to their submission in 1942
for adoption and publication in the Manual;
(a) The adoption of nine-foot ties and the discontinuance of the purchase of eight-
foot ties as rapidly as practicable and economical.
(b) The use of nine-foot ties at least for lines of heavy traffic.
(c) The adoption of the nine-foot length whenever change is made from the eight-
foot length.
Report of Committee 17 — Wood Preservation
H. R. DtJNCAN,
Chairman,
W. P. Arnold
W. G. Atwood
s. j. buckman
Walter Buehxer
C. S. Burt
G. B. Campbell
W. F. Clapp
H. R. Condon
E. A. Craft
John Foley
E. B. FuLKs
W. R. Goodwin
L. H. Harper
L. B. Holt
H. E. HORROCKS
R. S. HUBLEY
R. P. Hughes
M. F. Jaeger
A. L. Kammerer
Edward Kelly
A. M. Knowles
A. J. Loom
R. S. Belcher,
Vice-Chairman,
L. J. Reiser*
F. B. Robins
Henry Schmitz
L. B. Shipley
O. C. Steinmayer
G. C. Stephenson
T. H. Strate
W. A. Summerhays
J. E. Tiedt
Hermann von Schrenk
Committee
Died June S, 1940.
To the American Railway Engineering Association:
Your committee reports on the following assignments:
1. Revision of Manual.
No report.
2. Service test records for treated ties.
Progress report — ^submitted as information page 490
3. Piling used for marine construction.
Progress report — submitted as information page 508
4. Effect of preservation treatment by use of — (a) Creosote and Petroleum, and
(b) Zinc Chloride and Petroleum.
No report.
5. Destruction by termites and possible ways of prevention.
Progress report — submitted as information page 513
6. Revision of specifications for the treatment of Douglas fir.
No report.
7. Incising of all forest products material, collaborating with Committee 3 Ties.
No report.
8. Investigations being made for the determination of toxicity value of creosote and
creosote mixtures.
No report.
9. Present practice as to preservative used.
No report.
The Committee on Wood Preservation,
H. R. Duncan, Chairman.
Bulletin 423, February, 1941.
489
490
Wood Preservation
Ctarlcs; Jfinlep Jforb
Charles Finley Ford was born at Morrisonville,
111., on December 17, 1869, and moved to Cameron,
Mo., in 1878. He entered the service of the Chicago,
Rock Island & Pacific Railway on May 1, 1886, and
spent his entire professional life with that company,
until his death on June 9, 1940.
Following his first employment as water boy on
construction his personality and outstanding abilities
were recognized by successive promotions to road-
master's clerk, maintenance clerk, chief clerk to general
roadmaster, chief clerk to engineer maintenance of way
system, and chief clerk to general manager.
On November 11, 1907, he was appointed assistant
to engineer maintenance of way, with supervision
over tie inspection and distribution, and on April 27,
1911, he was appointed supervisor tie and timber, with jurisdiction over timber preserva-
tion, which position he held at the time of his death, June 9, 1940, having completed
more than 54 years' continuous service with the Rock Island Lines.
Mr. Ford was an active member of Committees 3 — ^Ties, and 17 — ^Wood Preserva-
tion. He served as vice-chairman of the latter during 1926-1935 and as chairman, from
1935 to the time of his death. Mr. Ford was also an active member of the American
Wood-Preservers' Association and served as a member of the Executive committee and
as second vice-president, first vice-president, and president of that association during
the period 1922 to 1926, inclusive.
He served on various committees of both organizations and gave unsparingly of
his time and experience to the furtherance of the activities of these associations, and
was widely known in his profession among the railroads and wood-preserving companies
of this country.
A man of broad experience, keen judgment, fairness and kindliness in his dealings,
Mr. Ford endeared himself to all with whom he came in contact. A sense of personal
loss has been felt by his associates who remain to mourn the loss of a kind friend and
lovable companion.
Report on Assignment 2
Service Test Records for Treated Ties
A. J. Loom (chairman, subcommittee), G. B. Campbell, W. R. Goodwin, L. H. Harper,
L. B. Holt, R. S. Hubley, R. P. Hughes, M. F. Jaeger, Edward Kelly, T. H. Strata,
W. A. Summerhays.
The table of tie renewals per mile maintained on various roads has been revised to
include data for 1939.
Reports of special test tracks are submitted for the following roads:
Baltimore & Ohio
Chicago, Burlington & Quincy
Wood Preservation
491
City of Minneapolis Filtration Plant Railway
Northern Pacific
A.
'/
Y£A/f
MIL
I
/9//
14 Z
/ 2.
14 9
1
/3
ISI)
\
/■^
ise
1
/S
IS-9
1
/6
/SIS':
IV
I6Z
/a
16^
/9
ie6\
/3ZO
fes6
2 /
169
zz
I70t
Z3
174--.
Z^
/77S
ZS
ia/3
Z6
IBSi
27
1792
2.a
I8ZI
2.S)
130*
/930
I93i
31
I9e<
JZ
I96i
55
/95C
34
/<)40
I3i5
1934
U
I95Z
37
190
Zt
I3S6
S9
1^49
1940
'^i'i'riilt.t
JO
^ 19
/s
m TfAcx
/9
I:
ratory
licago,
jervice
lerring
aainder
irtment
tes the
service
various
treated
-, 1914.
twenty -
ed over
doubt,
;, July,
t. Track
ck from
1. Track
473 ties,
ley were
removed from track. The destruction effect of these derailments on the remainder will
be given consideration when the ties are removed. There have also been 117 ties removed
because of switch installations.
CJfOSS
7-/C RENEWALS PED MILE OF ALL TaACtf M/HNTAINE D /ail-ISaO
,„.,^„^-,.y« j
^ - -
1
=
E
E
^
"s
=
_
1
y
h45f-
'■1 -r;'.
It.--- - ^:
7
i
i;
-4ilt*;
is
f\
3i
i
^
i
8
a
M
-i
1
^
1
t
i
1
i
1
E
E
^
E
E
S
=5!=
~¥r-
dp
1
B--^^
r -.=^
^
' *
^
^
^=
"iS
=
E
1
1
»
1?
i
i
=
1
B
1
=
=
77
i
1
1
t
1
=
1
i
J
1
^
=
1
E
—
1
i
e|
-
^
=
I
1
=
E
1
—
1
ia
1
i
^
^
^
i
E
i
— 1
-
E
=
E
1
1
s
isos
E
M
1
n
#
E
i
—
1
=
E
1
1
j
1
¥
e:
1
s:
^
E
i
^
=
1
^
E
1
^
=
^
=
Wood Preservation 491
City of Minneapolis Filtration Plant Railway
Northern Pacific
Southern
(Inspection reports for 1940 are submitted by the U. S. Forest Products Laboratory
covering the Hartford, Fair Grounds, and University Avenue test tracks of the Chicago,
Milwaukee, St. Paul & Pacific, also experimental ties in tracks of the Public Service
Company of Indiana.)
The report is presented as information.
Baltimore & Ohio
Herring Run Tie Test
Annual Report — 1939, End of 25 Years' Service
Introductory
The Herring Run test tie section is located in the eastward main track at Herring
Run, Md., on the Baltimore division, about seven miles east of Baltimore, Md.
Eighty-five percent of the test was installed in November, 1914, and the remainder
in August, 1915, in cooperation with the Forest Service of the United States Department
of Agriculture.
The development to date, as set forth in the accompanying report, indicates the
total service fife of the untreated ties and the trend of what is to be expected in service
life from the treated.
Purpose of Test
The purpose of the Herring Run test is to determine the economic value of various
kinds of preservative treatments, and incidentally, to note the life of red oak treated
ties compared with red oak ties untreated.
Conditions of Test
(1) Time. All ties in test except Section 14 were installed in November, 1914.
Section 14 was placed in August, 1915. Test, therefore, is now completing its twenty-
fifth year.
(2) Traffic. An average of 16,204,000 gross tons per year has been handled over
this track.
(3) Rainfall. The average annual rainfall has been 41.7 in. This is, no doubt,
sufficient to have caused leaching of soluble preservatives.
(4) Temperature. Mean average, January, 35.8 deg. F., mean average, July,
77.8 deg. F. Extremes, 8.8 deg. F. to 99.5 deg. F.
(5) Maintenance. Maintenance conditions have been uniform over entire test. Track
on entire test raised and ties respaced for 39-ft. rails during summer of 1926. Track from
tie 0 to tie 1916 is pick-tamped, from 1916 to east end of test, machine-tamped. Track
on entire test raised in 1929, 1933 and 1936 and machine-tamped.
Derailments
Four derailments have occurred within the limits of the test, damaging 2,473 ties,
or 70 percent of the total. Of this number, 121 were so badly damaged that they were
removed from track. The destruction effect of these derailments on the remainder will
be given consideration when the ties are removed. There have also been 117 ties removed
because of switch installations.
492
Wood Preservation
Jr. dj ffl *
s.i2*'Sa> in W5 <o »H t> t- ii5 !D u5 •^ eo ;o eo
tfi^
0) C
Oti<o u^oM wc^ o w o o coo
O OS ^ 05 t> O^ 05 05 Oi ^ O O 05 O
050 WCO IC05 cox -^05 O O CO 00 Ti
00 CO 0> 00 M -^ -"f •^ ■^ 05 O o 0000
N "H iH N N tH rt ,H rH rH CO CO M IN g
!fi r--"ij 05'H'^oooooo'-iO
f, a^ MrtlMP5C0rtrHrtr-lNC0
" a^ ® ooooooooooinO o oo
E-i.2>^ Ncocococort rHrt ,-tN50 CO coco
Hg
fes
. . o u u o
_J a;
O O 4J .4J +J +J
oo->taiiococ-o>HOoo
O o ■
c a '
• .
OS l> •■
loeoi
o©<
I it tc
> e a
u u u u u
^ »^ u ^ ^
rt rt w rt C4 '
60 b£ Cit M 60 O
ooooooooo oo
ooooocooicor2oo
eocoo»(Miocoooo5i-i^Ti"t-
iHrHi-lrHr-l(MQeqeq
.-I ,-1 ,-1 r-l ^ O N M IN eo
0)^ wNco-^ vococ-oooiO i-hm
E^ S
s ^
O U I
Wood Preservation
493
The indications are that the life of many ties in this test has been and will continue
to be materially reduced as a result of decay starting in the crushed fibers of the wood
marked by derailed wheels. Attention is directed to the fact that all groups in the test,
excepting Section 5 of the straight creosote group, have suffered more or less from wheel
marks at various times. For this reason the test still retains an important value as a
basis for a comparison of the effectiveness of the various methods of treatment, although
any conclusions regarding the average hfe of ties so treated must be drawn with a proper
regard for the damage resulting from these derailments.
Baltimore & Ohio — Tie Test, Backus, Pa.
Length of Test — 29 Years — Report for 1939 Renewals
Installed — November 1910
straight Creosote — 10 Lb. Per Cn. Ft.
Ties In Removed to Date Av. life
Kind of wood placed test Number Per cent to date
Redoak 72 68 11 16.2 28.0
Black oak 260 258 31 12.0 28.2
Pin oak 316 315 44 14.0 28.2
Maple 543 530 49 9.2 28.4
Beech 824 797 140 17.6 28.0
Birch 19 17 2 11.8 28.3
Cherry 9 9 3 33.3 26.6
Gum 12 11 0 0.0 29.0
Chestnut 170 170 136 79.6 21.0
Hickory 146 143 40 28.0 27.6
Total 2371 2318 456 19.7 27.5
Average Life of Untreated Ties in Years
Total Average
Kind placed years
Aflh 116 5.1
Beech 208 5.0
Red birch 217 3.6
Chestnut 259 9 . 7
Cottonwood 86 2.9
Cypress 225 8.3
White elm 191 5.3
Hemlock 190 4 . 9
Hickory 110 5.5
Loblolly pine 248 5 . 3
Hard maple 122 4.7
Soft maple 125 3 . 6
White oak 125 11.1
Red oak 204 5.3
Pin Oak 126 6.3
Poplar 126 5.3
Red gum 152 4.1
Sycamore 131 3.3
Tamarack 175 5.1
Tupelo gum 136 3.5
Total placed 3272 5.6
Report of Thirtieth Annual Inspection of Chicago, Burlington &
Quincy Experimental Ties
The results of the 1939 inspection of the experimental ties in the tracks of the
Chicago, Burlington & Quincy are given in the accompanying tabulations. These ties
were laid in 1909 and 1910, some treated with coal-tar creosote by the full-cell process,
with 10 to 12 lb. per cu. ft.; some with zinc chloride (Burnett process) with ^ lb. per
cu. ft.; some with a mixture of these two preservatives (Card process), with an absorp-
tion of Yi lb. of zinc chloride and 3 lb. of creosote per cu. ft.; and some were untreated.
494
Wood Preservation
Pi
5
_ 01 a,
3 t; 5 Q) M
S-2 S 2^
I" ea 1) OS
" O O O
S E " **
t~co 00 ^
in t- 1/3 ira
t-T-l
rfoo
ooin t-in
OiOO-^t:-
H .S
_ 1) OJ
3 i) ta 0) («
*; 0) 0,^ ^
^ >>> o
1 ? M M
•43 5 J3 2®
« ta a> us
+j -u ^j
g g c t. g
C <D c >>
k. c S a)
t^ CS W tH t^ t~ 50
a rH O «5 ^
c^ooosco 3
iS«
^t-o-<f
lOiO«(J>
0 oj
Ha
N
MOONrH
a' 3 S r-
^ ^ 3 C
5 t< >- ti
b a 3 C
lh ea 3 c:
1; ta PC
i- ea s c
Wood Preservation
49S
oaxeeo
aooe4u3 onoso
iHWt- W
coo wo
NC-lOio
o»>Heo«
05 00 t* X
iaiOiOia
fitOCir^
•HIMIOIO
MTft-eo
USNiO'*
oo<o>a
'-'i-t-t-
05 W X t*
OrtTf
t-00t-O»
eo i~- T-( rr
W(0>0^
»-4lOrH'^
MrHi-Ht-
-HW
■*
rH
a
CO
d
04
t-*
rtlOrt
"5 00 05 00
•-icseo t-
MC-lO
rHC-TflO
V
lOOOtOM
«
ooN-<i;'j<
CT; N -^Ji 00
CCHNrH
^r^aa-v
U
0
X
ooot--*
>.
lOtC-HU3
^a^ciui
ft
•"("O 05 tT
1
1
05 t* CO C3
X
tot- t-o
^
ino t-io
s
NMr-i
N.-H^
u
0
N
-IN
0
MfH rH
NNrt
V
N^rtrt
S
MN'^
s
_iO 1 .
5
>a
ita 1
I
la 1 1 I
"2
lO 1 1
2
1
00-^ 1 1
'i 1 1 i
;o
1TJ< 1
a
C- 1 1 1
lAlA 1 1
1 1 1 1
00 1 1 1
95 i 1 ■
Mo • 1
1 1 1 1
e^
'IN 1
S,
Mill
NM 1 1
1 1 1 1
Nil!
M 1 ■ >
pri to'O-rf
lONNi-i
O5>-(00t-
-^OOlHrt
„ I • S
o-O c^
k « 3 a
* a 3 c
OOCQS
„ I 2 a,
u c« 3 a
oomt3
S: c« 3 c
1, £: I. ■<->
„ I « 41
£ e« 3 B
UOPOP
°T E*3
u M 3 C
oopa3
496
Wood Preservation
9
a
a
o
O
W2 kT
5 ^
(^
u
p4 M m 0) n
<n rt 0) (ua
fl « o >-i S
in > :j 0) s
g > 3 c«
" o o «
i> d u IV
H a
BM a 1) ^
CU
gs ^ h I I*
H 3> a »H !!!
2 oJ! a
Tjiino^o
eot-oeo
0 0>©'«1«
O
a
S r-IoiT-ieo
3 NrHr-l
O
4) Tiioit-m
0 -^siMN
U
rHOOOOTf
3 NMlo'w
1
^
N
^
iH
0 NMi-l
m
0
15
^
0,
lO 1 1
H
.
.
. .
s
0>T)< 1 1
1
1 1
C-t> 1 1
MN 1 '
'
1 1
NN 1 '
h 8 « *
(2 is-'
OOOOr-l 0)n<lO»
5g
OiNCOr-l
OtOOiH
Syntax
lOOlOrH
«0 CO 00 00
0> WOO
OOi-tMOO
WMt-0>
t-o>t-«
OrHOOl
Oi»C-«
H-E
i-llO
CO
■*
CO
r-(00r-l
■«f
£ ea 3 C
oomt2
O? Si
a) ^^ !3 —
K ea 3 0
OOMP
S c« 3 0
°^ E-w
SS e« 3 c
■■)?! «
OTS O ^H
£ S 3 0
£ 0) 3 0
OOCQP
Wood Preservation
497
O 3 > (U «— 5^
o u
73 M 2 „ "5 ■* <51 O 00 CO •
c 2 fc S •
feSoS
e s e >.
«>3
b--^ai '^co
ft, o
5 XS !:-■<* oi'^OT
2^ COoiOM'*-*
g'O 00 .-( oi CJ O) •"!
C » t. (U I
D > a; m ooo-^oto I
C 0) C >> I
" g o g <M«ioo»eo I
_, „ WoC^tONOO
_7, fj 05«5t--*COt-
E-i E o "-"^
!C^
oo;0'«>-i
5
■^ ■* t- •* !0 •-<
o
ONlOOOOOl
H
eio<-iciMio
1 ."O 1
i ',^3
iJ
1 ;h^
Si
s
'Jt
c £^'-'
o
*" a
i so
&<
WC
)«t)
498
Wood Preservation
City of Minneapolis, Minn. — Filtration Plant Railway-
by 8 IN. BY 8 ft. Red Oak Crossties
-4200 — 6 IN.
Treated and placed in fall of 1916
Average absorption 10.08 lb. per cu. ft. creosote-tar mixture, 40 per
cent M. of W. creosote, 20 per cent coke-oven tar, and 40 per cent
water-gas tar.
Analyses
Treating Mixture
40-20-40 M. of W. Coke oven Water gaa
Actual Computed creosote tar tar
Distillation tol 70 deg. C 0.9%
210deg. C 2.5% 2.2% 0.1% 0.5% 5.2%
235 deg. C- 12.8% 12.1% 13.4% 5.7% 14.1%
315 deg. C 41.1% 41.5% 51.8% 19.1% 42.4%
355 deg. C 56.6% 57.8% 72.1%, 29.0% 58.0%
Sp. Gr. at 380 deg. C 1.111 Sp. Gr. at
60 deg. F 1.096 1.207 1.093
Water 1.8% 0.6% 1.9% 0.2%
Sp. Gr. 235 deg.-315 deg. Fraction— 1.024 at 60 deg. C/60 deg. C
The city filtration engineer of Minneapolis, Arthur F. Mellen, reports under date of
October 1, 1940, that 25 of these ties have been removed to date, i. e., after 24 years of
service.
Northern Pacific — Hemlock Test Track
Designated by U. S. Forest Service as Project L-214
1800 Montana-Idaho Hewed and Sawed Ties placed between Mile
Post 120 and Mile Post 121 + 2350. Westward Main Track, Missoula.
Montana.
Treated at Paradise, Montana with 80-20 Creosote-Coal Tar Solu-
tion, 6% pounds per cubic foot. Lowry Process, and placed in track
in 1910.
Summary of Ties by Species
Ponder-
Western Western Douglas
True
White
oaa
Year hemlock
larch
fir
fir
Spruce
pine
pine
Aspen
Total
1910
1,072
436
166
102
18
2
3
1
1,800
Year
Renewals
1917.. _
1
1
1924...
1
1
1926...
4
4
1928...
43
43
1929...
26
8
6
14
5
• 59
1932...
49
9
3
61
1933...
28
8
4
1
1
42
1934...
43
18
1
6
68
1935...
29
9
5
4
47
1936...
42
11
3
1
1
58
1937...
78
24
4
5
4
115
1938...
72
24
1
6
103
1939...
42
16
3
4
1
66
1940...
80
22
5
8
1
116
Total
538
149
32
49
14
1
1
0
784
Per cent
renewed
50.19
34.17
19.28
48.04
77,
.78
50,
.00
33.33
0
43.55
Avg. yrs.
per tie .
25.40
26.32
25.19
24.86
22
.93
30,
.00
26.00
0
25.49
Six ties removed prior to 1928 were broken by derailment. Others all removed account
decay hastened by damage from past derailments and mechanical attrition at rail base.
43.55 per cent renewals in 30 years.
Average life of ties replaced — 25.49 years.
Estimated total life based on Tie-life Curve of the United States Forest Products Labora-
tory— 33 years.
Wood Preservation
499
E ^
o
0) o
y C
ai5
♦J"
_ C
0.5
3j C
•a uj
s! &?=
.i a
u o
as I.
-4-*
c
— <
c
<D 3
o!
3-0
o
it
o
00
O
>>
li
rt
cS
4)
4-1
0)
O
H
!h
i5
m
^
cs
U fr^ t. U t4 f-l
c^ c^ cj ^ Clj c^
<D 4) lU <D <P 4)
c c c s s c
cti cj cd cd cd 7j
o o o o u o
<1> (D 0) tU 0) 0)
ESSSES
'CO 'CO 'CO
4J 4* <X> Q^ 1> 4J
t/2 OJ 50 m 33 M
3 3 3 3 3 3
oi 7i ^ ci d ^
■ o o o o o 'J
:a V <U O <u i> <S>
o ai m Oi 01 11 3i
C) ri aJ cd cd cd cd
■O .CQAA^^
••-' m" m aitn^ — SSz;
3»»«t,ui-t.;,iH
b^^So3rfc«3!aSc!i
'^ « I S >.p^?^>,>>>^
.-.OOO(l)4;4>4J0)CJ
hZZZ'O'O'a'O'a'O
?5 ■»m(MTj<OOM
^H 00 O 1^ ■**• t^
rH M CO M »
z-
050
4)
V
>':t:
b.
U5
4)
rt
rH
•[^
41
W
>>
1
c
n
o
M
(11
?
■O 1
4) >>
m
ki
C Bi 0
OXi
-W
L.
crt
03
4)
1-1
o
,n
4_)
cS
tw
n?
J
O
!ti
3
-^
'O
•n
4)
o
n;.. 03
> m u
500
Wood Preservation
S O 00 U5 «D <-l 00 •* CO
t- g lO 00 00 N •<]< t- 00
a> 0)
.o w^o[-Nco«o
00 Wi-(r-lN
01 S
tSS 0000<St-iO
. c4 ujiaooiaooo
MS O O r-l -^ lO U5 «0
(P M ,-.,-< rH t-H ,-1 ,-1 -H
M -tt 0> 0» 05 0> OS o> o>
"^ 2 i-t iH iH T-( iH tH iH
u
o o o o o o o
d 6 d c) 6 6 o
0) 0) (LI (V (V m V
^, bi b h k. £ i<
ooooooo
N 00 00 00 00 00 00°°
- K X X X «7< X
CI 0> 05 O^ O^ 05 Oi
XX X X X X X
t- C- t- C- t- t- t-
M
WwPMtfWww 2
■( N eo Tf lo «) t>
Wood Preservation
501
^
09 aj
Si >>£3
o-o a i
So
w
OlH
N<0
Oh
tOTjl
t-w
loeo
O05
t-t-
o«
t-tO
'OOoO-<*00
I 00 O o^ Oi ^ t*
I000r-I00050 P 1
I M ea ;o Ti< o to Ti< 00 i i
< rH eo N lo eo N 05
lOOOrHOOrHOOO
OOOOOOOOOOOoO
OOOOOCJTfoO'HCOtDMO
ooa)Oaiasooo;t-'<^Tt
COM O 05 05 O CO t* Tj< W5 00 CO -J o
oi a ^
'^S*2'?"^'^oo500ojooo
bo o ^ ^
^■3 :2 3
3 o o aj -o 13
^ t-NO00p-C0,-(C05^§J
C5 S t*
&<«
ei a
WW
1-S S*J na-wa^
0) 01
'OT3
•c-c
o o
33
u u
u u
B □
T3Xi
o o
33
u u
u u
•C'C
gg
S2
oJS— ° <-'— eD o OS o o
cU o *
_._. bn !>e
" " O. D.-13 -o
ss o) 11 t; t-s —
3333eaea33
01 (U
-0T3
■C-C
o o
33
u u— _, .
.S.S 3o^
N N q q o
oo^^3
o o c c C
^ Oj » o 4; a5<c<C —
o o p o S ti " £■§
ES
> >
O O J
O O j
V V <v
■C-CT
000
CQ CO 00
g 0) 0) J)J^feNE e g
OUOOmmtJWN
CSC
d CD
V 01
c c
502
Wood Preservation
U
^ 5
c«
u>
t
—
(1)
<
11
a>
>.
3
CI]
s
C4
OJ
OT3
C W
c
o
C 3
•-H
3 c«
>.
-M
Tl '^
B
c«
C/D
sn
0) OJ
H
CL,
H
0%j
Oh'
1
H
o
CO
oi
da
S
cj
rO 'OOOO tH TjcO O t-(M
P05 I ■"Ji CO OT CO --H (N <N TO
a> oo oo
1-1 T)ININ?D
iO"^OOO00OO
i-HWi-li-lOO i^muj t-tooso c-
lOOO
lO'^OOtfJTfOOOO
ii-neaco I »o o 00 lo iAc^o o o o
I 1 iH .-H CO CO CO ^ lO lO
^OOOOOONOOrJiOOOO
^oooot-oio-^ot-ooujMoco
lO -^ Tj* -^ CO lO -^ CO CO C^ T-f CO
Nooooooosoo;ocooooo
?;ES;2;^SS;z;E:2;Eft52;E^S
> >
=5S O O.
3s&&'S'E = soogE£g
3333Mt«33^^3333
o o
o o
oo 2 2 ^ ^
oooo c« c! ? V ; ; ; ;
• • CO. I 1 I I
oo^^.-SlS ."2:232
cjoYiCJCJCJOcjc^i
O O ^ ^ .pH .1-1 -rH .1-1 .r-l •« ^
IMINMOTSlSlSllSISINt
■5^
rt o
fa *^
•S §
o c
CD .
a.s
3 :5^
■3 »; S o
> > E 11
t: C ^ r^
" >- 2 «
« <L 85
CV3 <D c«
.2 >>"-^
fto o o
.C O C< M
O tflTJ
■ -- +J g *->
3 3 ^ S
m o o 5
-glials
hi S-2 9
s " 5 o
O 4^ CD +j
V <u X a
.SCO —
tx
.
.!i
n
ja
*j
s
ii
M
CD
>
0
01
3
0
c
_-
f1
S " 3 'S
— C to— 3>«
+J o +^ 07! o
lso2-S=
■S =«-ic SS
MWHcog^<;
Wood Preservation
503
ooo o
o loeo t-50O
N rtT-ll-ll-(
«>MOOeo
<>a
o * -•
.S " e
•O Oh
c u
■3 *
•-)
^
p
M
<
Oh
s
e
W "
»
U ;z;
S
« 0
M
-tJ •
< a
f
P
•Sl^
^§1^
0 S
S
s
>
<
"■5 ■ 3
?*>«
■«!!
H^
8
B
0
., w
■S
flH
B
e
s
U
■a
!;;i
£
S
s
t-eoin
CO 01 Tji
eowN
Mosoeo^'H
■<)> lO t- N N U5
to ^ 1-1
OONOO-iMlO
;o c-os t^oooo
•"feocoOiH
■>t!Oi-(N-H
00 Tji T)> 00 c-
10 COtH t-
M ,rt r^rtO
iNOi-iO 0;D
rH I iN r^
0000 ^
Oi ii-( itHNOS tH itDC~.-irt05O
« eoiooo 4; 00
00 1- ■<)• 10 05 a> J Tf 10 N 10 05 1-1 05 00 S!
cc ■* ■"J O! 05 05 » o 05 «D N ov ■"
o o o o
0000
CO i-H rt "-I r-"
. . •(
ooc
10
."2 o o
o o o
e^<T> "^ e^oooi^ooooo 0000
lOC-« 10 ■qi lOOOOCOiOoff- TO'S'O""
005 I 000)0 0-. t-Oo I OOOiO
o « o
•OTST!
4) a> a> a* 0^ ^*-' ™^
o C8 C9 * c« £ .
00 ^ ^ Q* 0- p 5;;
es d CQ k. ee cd
3 3 3 tp--^.^
00000
(D O 4) d) Q>
00000
d d d c c5 o
.^.i; o o o t) « W
^j: ■"
■£0 CJ o o o o^
vt; • r; O o o o O ft
O * o;.='35.C a-
U C CJ
|8g-g
*^ .S CO
►J§>Ph
o <v
S 5°
■o .3
— U5
nco
"43 ^H
bo o
c ■"
So
go.
* —
■♦J ^
fc.
O («
— o
•o "
Eo
U3
"35
^ 0. c c
.5 c c c
«.s I ^ si «
c_, 3 oQ k. r.'n .p
g-gS « 2
'C 73 'O "U
(U 0^ 01 IL
504
Wood Preservation
o3
o"
o
iz; i-H
.5 .5t3
oi u, a <i>
.2 °.Sta
gS?
o CO CO
a s
M ;o o>
W r-l 00
CO I CO
t> 00
1-19
too
j;^ N
«ES H-
g^
^ tj" ■"
H- b
as
H S
2 g ° cS > a-"
Q> ^ c m '^ . ^
•< oJ+^ ft —
H 00 00
w w
tf «
« rt
w a
« tf
H«
w w
tf w
«&5
sg
I^ Er
pc<P^
*^a
t> O S'lO o
o) a> (3 a> 0) ja
•^■||-2|'|
lO o
N >0
ii-o
C5 «
£vO e ciio CI
« •£ ^ — to ^ -" to ^
*• g'^e^'d ftS^Ts ft
. o o in
Wr-I iO
bOft'O
o
«3
Wood Preservation
SOS
•3
S
St
V, o
^ c «
" n -
m u E
w-O o
ooooeo
00 m I— ca t-
o ooo •>*
o-^ootoN
1-1 OJNIN
lO(MS»-«"rH 1-1
OOOOTO O) O lO
■<ii;doooco o 00 -h
t-0O'^!D;D 00 03 OJ
CO ^ C*4 CO CO CO
oooi'^ooaj
-.tcoc--*-*
NoO'^oco
ootoooooo
Tf CO O ■* Tjl
o o oooi i^io
CO ooooo t- 1*
CO 00 (N c- 00 r-i
ooootooo
coiOrHinco
coioNcoeo
U QD Tf 03 O l£i t< 00«0"3C-ir5 V CO
U V ^<
«CO'-''*'*S^ *cOt:-OiCO00(M ._£■
OOtO-^OOtO 05 o>00«>lO-*t- "i 00
CO COt-00O3O5O5
<u G ta O
OON0300
f. OOi-iiMOOtJI ♦»oo
H
u
2 g „ S ?: ft'
(2 ^^
5>ioN&^?-o>^osO>i^--5' HNogc-tooo hoi'^NC-'O'-" v"^
-M 04 c^ lo o^ CO 00 <;o w CO Oi w 00
KSSS
S (Ih »lj IIh
04 CO Ofl 04 C4 — ^
o o o o o ^
V 0) 0) V a> o
gesgs
i:; *
ww^="ww
J, -o
^ a
PL,[i,;I;,p^pq » pq H
£5:
3:3
■53 ^ '3 '00
; 3 e "^ , 2
T3 a)-o *''0 "1''0 **
■g E'gE'g S"g S
£ a3 sS 3^ 3
0-3 Oq u-5 0-3
wHNNt
fi,Pt,Pnfefe p^fafePupt,
3 ja X
^ ^ '^ "o "o
;&
-0 73-0 -S
rt Cl y y y •
o o c c c*;
506
Wood Preservation
i,H KMNNIM
05 O 00 CO C- r-( t-
;0 in T)i to lo CO N
to in i-KD U5 CO CC
.HO KDCOOt-
COMCOCO w*
It- CD
ilMCO
I C-O lOOO
I eO rH lO ■*
O t-fJOON
o
tHN
00 OS
N t--*00 0Or-(
Tf t>05
H
(3
^
■HIM
<ONtH CO
,-H -^Ji N t- «5 ■-I
>
<3
u
y
>*
a
|4
«D OIM'H lOlOO
01
otooooco-*
(N OONO W
.M 0005IM
"iBOOTtKMOlO _,
0) aiMIM tOCTl J2
05 1- 1- oi in "^
u O
O CO
+J> CO
2<ii
» o
3'
IS
.S"o
rt
lA
M .So; ft'43
*< SN 5 c g
o-=o
W'^K
•"* t-
O 5(N
i2 g
'-SO
a OJ
o° s
5"a
2! c
O ca
f^.a
1=^^ o _ u
iin^ m g_
-iH t3 ^
^ ca M ca-2 2
" o c 3- cij m
om
kO Ci f-H CD c^ c~ (M OS L^ L^ wi U.J ^' •* .^ ^ r>; IX
y^ M M 3 a O O
^ t-t>eoNt-oto
f- t-ooint-r;S «
^ *n .^ 1,-. *M (— 1 to CO flj
■*(S-*inNinN tc c- in N o <D CO
^MW^
^^ j:!^^^^
[£| pL| pE< p^ pL, ^ pLl
tMW
'-g^^^i
i m -w
+^ -"^ jj jj
ca ca.tJ.ti
S S c c
H C (D 0,
S 2 » M
jaja ca ca
U U I I
_ _ 01 a)
E £ E g
.2.2
, t'o'o S S
i-^
a^ ^ ^ a ft
CO c ca ca m M
bfl^ T3 T3 be bo
£3 , 01 0) C C
WfefefeHH
- «, "i "S II -
.2c E E " o^o
O '^'^3 43 o O O
y tH QJ QJ y o o
■*fS.2.s c c*;
o O o
ca ca ca
o o o
ca ja^
lo
PON
ca,H
aj 01
r?-C?T7 -a
0)^
c.S
O'O
u ca
5P§
vf^ .S
0) ca
; ca 0)
_ 0) 0) 5
^ C Jj o
II M o ca
M H_: M
hH " ca-*
..bo ^
to c<^-g
.■file's*! "
3 5 4J II *3 -" — ca
-S=wS-§c °
S^-^iJc Eg pt
^<-
1^ • E
S^3
C J 01
Wood Preservation
507
e:
e
<a
5 g © w
U^
W H
A>
o <
a
< -^
as ><
. <
SI
6^
9 P
n
3U
° 2;
O Q
U
2^ «
2 '^ c
rt a» >
a J6 «
O g .2 °^
rt-O
1"^
o s
00 >n
oro
^ C^ CO ^ CO rH
ECO OS t-
•z,
11 ocoio
o . . .
t. U5C0OJ
g lO
lO ^J -^ o t-
g ooco
CJO
CI 05 Oi -1"^
O ^ O -rf CI
O ^ CO O 00
^ ^ N -<
t-CO
O O OT3 3
o* a* 4* C j^
u o o °*
t. t. L. S* •-
a ta 01 -g ii
— — — o -c
d A rt 1; Q.
O O O L. m
oooo <
■r c j;
1^1 I s^
c ■2, ^-^
3e
0) dj e
■a o
o D
s£-3
ca " «
^ « c
_ 0) ■- O
~ a> - _
.^^ o o 0^ oj -
Mfc, > 3^
C o-i C K c
go C -^ ■!-> 4J
p •- ^ "5 " -5
^ CT3t3 "t3
&« =a c.S c
h cO< ><
_ HI - ,, 'C ..
508 Wood Preservation
Report on Assignment 3
Piling Used For Marine Construction
W. G. Atwood (chairman, subcommittee), C. S. Burt, W. F. Clapp, E. A. Craft, John
Foley, H. E. Horrocks, A. L. Kammerer, A. M. Knowles, F. B. Robins, Hermann
von Schrenk.
The committee submits a report of the results of the inspections of the test pieces
under its supervision, together with such information on the subject assigned to it as
has come to its knowledge.
Turpentine Wood
The specimens in the Canal Zone show Httle change in the last year. The heaviest
attack was by the pholads.
The Southern Pacific Company reports on the condition of 32 turpentine wood
piles in a pier at Oakland, Calif. No teredo attack is evident. Six of these piles show no
limnoria attack, 3 a Ught and 7 a moderate limnoria attack and 16 a heavy Umnoria
attack. This entire attack is in the sapwood and on one or two piles the sapwood is
nearly eaten off.
Panama Canal
The report by Mr. James Zetek has been made available through the courtesy of
Brigadier General Glenn B. Edgerton, governor of the Canal Zone. The inspections were
made October 2 and the report is quoted below:
We encountered considerable silt, especially in the center well of dock 10,
and Mr. Olsen will shorten the chains enough to keep the timbers free from silt.
It would appear that the upper and middle wells are fast filling with silt and this
will interfere with our tests.
The results this year are particularly interesting. The highly resistant timbers
from Dutch Guiana, New South Wales, the Phihppines, Sumatra and the Celebes,
show practically no change from last year. The teredo is not able to make much
headway, they are few in number, and small in size, confined close to the sur-
faces. The gribble {Limnoria Ugnorum Rathke) is relatively unimportant except
in a few cases. The really destructive agents are the two boring clams, Martesia
striata L, and Hiata infelix Zetek and McLean. In some timbers these can be
considered as plentiful. Although necessarily confined to the surfaces, their work,
because of the size and shape of the cavity they inhabit, extends inward at least
one inch. This year I found few live pholads, and I believe the silt killed off
most of them. Even the gribble seems to have been affected by the silt.
Neither Sphaeroma nor Chelura were found.
The only treated timber, Chemonite (No. 2447), in rack 1721-31 was re-
moved from the test, being thoroughly invaded by teredo.
Perhaps the most interesting results were found in the two 10 x 5 x 48-in.
pieces of red mangrove, which were installed April 19, 1940, only five months
ago. Both showed what I consider to be an active teredo invasion. It is only a
question of time, brief at that, so that it would appear that red mangrove is
not resistant to teredo. Samples of this same lot of red mangrove in our termite
resistance showed last month active attack by Coptotermes niger.
The two pieces of red mangrove in racks 16 and 17 had a species of teredo
which is different from those known from this region. The pallets are large and
massive, not frail, 3.5 cm. long. This same species was collected by me several
years ago and was sent to Dr. Paul Bartsch of the U. S. National Museum who
at the time said it was new but as yet did not describe it. This one was found
where there was much silt. (Fig. 1)
Wood Preservation
509
Fig. 1.
A — Untreated Timbers
1609-2 Anoura, Conepia sp., Dutch Guiana, submerged September 13, 1923
(Rack 26). Some silt. Considerable marine growth. Gribble damage about the
same, worse on one face, about J/^ in. deep. Both pholads present, plentiful.
Teredo as before, not many, small close to surfaces. Most of the destruction is
due to the pholads and gribble. The timber, except for this external deterioration
is very sound.
1612-3 Basra-Locus (ANGELIQUE), Dicornia paraensis Bentham, Dutch
Guiana (Rack 29), submerged September 13, 1923. Some silt. Fair amount of
marine growth, especially sponges. Gribble not serious, less than in Anoura. Both
pholads quite plentiful, also working on the cut face. Teredos are small, few in
number (more so than in Anoura), but all seem to be confined close to the
surfaces. Except for this surface work the timber is very sound.
1608^ Foengo, Parinarium campestre Aubl., Dutch Guiana, submerged Sep-
tember 13, 1923 (Rack 32). Some silt. Marine growth abundant, especially
sponges. Gribble about as in Anoura, one face is badly attacked but in general
progress is slow; working also on the cut face. Teredoes few in number, small,
close to surfaces. Both pholads plentiful, also starting on the cut face. Except
for the surface damage, this timber is very sound.
1610-S Sponse Hoedoe, Licania macrophylla Bentham, Dutch Guiana, sub-
merged September 13, 1923 (Rack 33). Much silt. Marine growth very plentiful
on all surfaces. Gribble attack about as in Basra Locus, one face considerably
worn away, about ^ in.; also on cut face. Pholads are quite abundant and have
started on the cut face. Teredos are confined close to the surfaces, few in number,
small in size. Otherwise the timber is very sound.
1613-7 Manbarklak, Eschwilera longipes Miers., Dutch Guiana, submerged
September 13, 1923 (Rack 34). Marine growth plentiful. Some silt. Gribble
damage very hght except on one face; cut face free of attack. It would seem that
the gribble works very slowly on this timber. Both pholads fairly abundant.
Teredos small, few in number, close to surfaces. Except as noted, the timber is
very sound.
1606-9 Malabayabas, Tristania decorticata Merr., Philippine Islands, sub-
merged September 13, 1923 (Rack 35). Marine growth scant. Some silt. Gribble
damage is light, slightly more so on one face. Teredos seem to be all small, unim-
510 Wood Preservation
portant, few in number, close to surfaces. Both pholads are abundant, also on
the cut face. Pholads cause most of the deterioration; otherwise this timber is
very sound.
1615-11 Kajol Lara, Metrosideros Sp., Celebes, submerged October 26, 1925
(Rack 36). Considerable silt. Marine growth, especially sponges, fairly abundant.
Gribble work very light. Teredos few in number, close to surfaces, all small. Both
pholads present but few in number. This timber is in exceptionally good shape.
1616-12 Kajol Malas, Parastemon urophyllum, Sumatra, submerged October
26, 1925 (Rack 23). Some silt. Marine growth pronounced, especially oysters and
ascidians. Gribble hght, more on one face, and more than on Kajol Lara. Both
pholads are represented only in very limited number. Teredos unimportant, small,
close to surfaces. Timber very sound.
1637-13 Kolaka, Celebes, submerged April 15, 1932 (Rack 13). Very much
silt. Marine growth, especially bryozoa, plentiful. Gribble work very light almost
nil, cut surface practically not attacked. Both pholads present in small number.
Teredos not important, all small and close to surfaces. Timber very sound.
1617-14 Alcornoque, Dimorphandra mora B. & H., Panama (all heartwood),
submerged September 22, 1927 (Rack 14). Very much silt. Marine growth very
abundant. Both pholads present, not plentiful, more on one face. Gribble work
is very hght. Teredos seem to be very limited in number, all close to surfaces, all
small. The surfaces of this timber are in quite good shape. Timber very sound.
1625-22 Brush Box, New South Wales, submerged April 19, 1929 (Rack 22).
Some silt. Marine growth fairly plentiful. Gribble work almost nil except one
face (not heavy, however) ; cut face almost none. Both pholads few in number.
Teredos seem to be scant in number, near the surface, and all small. Timber
very sound.
1645-16 Red Mangrove, Rhizophora mangle L., Colombia (Pacific Side),
10 X 5 X 48 in., submerged April 19, 1940 (Rack 16). Very much silt, resting on
bottom. Marine growth nil. Gribble nil. No pholads observed. Teredos very
abundant, seems to be a very healthy attack. Surfaces have great numbers of tiny
holes and in those could be seen the ends of the pallets of the teredos. One edge
has many teredos 3/16 to 5/16 in. diameter from which I extracted pallets for
purposes of identification. These pallets agree with those of a new species col-
lected a few years ago. These pallets are 3.5 cm. long, massive and rugged, not
frail. As soon as this species is identified (or described since it is undoubtedly a
new species) its name will be given in a supplementary report.
There can be no question but that this timber was attacked by teredo in
our waters and that this red mangrove is not as resistant to teredo as it is
reputed to be. I did not feel justified to chop into either of these two samples, but
next year we should remove one of these for a thorough examination. The teredo
is in both heart and sapwood.
B — Treated Timbers
1721-31 Chemonite Treatment, Southern Yellow Pine (2447), 6 in. diam. by
7 ft. long submerged March 12, 1937 (Rack 31). Considerable silt. Much marine
growth, especially sponges, oysters and bryozoa. The timber was removed from
the test and the attached ^photographs give testimony to the thoroughness of the
work of the teredos, more pronounced than No. 2468 reported in last year's
supplement to the 1939 Annual Report. Test closed.
Chemical Warfare Service Specimens
Series No. 1
No. 1. 1 percent ammoniacal copper carbonate. Only two pieces remain. The one
at San Juan, P. R., shows no change. The one at Oakland Pier, San Francisco bay shows
a very light limnoria attack.
No. 2. 1 percent diphenylamine in creosote. There is no change in the piece at
San Juan. There is no attack on the piece at Oakland Pier and a very light attack
by limnoria on the piece at Peralta Wharf. The untreated control pieces at Oakland Pier
showed a light attack by hmnoria and a few teredo. The similar pieces at Peralta Wharf
had a heavy attack by limnoria, teredo and Bankia.
* Photographs omitted from this report.
Wood Preservation Sll
Series No. 2
The specimens in this series were treated at Edgewood Arsenal by the Chemical
Warfare Service in 1931. Control pieces were treated with AREA No. 1 creosote. Several
series of five pieces each were treated with AREA No. 1 creosote to which had been
added various proportions of methyl arsenious oxide, diphenylamine chlorarsene, and
dinitrophenol. A similar series was treated with fuel oil to which the same chemicals
were added.
A long series of experiments at the Edgewood Arsenal had indicated that these
chemicals were lethal to both the teredine and crustacean borers. The purpose of the
tests was to find out whether fuel oil to which any of these chemicals had been added
would resist attack and whether their addition to creosote would increase its resistance
to attack. Unfortunately the treating was not well done and while the treatment was
to refusal the end penetration was small. The first attack on all the pieces was in the
lightly treated ends.
Reports have been made annually since the tests were installed in 1931 and 1932.
Test pieces have been so badly damaged at the Panama Canal Zone, The Cavite Naval
Station and the Puget Sound Navy Yard that the tests were closed. The reports this
year from the Pearl Harbor Navy Yard show that the destruction has been so heavy
that the remaining pieces may well be discarded and the test stopped at that location.
The inspection report from Fort Tilden, N. Y., shows little change in the condition
of the test pieces since last year though the untreated control pieces were destroyed. All
the pieces treated with fuel oil carrier have been heavily attacked but have some little
strength left after nine years immersion. The untreated controls have been destroyed and
replaced several times.
The report on the pieces at Castle Pinckney, in the harbor of Charleston, S. C,
states that the pieces treated with straight creosote and with creosote to which methyl
arsenious oxide had been added have been 75 percent destroyed and will probably be
entirely gone in another year. The pieces to which dinitrophenol had been added to
the creosote are reported to be SO percent destroyed but no distinction is made between
those to which 0.77 percent and 2>4 percent had been used.
The Coast Guard report on the pieces at San Juan, P. R., states that there is no
change in condition since last year.
The Naval Air Station at Pensacola, Fla., reports that the inspection shows that
the heavy limnoria attack on the ends of the creosoted pieces continues and that there
is some teredo attack in the same places. All pieces show some limnoria attack on the
sides. It would appear that the pieces treated with cresote to which dinitrophenol had
been added were less heavily attacked than the others. Those containing lYz percent
dinitrophenol were in the best condition.
The pieces at Oakland Pier showed no new attack on the creosoted pieces but a
heavy limnoria and a light teredo attack on the oil treated pieces. The untreated controls
showed a heavy limnoria attack.
At Peralta Wharf three of the creosoted pieces showed a light limnoria attack on
the sides and a heavy one on the ends while the one with 2>2 percent dinitrophenol
added to the creosote showed no new attack on the sides and a light limnoria attack
on the ends. The oil treated pieces showed a heavy limnoria and a light Bankia attack.
The untreated controls showed a heavy limnoria attack and some attack by teredo and
Bankia.
The report from the Pearl Harbor Navy Yard showed that the pieces treated with
creosote and creosote with methyl arsenious oxide were not in as good condition as those
treated with creosote and dinitrophenol. Pieces in the best condition were those treated
with creosote and 2J/2 percent dinitrophenol.
San Francisco Bay Tests
The test pieces prepared by the Barrett Manufacturing Co. were placed in test at
Pier 7 San Francisco in January 1923 and moved to Oakland Pier in 1925. They show
little change in condition since the last report. A few of them showed a slightly increased
limnoria attack. The untreated control pieces showed a moderately heavy limnoria attack.
512 Wood Preservation
Test Piles
At Tiburon two of the piles are missing, one shows no sign of deterioration, four of
them have been attacked, one of which is nearly cut off.
At San Pedro there are three of the Long Wharf piles originally driven in 1890.
Two of these are intact and the third has lost 30 percent of its section by limnoria
attack. Two piles treated in 1919 are so placed that the mud line is exposed at low tide.
There is no attack on these piles.
At Long Beach one of the 1890 piles was lost by accident, one is intact, and the
third has been 30 percent destroyed by hmnoria. The one Long Wharf pile originally
driven in 1901 has been 80 percent eaten away by hmnoria. The two 1919 piles show
some attack at the low water line.
New England Report
The operation and regular inspection of the many test boards and blocks was
continued. Reports follow:
At Corner Brook, Newfoundland, there was a very marked decrease in the intensity
of attack. A large part of the wharf area has been filled, covering the piles, and those
not covered have been replaced by creosoted piles.
At Liverpool, N. S., teredo have been very active at locations where they did not
appear at all from 1935 to 1938 and where there were very few in 1938.
At Luneberg teredo have been and are very active.
A diver's inspection was made of two wharves at Searsport, Me., which were built
on creosoted piles with 16 lb. treatment in 1925 and one wharf built in 1932 on oak
piles with the bark left on. The creosoted piles showed no damage from teredo and
penetration by limnoria in a few places to a depth of from 54 to Yt, in. The oak piles
in the adjoining wharf showed an average reduction of section of about 25 percent
while some spruce piles driven at the same time were entirely destroyed.
Limnoria are very destructive in the harbor of Portland, Me., but teredo, while
present do little or no damage at the present time. A diver's inspection of the piles
under two wharves on islands in the harbor, where to all appearances the conditions
are the same, show opposite results. These wharves were built on oak piles with the
bark left on in 1909. One of them was uninjured and the other was practically destroyed
by limnoria. No teredo were found.
There has been Uttle change in conditions between Portland and Cape Cod though
there seems to be a trend toward increasing activity by teredo and limnoria.
Teredo have appeared in the upper harbor of Providence, R. I., but have, as yet
done little damage.
Examinations made of the untreated piles in several wharves in Narraganset bay
have shown heavy attack by teredo, limnoria and chelura.
At Saybrook, Conn., the damage done by teredo is increasing rapidly. The salinity,
at one stage of the tide, falls to 3 parts per 1,000 and rises to full ocean salinity at
another stage.
Many piles have been examined on Fishers, Plum and Gull islands in Long Island
sound. There is a heavy attack by chelura and in some places by teredo.
All three species of borers continue to be active in New London harbor and teredo
have become plentiful as far up the river as Allyn's Point.
New York Investigation
The study of test boards, the examination of piles in various parts of the harbor,
and the study of water analyses has been continued. The committee in charge does not
think that there is any valuable information available for publication.
"Sea Action Committee"
This committee of the Institution of Engineers, London, has recently issued its
18th interim report. This report is a discussion of the results of the 5, 10, and IS-year
corrosion tests which have been referred to in the reports of this committee from time
to time.
Wood Preservation 513
The test pieces were placed at Halifax, N. S., Auckland, N. Z., Colombo, Ceylon,
and Portsmouth, England. Three sets were placed above high tide, three at half tide
and three fully immersed at each of the cities indicated. One set was removed at each
place at the end of 5, 10, and IS years and sent to laboratories in England for examina-
tion. Each set was made up of three irons, several commercial steels of varying composi-
tions, two copper-bearing steels, chromium and nickel steels and cast irons.
The results were extremely variable. Some of the materials that gave the best
results above high water did not show as well as some others at half tide or completely
immersed and some that showed best in temperate zone harbors did not do so well in
tropical harbors.
The information in this report is of great value, but it must be used with care
and with reference to the climate in which the structure is to be built. It is not possible
to condense the information in such an abstract as can be here presented.
Summary
The test pieces prepared by the Chemical Warfare Service have not given the
information that was hoped for when they were prepared, principally because the treat-
ment was defective at the ends. The borers attacked the ends and opened up an easy
zone of attack of which all borers present took advantage.
It would probably be safe to say that the life of timber in badly infested water is
somewhat prolonged by treatment with fuel oil to which 2J^ percent of dinitrophenol
has been added. This treatment is more effective against teredo navalis than it is against
some other species of borers. It is not so effective against limnoria. This type of treat-
ment might be useful for the treatment of piles to be used in temporary structures,
especially if the price of creosote were high. The other chemicals tried gave some pro-
tection but did not seem as effective as dinitrophenol.
The imperfect end treatment will prevent the gaining of much information with
regard to the creosoted pieces. The destruction through the ends will be so great before
the attack on the periphery goes far that no conclusions can be drawn. There are some
indications that the addition of 2^ percent dinitrophenol does add to the resistance of
creosote but that can not be said with certainty.
The Panama Canal tests of tropical timbers show clearly that there are a number
of timbers which have a high resistance to attack by the species present in the
Canal Zone.
This report is offered as information. It is recommended that the subject be continued.
Report on Assignment 5
Destruction By Termites and Possible Ways o£ Prevention
Hermann von Schrenk (chairman, subcommittee), W. G. Atwood, E. A. Craft, W. F.
Clapp, John Foley, A. M. Knowles, F. D. Mattos, F. B. Robins, W. A. Summerhays.
The committee on termites has continued its investigations as to methods for pre-
venting the attack of these insects. There is Uttle to add this year to the recommendations
made in previous reports. The experimental installation at Florissant, Mo., is as yet
too recent to warrant pulHng up the stakes. Some of them may possibly be pulled
during the coming year, but that will be decided after further consideration by the
committee.
514 Wood Preservation
One matter which the committee wishes again to stress is the importance of the
proper installation of termite shields. Numerous cases have come to the committee's
attention where termites have gotten into buildings, in spite of the fact that they were
supposed to be protected by termite shields. Examination in these cases has shown that
the shields were not properly applied. Shields to be effective must cover the entire
foundation wall, top of posts, under stairways, etc.; the horizontal surface of the shield
must project three inches from the edge of the wall or pier. It should then be bent at
a 45-deg. angle for a distance of three inches. If the shields are bent down at the edge
of the wall or pier, the termites can fill in the space between the vertical part of the
wall and the shield, and thus get on top of the shield. There must be a three inch space
between the point where the shield is bent and the vertical wall. There must also be at
least three inches between the point where the shield is bent and the end of the shield.
Another point in connection with shield failure is that frequently shields are put in
in short lengths and the end of one shield is simply put on top of the next shield. This
makes the shield useless because termites will get in at the joint. All shields laid next to
each other should be soldered so as to make a continuous piece of metal.
This report is presented as information with the recommendation that the subject
be continued.
Report of Committee 12 — Rules and Organization
W. T. DoRRANCE, Chairman, W. O. Cudworth B. R. Kulp
J. B. Akers G. H. Harris C. H. Mottier
W. C. Barrett G. W. Harris R. C. White
D. P. Beach E. M. Hastings F. B. Wiegand
Richard Brooke A. A. Jackson Committee.
To the American Railway Engineering Association:
Your committee reports on the following subjects:
1. Revision of Manual.
The committee recommends the elimination of all material heretofore adopted by the
Association on the recommendation of Committee 12 and pubhshed in the 1929 Manual
and supplements thereto, and withheld from publication in the present Manual by order
of the Board of Direction.
2. Prepare rules and regulations for the guidance of employees of the maintenance
of way department, collaborating with appropriate standing committees.
The committee offers as a substitute for the above deleted material the following
material as found in the report.
The Committee on Rules and Organization,
W. T. Dorrance, Chairman.
RULES AND REGULATIONS GOVERNING MAINTENANCE OF
WAY AND STRUCTURES EMPLOYEES
I GENERAL
GENERAL NOTICE
Safety is of the first importance in the discharge of duty.
Obedience to the rules is essential to safety.
To enter or remain in the service is an assurance of willingness to obey the rules.
The service demands the faithful, intelligent and courteous discharge of duty.
EMPLOYMENT, PROMOTION AND DISCIPLINE
1. Application for Employment. — Employees must pass the required examinations.
2. Employment of Minors. — Minors must not be employed, except as allowed by
law, and then only after written consent and release on the proper form has been
obtained from parents or guardians.
3. Physical Defects. — A person whose hearing, sight or color perception is known to
be defective must not be employed in any capacity where such defect may endanger the
safety of persons or property.
4. Promotion. — Employees will be regarded as in line of promotion. Their advance-
ment will be dependent upon the faithful, intelligent and courteous discharge of duty
and capacity for increased responsibility.
Bulletin 423, February, 1941.
SIS
516 Rules and Organization ^_^
5. Requirements for Promotion. — No appointment or promotion to the position of
foreman or assistant foreman will be made until the applicant has been examined as to
his knowledge and understanding of all rules which relate to his duty, and has received
a certificate of qualification signed by the proper officer.
6. Re-employment. — Employees whose duties are prescribed by these rules, if dis-
missed, will not be re-employed without the approval of the proper officer.
7. Discipline Record. — Employees are subject to record discipline, suspension or
dismissal for cause.
CONDUCT
20. General C onduct .—Civil, gentlemanly deportment is required of all employees
in their intercourse with the public, their subordinates and each other.
21. Carelessness. — Employees who are careless of the safety of themselves or others
will be subjected to proper discipline.
22. Use of Intoxicants and Narcotics. — The use of intoxicants or narcotics is
prohibited.
Responsibilities and Restrictions
30. Books of Rules and Regulations. — Employees whose duties are prescribed by
these rules and regulations must provide themselves with copies. They must familiarize
themselves with the rules and regulations affecting their duties, whether or not they
appear under the head of their specific duties, and must be prepared to pass an examina-
tion on them at any time. If in doubt as to the exact meaning of any rule or regulation
they must apply to the proper authority for explanation.
31. Devote Services Exclusively to Company. — Employees must devote themselves
exclusively to the service of the Company, and must not connect themselves with any
other trade or business without permission from the proper officer.
32. Attend to Duties. — Employees must attend to their duties during prescribed
hours, and obey promptly instructions of their superiors.
33. Absence from Duties. — Employees must not absent themselves from duty with-
out permission. They must not exchange duties with others, or engage substitutes without
proper authority.
34. Leave Address. — Employees must leave their address with the proper officer or
head of department, and give prompt notice of any change of residence.
35. Assignment of Wages. — Employees must not, without proper authority, assign
their wages.
36. Incurring Company Obligations. — Employees must not incur any obligation on
account of the Company, or use the Company's credit, unless authorized by the proper
officer.
37. Sale of Company Properly. — Employees must not sell or in any way dispose of
Company property except by proper authority.
38. Receiving Fees and Contributions, — Employees must not ask for or accept fees
or commissions from subordinates, fellow employees, patrons of the Company or the
public.
39. Color of Garments. — Employees working on or about the track must not wear
red outer garments which might be mistaken for signals.
40. Experimental Installations. — Employees must not permit, except by proper
authority, experimental trials of appliances or devices, nor give out information of the
result of any such trial. They must not answer communications from manufacturers of
Rules and Organization 517
or dealers in tools or appliances but should forward such communications to their
immediate superior with complete expression of views.
41. Railroad Records. — Those who are entrusted with the records of the Company
must not permit unauthorized persons to have access thereto; or without proper
authority, must not divulge any of the Company's affairs.
42. Cooperation. — Cooperation is required between all employees whose work or
duties may be jointly affected.
43. Switch Keys. — Any employee whose duties require, will be provided with a
switch key, for which a receipt will be taken. In case key is lost, or not returned upon
leaving the service dollars will be deducted from the amount due him.
Employees must keep their switch keys in their possession at all times. Under no circum-
stances will they give the key to any person, other than a substitute foreman or allow
anyone to use it for them.
44. Return of Railroad Property. — The articles furnished by the Company for the
use of employees must, on their leaving the service, be returned to the proper officer.
45. Misuse of Coal. — Employees must not take revenue coal for any purpose, nor
Company coal, except when so authorized.
46. Railroad Mail. — Letters of a personal nature must not be sent by railroad mail,
as it is a violation of the U. S. postal laws.
Conduct of Work
50. Jurisdiction of Officers. — Employees whose duties require service on more than
one division or district are under the jurisdiction of the officers of the division or district
on which the service is being performed.
51. Obeying Calls from Trainmen. — Should trains be delayed by accident or from
other cause, the conductor is authorized to call on any employee for assistance.
52. Handling Su^iicAc^.— Immediately upon closing and locking a main track switch,
the employee doing so must observe that the points fit properly. Main track switches
must not be unlocked or handled within view of approaching trains.
53. Obstructing View of Switches. — Employees must not stand where they will
obstruct the view of a switch-stand from passing trains and should not stand within
feet of a switch when a train is approaching or passing.
54. Not Throw Switches for Trainmen. — Except to prevent accident, employees must
not handle switches for trainmen or switch tenders.
55. Train in Both Directions. — Trains may be run at any time, upon any track in
either direction, without notice to employees. Employees must be governed accordingly
and exercise proper care to avoid accident.
56. Observe Signals on Trains. — Employees must observe signals displayed by all
trains and assure themselves before obstructing track that all scheduled trains and
sections due have passed.
57. Watching Passing Trains. — Employees must observe trains closely, and if any-
thing dangerous is noted, such as loose wheel, broken wheel flange, broken rim, hot box,
defective coupling, dragging equipment, badly pounding wheel, shifted load in open-top
car; or if trains are running too closely together, must call attention of train and
enginemen to the fact by signal ; and failing to accomplish this, must notify the dispatcher.
58. Working During Fogs. — Work should not be done on track or track structures
during fogs or heavy storms, but when unavoidable, the greatest care must be taken to
insure full protection to men and trains.
59. Protection of Company Property. — In case of danger to the Company's prop-
erty, employees must unite to protect it. They must report promptly to their superior
518 Rules and Organization
officers any apparently unauthorized encroachment upon or occupancy of company prop-
erty. Supervisory officers should familiarize themselves with the boundary lines of the
Company's property and must not permit encroachment or occupancy of Companj-
property except upon proper authority.
60. Protection of Wires. — Wires found broken must be repaired temporarily or
fastened to clear other wires when such wires are safe to handle, and reported to dis-
patcher by telegraph or telephone. Dispatcher must also be advised promptly of damaged
wires which cannot be repaired temporarily. Location of train-order wires must be
known and preference be given to repairing them. Dead and leaning trees which may
endanger wires during storms should be removed. In case they are not located on the
right-of-way, efforts should be made to obtain permission from owner of land to remove
them.
61. Wire Service. — Employees must not use the telegraph unnecessarily. All messages
must be as brief as is consistent with a clear understanding of their meaning. Messages
referring to personal affairs are not to be offered for transmission on Company wires,
except in case of accident or sickness.
62. Position of Derail. — Employees must notice side track derails and see that they
are set to derail and locked in that position.
63. Re-lighting Signal Lamps. — An employee finding an oil-burning signal or switch
lamp not burning between sunset and sunrise, must light it immediately and report it to
the section foreman or signal maintainer.
64. Keep Stock off Right-of-way. — Employees must drive stock off the right-of-way
and close any farm gates left open.
Reports
70. Reporting Nonobservance of Signals. — Disregard of stop or caution signals,
excessive speed of trains, or failure to answer signals properly must be reported, with a
full statement of facts.
71. Reporting Violation of Rules. — Any violations of the rules, regulations or in-
structions, or any misconduct, irregularities or negligence affecting the interest of the
Company must be reported.
72. Reporting Defects. — Any defect discovered in track, bridge or signals, any failure
of fuel or water supply, or any other condition noted, that may hinder the movement of
trains, must be reported promptly by wire to the proper officers. In case the passage of
trains is endangered, employees must remain and protect traffic until reUef can be secured.
73. Public Improvements and Ordinances. — The proper officer of the Company must
be informed promptly regarding contemplated pubhc improvements or ordinances which
would in any way affect its interests. Supervisors, foremen and other employees must
make prompt report and forward at once to their immediate superiors any printed public
notice, or other matter pertaining to such improvements or ordinances, with all the
information available.
Accidents and Emergencies
80. Assumption of Authority. — In case of accidents or other emergencies prompt
action is essential. In the absence of designation, the employee upon whom the responsi-
bility most naturally falls must assume authority until the arrival of a superior officer.
In case of an accident or menace to a passenger train he must, when necessary, see that
all passengers are removed to a place of safety, render all assistance possible, police the
location, cause the removal or prevent the approach of all lights, open flames or fires
other than closed electric lights where there is danger of a fire or explosion, notify the
Rules and Organization 519
local fire and police authorities and keep all unauthorized persons away. Any material
which may be of use in determining the cause of accident must be preserved and state-
ments secured from employees and others who witnessed the accident. He must report
fully to his superior all facts and particulars necessary for a clear understanding and
make such suggestions as will be helpful.
81. Witnesses to Accidents. — Every reasonable effort must be made to procure the
names and addresses of all persons, whether employees or others, who witness an accident.
82. Accident Information. — Employees who witness or have any knowledge what-
ever of an accident, should refrain from giving information to the injured person or
anyone else except the Company's officers and claim agents, unless legally required. Per-
sons seeking information should be referred to the claim agent or other officer of the
Company.
83. Watchmen at Accidents.— In case of damage to a train or structure, wherein
the security of freight or property is involved, it is the duty of all concerned to see that
watchmen are immediately stationed and that arrangements are promptly made for
protection against theft or loss from other causes.
84. Unusual Conditions. — Any employee having reason to believe that the safety of
the track or any structure is endangered by flood, fire or other cause, before permitting
its use, must make a personal inspection, using all precautions in the interest of life and
property.
85. Defective Equipment. — When accidents occur that may have been caused by
defective equipment, appliances, tools or machinery, such equipment, tools, etc., must be
examined immediately by the person in charge to ascertain their condition. Any defective
equipment, appliance, tool or machinery, or the defective part thereof involved, must be
so marked as to be readily identified, and be withheld from further use, without
modification, for investigation.
86. Injuries to Trespassers. — ^When trespassers are injured they should be turned
over to county or town authorities. If this cannot be done, any available doctor should
be called. He should be informed that the railroad company will be responsible for
emergency attention only.
87. Deaths from Accidents. — In case of death from accident or otherwise, employees
must see that the body receives appropriate care and is removed as soon as possible to
proper place and left in charge of proper officer or an agent of the Company, unless
there is a local or state law forbidding the removal of the body prior to the arrival of
the coroner or other public ofiicial with like functions.
SUPERVISORY OFFICERS AND FOREMEN
90. Books of Rules and Regulations. — Supervisory employees must be fully con-
versant with the rules and regulations, must see that subordinates who should have copies
are supplied, and see that they are receipted for, understood and complied with by those
under them.
91. Supervision. — Supervisors shall see that foremen and others under their super-
vision are properly supplied with tools and material necessary for the efficient perform-
ance of their duties, and that they fully understand and properly perform the work
assigned to them.
92. Advise Whereabouts. — Supervisory officers and foremen, when away from head-
quarters, must keep their superiors advised of their whereabouts.
93. Govern Conduct of Men. — Foremen shall govern the conduct of their men at
all times while on Company property, and be responsible for the safe, proper and eco-
nomical performance of the work assigned to them.
520 Rules and Organization
94. Select and Instruct Men. — Foremen must select their men with care, choosing
only able-bodied men of proper age, alert and physically sound, in accordance with the
rules governing employment, and endeavor to secure those who will develop into satis-
factory employees. They must instruct their men in safe work-methods and see that they
thoroughly understand all safety rules.
95. Remain with Men. — Foremen while on duty, unless otherwise directed, must
remain with their men and personally superintend their activities.
96. Training Substitute. — Each foreman should train at least one of his men to fill
his place in case of necessity.
97. Substitute Foremen. — Foremen must not absent themselves from duty without
permission. If called from their work by sickness or other emergency, they must leave
their most reliable man in charge of the gang and notify their superior officer by wire,
giving him the name of the man left in charge.
98. Avoidance of Accidents. — Foremen or others in charge of employees working on
or about tracks, must instruct their men to be alert, watchful, and to avoid accidents;
and must take the necessary precautions to see that all men working under their imme-
diate supervision receive warnings of approaching trains in time to reach a place of safety.
99. Handling of Work. — Foremen will be held responsible for the selection of prop-
erly qualified men, must instruct them to perform specific tasks, and see that work is
performed in accordance with the rules, regulations and instructions. They must person-
ally supervise the handling of all heavy material and the performing of the more hazard-
ous work. They must plan such work carefully, using the most competent men for the
more important tasks. When men are engaged in joint work, the foremen must see that
each man has a thorough understanding of how the work is to be done and the moves
to be made by each. When signals or instructions are necessary they will be given by the
foreman personally, or by his personal delegate, the others remaining silent. In such
work the foreman shall give special attention to inexperienced men, teaching them to
work safely with the others.
100. Joint Work. — ^When two or more gangs are assembled on joint work, the
proper supervisory officer must delegate one of the foremen to take complete charge, and
this foreman shall be responsible for the proper handling of the work and safety of
the men.
101. Coordination of Work. — When work is to be performed by one organization
which requires the assistance of another, they shall cooperate in the conduct of such
work and shall give each other proper notice to insure efficient prosecution of the work.
102. Confusion of Signals. — When gangs are working close together, care must be
taken to prevent confusion of signals. The foremen must confer and arrange for full
protection of the work as provided by the rules. Both foremen will be held responsible
for any confusion of signals.
103. Signal Interference. — When work is to be done which may disturb interlocking
or signal apparatus, the signal maintainer must be notified as far in advance as possible,
and the foreman must cooperate with him in such work. If telegraph or telephone faciU-
ties are to be disturbed the dispatcher must be notified in advance and such work done
with cooperation of the linemen. When a crossing alarm bell is out of order, or if it
becomes necessary to spike an interlocked switch or derail, the foreman must make
prompt wire report to the proper officers.
104. Proper Signaling Appliances. — Foremen must know that their gangs, track-
walkers and watchmen are always supplied with proper signaling appliances and must
instruct employees as to their use.
Rules and Organization 521
105. Overhead Work. — Foremen must see that employees working overhead take
special precautions to prevent falling, that they have safe footing and take no unnecessary
chances.
106. Working in Tanks or Pits. — While men are working in tanks, excavations or
other places, where assistance or attendance is necessary for safety, the foremen must see
that such assistance or attendance is provided.
107. Supplying and Using Goggles. — Foremen and supervisory officers must see that
employees, whose work requires, are equipped with goggles, and that they are worn
when the employees are engaged in any work where their eyes may be endangered.
108. Report Personal Injuries. — In case of injury, however slight, to himself or to
anyone under his supervision, or in case of injury to others which has not been reported
by other employees, the foreman must immediately make a report by wire to his super-
visor, followed by a written report on the prescribed form.
109. Reporting Accidents. — All accidents must be fully reported on the form provided
for that purpose.
110. Responsibility for Tools and Material. — Foremen will be held responsible for
care and proper and economical use of all tools and material furnished them. When these
are received, they must be carefully inspected and checked against invoice. Foremen
must anticipate their needs, keep their superior officers informed as to their requirements
and must report promptly anything defective, any loss or any unnecessary accumulation
of tools or material.
111. Reports. — Foremen must keep the required records and make the prescribed
reports of the time of their men, and of the receipt, distribution, and use of tools and
material furnished them.
112. Examine Equipment. — Foremen must examine ropes, cables, chains and other
lifting equipment before using and be sure they are free from defects.
113. Avoid Delaying Traffic. — Except in case of emergency, repairs to track, bridges
or other structures must be made, when practicable, at such time, and in such manner,
as will avoid delay to trains.
114. Standards and Plans. — Foremen must conform to the prescribed standards,
plans and specifications in the execution of work under their charge.
SAFETY
120. Safeguarding Life and Property. — The safeguarding of life and property is of
first importance. The first duty and responsibility of employees is to prevent accidents,
even though in so doing they may necessarily be performing the duty of others. Unsafe
practices must be avoided. In case of doubt the safe course must be taken.
121. Reporting Unsafe Conditions. — Employees must keep a lookout at all times for
conditions which might result in injury to persons, and if possible correct them promptly.
If they cannot be corrected immediately they must be reported and protected to insure
safety until remedied.
122. Keep Tracks and Structures Clear. — Materials or tools must not be left un-
guarded on station platforms or walkways, nor along the tracks where they may interfere
with the safe passage of trains or the safe footing of persons.
123. Working in Tunnels. — Employees working in or near the end of a tunnel, when
a train approaches from either direction, must stand clear of all tracks, and if in a tunnel
must occupy the refuge niches if available. If there is insufficient clearance or no refuge
niche, arrangements must be made to work under flag protection. Employees must carry
lights when passing through any tunnel where men cannot readily be seen. When an
522 Rules and Organization
entire gang is working close together, an adequate number of lights, not less than two,
must be used.
124. Electric Wires. — Repairs, changes or adjustments of electrical apparatus shall
be made only by employees experienced in electrical work and authorized to do such
work. When employees are in doubt as to their safety near electric wires or apparatus,
they should notify the electrical department before commencing any work. They must
avoid dangling wires which may be charged with electricity. If necessary to lift such a
broken wire they must use a dry board or some non-conducting substance. They must
inform themselves as to any high-voltage wires installed on or near the right-of-way and
must use due care to avoid injury therefrom.
125. Keep in Clear of Trains. — ^Upon the approach of trains, men working on or
near the tracks must promptly move to a place of safety. Those whose duties require
them to walk track, where there are two or more tracks, shall, when practicable, walk
against the current of traffic, keeping sharp lookout in both directions for approaching
trains. When, due to storms, snow, fog, engines, cars or permanent obstructions, approach-
ing trains cannot readily be seen, extra care must be taken to prevent accidents.
126. Crossing Tracks. — Employees must look in both directions for approaching
trains, locomotives or cars before crossing tracks, and when crossing tracks in front of
or behind standing cars or locomotives, must allow sufficient distance to cross in safety.
127. Avoid Passing Over, Under or Between Cars. — Employees must not climb over,
between, or get under cars without adequate protection.
128. Protruding Nails. — Nails must not be left protruding where they may cause
injury.
129. Use of Goggles. — Wherever goggles are provided for protection while doing
certain classes of work, they must be worn as instructed.
130. Safety Belts. — ^Wherever safety ropes or belts are provided, they must be used
by employees as instructed when working on poles, or in other similar work.
131. Swinging Tools. — When using a swinging tool, avoid endangering others. If
necessary to work or pass within range of a swinging tool, first advise the user of the
tool of your presence and exercise care to avoid injury.
132. Do Not Step or Walk on iJaf/^.— Employees must not step or walk on rails.
133. Do Not Watch Welders. — Employees must not look at the electric or oxyacety-
lene flame with the naked eye.
134. Open Flames Near Explosives. — Employees must avoid smoking or the use of
open flames in or near manholes where gas may be present or around gasoline, oxygen
or acetylene tanks.
135. Cutting Rivets, Bolts and Scrap. — When cutting off rivets or bolts, or cutting
up scrap, employees must use such protection as necessary to prevent injury from flying
pieces.
136. Handling Tools and Materials Overhead. — Employees working overhead should
be careful to prevent tools or material from falling, and should not drop objects without
ample warning.
137. Excavation Protection. — Excavations must be properly protected when neces-
sary to leave them open, and must be filled as promptly as possible.
138. Placing Torpedoes.— Torpedoes must not be placed near stations, road cross-
ings, or at other locations where persons are likely to be injured by them, except when
necessary to prevent accidents. All unexploded torpedoes found on Company premises
not attached to track rail must be picked up.
139. Storing Torpedoes. — Torpedoes and fusees, when not in use, must be stored
where outsiders cannot reach them.
Rules and Organization 523
STANDARD WATCHES
150. Use Standard Watches. — Watches that have been examined and certified to by
a designated inspector must be used by all supervisors and foremen and by such other
employees as may be designated by special instructions. The certificate in prescribed
form must be renewed and filed with the every
151. Compare Watches. — Foremen, or others, required to carry standard watches
who are not accessible to standard clocks, must compare their watches daily so far as
practicable with a clock designated by or with dispatchers, conductors
or enginemen.
TIME-TABLES
155. Employees Must Have and Understand Time-Tables. — Employees whose duties
are in any way affected by the time-table must have a copy of the current time-table
with them while on duty. They must be conversant with and obey the rules and special
instructions contained therein.
156. Destroy Old Time-Tables. — Time-tables that have been superseded must be
destroyed.
SIGNALS
160. Proper Signaling Appliances. — Employees whose duties may require them to
give signals, must provide themselves with the proper appliances, keep them in good
order and ready for immediate use.
161. Signals. — Flags of the prescribed color must be used by day, and lights of the
prescribed color by night.
162. Day and Night Signals. — Day signals must be displayed from sunrise to sunset,
but when day signals cannot be plainly seen, night signals must be used in addition.
Night signals must be displayed from sunset to sunrise.
163. Color Signals. — See rule No. 10 Standard Code AAR.
164. Hand, Flag and Lamp Signals. — See rule No. 12 Standard Code AAR.
165. Violent Signals. — Any object waved violently by anyone on or near the track
is a signal to stop.
166. Engine Whistle Signals. — See rule No. 14 Standard Code AAR.
167. Use of Torpedoes. — The explosion of two torpedoes is a signal to proceed at
reduced speed. The explosion of one torpedo will indicate the same as two, but the use
of two is required.
168. Classification Signals. — All sections of trains, except the last, will display two
green flags and in addition, two green lights by night, in the places provided for that
purpose on the front of the engine. Extra trains will display two white flags and, in
addition, two white lights by night in the places provided for that purpose on the front
of the engine.
169. Switch Targets. — Main track switch targets will show green or no indication
when switches are set for the main track, and red when set for side tracks, crossings or
junction tracks. All other switch targets will show green (or no indication) and yellow.
USE OF SIGNALS
175. Imperfectly Displayed Signal. — A signal imperfectly displayed, or the absence
of a signal at a place where a signal is usually shown, must be promptly reported to
the
524 Rules and Organization __^_
176. Crossing Watchman. — ^Watchmen stationed at public crossings at grade must
use stop signals when necessary to stop trains. They will use prescribed signals to stop
highway traffic.
177. Flagmen. — The following signals will be used by employees when flagging:
Day Signals — A red flag, torpedoes and fusees.
Night Signals — A red light, torpedoes and fusees.
FLAGGING
180. To Stop Trains. — When a track for any cause is unsafe for the passage of
trains at normal speeds, an employee, with proper flagman's signals, must be sent in
each direction a sufficient distance to insure full protection, placing two torpedoes and,
when necessary, in addition, displaying lighted fusees. In addition, appropriate stop or
slow signals shall be displayed at the point to be protected. Crossovers or junction points
between the flagmen and the unsafe track must also be protected.
181. Recalling Flagmen. — Foremen must know that flagmen are out the required
distance before breaking or obstructing the track, and the flagmen must not be recalled
by motions, but must remain at their posts and protect until other employees under the
jurisdiction of the same foreman have verbally notified each of them that the track
is safe.
182. Removing Torpedoes.— Flagmen, when recalled, must remove the torpedoes
placed by them.
183. Temporary Restricted Speed Signs. — To facilitate the movement of trains over
portions of track not in condition for normal speed, standard temporary slow signs may
be used to control the speed of trains over such track when authorized by bulletin
issued by the superintendent giving location and speed.
184. Resume Speed Sign. — A resume normal speed sign, painted green and display-
ing a green light by night, shall be placed on the engineman's side, .... feet beyond the
protected track to indicate that normal speed may be resumed.
TOOLS AND MATERIAL
190. Use of Tools and Material. — Tools and material must not be loaned, disposed
of or used in any unauthorized manner except under special instructions from the proper
authority.
191. Requisitions. — Requisitions should be made sufficiently early to avoid delay to
the work. The items desired should be fully described, making reference where practicable
to standard drawings.
192. Release Cars Promptly. — Carload shipments must be unloaded promptly, cars
released and the agent notified.
193. Surplus and Second-Hand Material. — Serviceable second-hand and surplus ma-
terials, defective tools and scrap must be collected and disposed of according to
instructions.
194. Passenger Train Shipments. — The shipment of heavy or bulky material by
passenger trains should be avoided, except in cases of emergency.
195. Defective Material. — When defective material or material unsuited for the pur-
pose is observed it must be reported to the supervising officer and must not be used
except on special instructions.
196. Loading Material. — Cars must not be loaded beyond their load limit, must be
safely loaded and with the load distributed as uniformly as practicable.
Rules and Organization 525
197. Unloading Material. — Care must be exercised in unloading material to keep the
car sufficiently balanced to avoid derailment.
198. Piling Material. — Materials must be piled in places designated for that purpose,
a safe distance from the track.
199. Piling Forest Products. — Lumber, timber, ties and piling must be piled in
accordance with instructions.
200. Combustible Material. — Combustible material should be piled at a safe dis-
tance from telegraph, telephone and signal lines, preferably on the opposite side of the
track from such lines. Adjacent ground must be kept free from vegetation for sufficient
distance to protect from fire.
201. Distribution of Material. — When necessary to leave over night, material dis-
tributed close to track, in the vicinity of switches or in yards, notice must be given.
202. Rubbish. — Rubbish must be cleaned up promptly and disposed of properly
with due regard to fire hazard.
203. Safekeeping of Tools. — All tools and supplies, when not in use, must, as far as
practicable, be kept locked in the tool box or tool house provided for the purpose, or
where they can be carefully watched.
204. Use of Tools. — Employees must observe the condition of tools and equipment
which they are to use. Defective tools should not be used.
205. Use of Sledges. — Track chisels or other tempered tools should not be struck
with a spike maul. Sledges provided for that purpose should be used.
206. Instruments. — Electrical or other delicate instruments must be handled with
extreme care, and when shipped must be packed in accordance with instructions.
ROADWAY MACHINES AND WORK EQUIPMENT
230. Familiarity with Machine. — The operator must famiharize himself with all
parts, detail adjustments, and lubrication of the machine to which he is assigned.
231. Cleaning and Lubricating. — It is the duty of every man in charge of, or oper-
ating, a machine to keep it clean and well lubricated, using proper equipment for han-
dhng and applying lubricants. The lubricants used must comply with current instructions
or chart. The receipt of a machine in dirty, unoiled, or poor running condition must be
reported promptly to the proper officer.
232. Shipments. — Gasoline tanks and carburetors of machines must be drained
before shipment.
233. Fouling Track. — A machine must not foul or obstruct any track before proper
permission is obtained and protection provided.
234. Lock Booms. — Swinging portions of cranes or other similar equipment must be
locked or mechanically fastened, with the boom of cranes parallel to the center line of
track during the approach and passing of trains on adjacent tracks.
235. Operations Endangering Wires. — Employees handhng derricks or pile drivers,
or doing work Hkely to interfere with communication or power wires, must use every
precaution to prevent damage.
236. No Riders. — Operators must see that no one rides on cranes or other similar
equipment except when necessary in the discharge of duty.
237. Inspection. — Frequent inspections of all machinery, cables, etc., must be made
by the operator so that repairs may be made when necessary.
238. Load Limits. — Loads heavier than indicated by the body plate on the machine
should not be attempted.
526 Rules and Organization
239. Blocking. — ^When heavy loads are to be handled, operator must assure himself
that the machine is properly blocked and that the brakes are set.
240. Safety Guards. — Operator must keep all safety guards in place when the
machine is working.
MOTOR CARS, VELOCIPEDES, HAND AND PUSH CARS (TRACK CARS)
250. Terminology. — Unless otherwise indicated the term "track car," where used
herein will apply to motor cars, hand cars, velocipedes, trailers and push cars.
251. Running on Foreign Lines. — Track cars must not be run over foreign lines
unless permission has been secured from proper supervising officer.
252. Use for Company Business. — Track cars must be used only for company busi-
ness. None but employees in the discharge of their duties shall be permitted to use or
ride upon track cars except with proper authority.
253. Responsibility. — Employees to whom track cars are assigned are responsible for
proper use and condition of cars in their charge. A report must be made to their superior
officer if the car is in need of repairs.
254. Operators' Qualifications. — No one except a responsible employee who is quali-
fied and has been authorized will be allowed to operate a motor car upon a main track.
255. Unauthorized Attachments. — Foremen and operators must not place unauthor-
ized attachments on their track cars.
256. Insulation. — Only insulated track cars shall be used where there are track
circuits.
257. Shipment on Trains. — ^Where necessary to ship motor cars on trains, gasoline
tanks and carburetors must be drained.
258. Protection of Cars. — When not in service track cars must be protected as well
as possible from weather and, when left in the open, must be locked.
Operation of Track Cars
270. Keep Ready for Use. — Motor cars must be kept ready for immediate use at all
times.
271. Inspection Before Starting. — Foreman or operator must inspect his car care-
fully before starting a trip, seeing that it is in proper operating condition and properly
equipped. The following flagging equipment must be carried on all motor cars:
Torpedoes
Fusees
Red flags
Red lanterns
White lanterns
Fusees and torpedoes must be carried in proper containers.
272. Loading Tools and Material. — Tools and material must be properly placed on
track cars to prevent falling off or interfering with free operation of the brakes.
273. Emergency Handling. — There should be a thorough understanding as to the
part that each person on a track car will take in the handling of the car and as to the
side of the track to which the car will be removed if an emergency should arise
necessitating prompt action.
274. Position of Men on Track Car. — Each man in a regular gang should be assigned
to a place on the motor car where he will ride. Occupants must be seated.
275. Look Out for Following Trains. — When motor cars occupied by more than one
man are running on the main track, at least one man must face the rear and keep a look
out for following trains.
Rules and Organization 527
276. Look Out for Obstructions. — A sharp look out must be kept at all times for
obstructions on the rail that are hkely to derail car, and for workmen on or near
the track.
277. Run in Direction of Traffic. — On lines of more than one main track, a motor
car should generally move with the current of traffic.
278. Throwing Switches. — Main track switches must not be thrown for track cars
when they can be lifted over.
279. Spring Frogs arid Switches. — Track cars should not be run under power
through spring side of frogs or spring switches.
280. Remote Controlled Switches. — Track cars must be stopped before passing over
remote controlled switches and then pushed through.
281. Interlocked Derail and Switches. — Track cars must be stopped before passing
over interlocked derails and switches.
282. Approaching Crossings. — When approaching road crossings at grade, a track
car must be under complete control or stopped. If the crossing is protected by flagman,
the operator must get the signal from him before proceeding. When required by rule or
law, a proper warning must be given when approaching highway crossings at grade.
283. Passing Standing Trains. — Caution must be used in passing a train receiving
or discharging passengers at a station, and, except where proper safeguards are provided,
cars must not pass between the train and platform.
284. Follow Spacing. — A track car must not be attached to an engine or train and
must not be run closer than 500 feet behind a moving train, and must stop not less
than 200 feet from a standing train. Where two or more cars are traveling uncoupled,
the space between cars must be not less than 500 feet. A car in advance must not be
stopped until the following car has been signaled.
285. Coupling of Trailers. — A track car must never be pushed by a motor car re-
gardless of whether the motor car is moving ahead or backward, unless the cars are
equipped with an approved type safety coupler. Trailers and other track cars being
towed must be coupled with an approved coupler. Under no circumstances must a make-
shift coupler be used. Hand cars should not be coupled to motor cars except in emer-
gency and then only when connecting rod has been disengaged from crank and made
inoperative.
286. Caution in Use of Track Cars. — Track cars shall move at all times with care
necessary for safety, expecting trains or other cars to appear at any time from either
direction without notice. When necessary to operate them in foggy weather, severe
storms, or at night, or where the view is obstructed in any way, or when the track cars
cannot quickly be removed from track because of heavy load or insufficient side clear-
ance, especial care must be used; and if conditions require, cars must proceed only under
flag protection.
287. Night Operation. — When motor cars are operated at night or during storms or
fog, or through tunnels, they must be equipped with a white light in front and a red
light in the rear.
288. Replace Torpedoes. — Torpedoes exploded or damaged by track cars must be
replaced.
289. Protect Track Car on Track. — A track car must not be left on the track while
men are at work. It must not be left on the track unprotected.
290. Removal from Track. — A track car removed from track must be placed not
less than feet from nearest rail. It must not be left standing at public or private
crossings in a position that will interfere with the travel-way.
528 Rules and Organization
291. Safe Loads. — ^Track cars must not be overloaded. Heavy material, ties, etc.,
must not be handled on motor cars except in extreme emergencies.
292. Speed. — The speed of motor cars must not exceed that at which the cars can
be stopped within the limits of safety.
293. Handling Car. — Care must be exercised in placing motor car on and off the
track and in loading or unloading tools.
294. Carbon Monoxide Gas. — Cars must not be run in closed car house, as carbon
monoxide gas is fatal.
FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION
310. Protection of Property. — The protection of the property of the Company
against fire is an important part of the duty of every employee and each is expected
and required to give this his constant and personal attention. All employees should be
acquainted with the nearest city or Company fire-alarm box and be thoroughly familiar
with its use.
311. Reporting Fires. — Each fire must be promptly reported to the proper officer in
order that thorough investigation of causes of fire can be made. All available details
must be supplied.
312. Fire Fighting Apparatus. — Fire-fighting apparatus must be kept in condition
for instant use, free from obstructions, and not used for other purposes than fighting fire.
Its location must be understood by all employees concerned. Special attention must be
given to condition of hose, hydrants, alarm systems and fire pumps.
313. Fire Hose. — Fire hose must at all times be properly maintained and ready for
instant use. All fire hose, except unlined linen hose, should be tested at least once each
year, preferably in the Spring. The hose should then be drained and the cotton covering
allowed to become thoroughly dry before putting back on reel or in hose compartment.
314. Fire Extinguishers. — Fire extinguishers of all types should be inspected at regu-
lar intervals and any defects promptly corrected. Soda-acid and foam type extinguishers
should be discharged once each year and re-charged, with date of recharging shown on
tag attached to extinguisher. Carbon tetrachloride extinguishers should be given annual
tests and kept filled at all times.
315. Water Barrels. — Water barrels equipped with buckets must be kept filled and
precaution taken against freezing by dissolving salt or calcium chloride in the water in
proper proportions.
316. Sand Pails and Scoops. — Dry sand with scoops must be maintained where oils,
paints or inflammable liquids are used or stored.
317. Inspections. — Frequent inspections should be made of grounds and buildings to
see that they are kept clean and free from accumulation of debris and unneeded materials
which might cause or contribute to a fire.
318. Metal Receptacles and Lockers. — Standard metal receptacles with covers should
be provided for ashes, rubbish, oily rags and waste, torches, small oil suppHes and waste
paper towels. Ventilated lockers should be provided for workmen's clothing, and clothing
should be suspended from hooks. Metal waste baskets, with closed sides, should be
provided in offices for scrap paper.
319. Disposition of Ashes and Rubbish.— Ruhhish, ashes and sweepings should not be
allowed to accumulate on the property, but should be disposed of daily. Burning of rub-
bish and old materials must be done with due regard to safety of buildings and material.
Metal screens, trash burners, or incinerators should be used.
Rules and Organization 529
320. Oil Drippings and Friction Hazards. — Combustible materials must not be used
as an absorbent to catch oil drippings from bearings and other parts of machinery;
metal drip pans with sand should be provided. All belts should be examined to prevent
friction against combustible materials and all bearings watched for heating.
321. Fire Escapes, Doors and Automatic Devices. — Fire escapes, fire lanes, fire doors
and shutters must be kept free of obstructions at all times. When painting or white-
washing is being done, care should be e.xercised to protect fusible links on fire doors,
windows and sprinkler heads from being covered with paint or whitewash.
322. No Smoking. — Smoking is prohibited in shops, coaling stations, piers, wharves,
warehouses, storehouses, freight houses and record rooms, and in buildings where
explosives, gasoline or volatile liquids, oils or paints are used or stored.
323. Electric Installations and Inspections. — Electric wiring and apparatus must be
installed and maintained in accordance with the regulations of the National Electrical
Code. Inspections must be made at intervals to see that they are in safe condition and
kept up to standard requirements.
324. Electric Wires. — Electric wires must not be hung on nails or other metal fix-
tures, or where they may come in contact with telephone, telegraph or high-tension wires.
They should be supported by and hung from approved insulators.
325. Vapor Proof Globes and Wire Cage Guards. — Electric lamps must be equipped
with vapor-proof globes in oil houses, paint rooms or other locations where volatile
hquids are handled or stored, also in grain elevators, coal docks, coaling stations and
other structures where explosive dust, vapors or gas may exist. The use of open lights
in these locations is prohibited. Electric lamps on extension or drop cords in stationery
storehouses, record and file rooms, or similar faciUties must be equipped with wire cage
guards.
326. Switch and Fuse Cabinets and Fuses. — Switch panel cabinets and fuse boxes
must be kept closed and no materials stored therein. Fuses must not be exchanged or
replaced with larger capacity fuses than design of circuit calls for as established by the
National Electrical Code.
327. Oil Lamps and Lanterns. — Electric Ughting should be used where available. Oil
lamps, when used, must be rigidly and securely supported, and must have metal fonts,
with metal or porcelain shade. Oil lamps or lanterns must not be filled while burning or
near any open flame. Lamps should not be used when nearly empty, due to danger of
accumulation of explosive gases.
328. Oil Stoves and Lamps. — Lamps or stoves, burning gasoline, oil or alcohol,
should not be used except by special permission. Only those devices having the approval
of the Underwriters Laboratories should be permitted.
329. Chimneys, Stoves and Stovepipes. — Stoves should be installed at least three feet
from all wood-work, otherwise wood-work must be protected by asbestos backed metal
shield with air space between shield and wood-work. Wood flooring underneath stoves
and ranges must be protected by metal covering extending inches on all sides.
Stovepipes must be riveted at the joints and rigidly installed at a safe distance from
combustible material. Particular attention should be given to protection where pipes
pass through walls, ceilings, partitions or roofs. Where pipes are removed from chimneys,
openings must be closed by proper size flue stops. Chimneys and flues shall be constructed
and maintained in accordance with National Board of Fire Underwriters' rules and
regulations.
330. Stove and Chimney Inspections. — All heating appliances must be examined every
Fall and defects corrected before the appHance is used. Chimney inspection should be
530 Rules and Organization
made at this time, giving special attention to those parts of the chimneys which extend
through attic and roof.
331. Removal of Ashes. — Ashes must be removed promptly from stoves, furnaces
and boiler plants, and disposed of in such manner that they will not come in contact
with combustible material.
332. Steam Pipes and Radiators. — Steam pipes and radiators must be properly in-
stalled and supported and kept clear of any wood-work, or other combustible material
and should have sufficient clearance to permit cleaning in back of radiators and pipes.
Steam pipes must be supported by metal brackets or supports.
333. Oils, Paints and Varnishes. — Where practicable, oils, paints, varnishes and
similar compounds must be kept in a separate storehouse.
334. Oil House, Dope and Paint Room Inspections. — Frequent inspections of oil
houses, paint rooms, dope and reclaim houses must be made, to see that all special
instructions and rules in regard to them are being fully observed.
335. Storing and Handling Volatile Liquids. — Gasoline, benzine, naphtha, benzol,
distillate, snow melting oil and similar volatile liquids must be stored in a separate
isolated building and used only from Underwriters' approved type safety cans. Open
flames, lamps, lanterns and torches will not be permitted where volatile liquids are
being used.
336. Bulk Oil Stations and Loading or Unloading Racks. — All bulk gasoline and oil
stations, and gasoline loading and unloading racks must conform to federal, state and
city requirements.
337. Extinguishing Oil Fires. — For extinguishing an oil fire use foam, carbon dioxide
or carbon tetrachloride fire extinguishers, if available, otherwise smother with steam, wet
blankets, dry earth, sand or similar material. Except where fog nozzles are provided
water should not be used.
338. Parking of Automobiles. — Automobiles must not be housed or parked in other
than authorized buildings or locations.
339. Fusees, Torpedoes and Matches. — Fusees, torpedoes or matches must be kept
separately and when transported must be placed in special container for safe handling.
HANDLING OF EXPLOSIVES
350. Signs and Regulations. — Danger signs must be conspicuously placed on all
buildings and magazines (above the roof if practicable), in which explosives are stored,
and must conform to federal, state and city requirements.
351. Storing Explosives. — Explosives must be stored in fire-resistant magazines a safe
distance from Company buildings, or buildings and property of others in accordance
with the law. In states where no laws are in effect, the American Table of Distances
shall be used. When dynamite is being held for use and no adequate storage facilities are
provided, it should be buried in the ground and suitable identification and warning signs
posted.
352. Keep Supply Limited. — The supply of explosives in storage should be kept at
the minimum for the requirements and be removed in quantities as needed.
353. Storing Fuses and Blasting Caps. — Fuses and blasting caps must not be stored
in the same building with explosives.
354. Qualifications of Employees. — The supervisor must satisfy himself as to the
qualifications of employees assigned to the handling of explosives.
355. No Smoking or Use of Matches and Lights. — Employees must not smoke and
must not light matches while near or handling explosives. Lanterns or other open flames
will not be permitted while handling explosives, or in the immediate vicinity of maga-
Rules and Or ganization 531
zines or storage areas. Electric flash-lights or incandescent lamps with wire cage guards
must be used exclusively.
356. Misfires and Partly Exploded Charges.— When dynamite or other explosives,
due to having become frozen, or from other causes fail to properly explode, all or part
of the unexploded charge may have been left in the "bore" or hole or become mixed
with broken rock or dirt. Such unexploded charges are liable to be set off if struck with
a shovel or other tool and cause personal injury or loss of life. Such unexploded charges
must be handled in accordance with the rules established in the Institute of Makers of
Explosives Handbook, "Safety in Handling and Use of Explosives."
357. Thawing Frozen Dynamite. — Some dynamite is hkely to freeze when its tem-
perature falls below SO degrees F. Dynamite of such temperature must be considered as
frozen and should be thawed in an approved type kettle. The kettle must not be placed
near a lighted lantern or other open flame. The water compartment must be filled with
water of such temperature that the oven or thawing compartment in which dynamite is
to be placed will not be higher than 100 degrees F. The thawing compartment must be
clean and dry before the dynamite is placed therein.
358. Transporting Explosives on Track Cars. — When necessary to transport explo-
sives on a track car, the car must be run slowly and where view of track from front or
rear is insufficient to allow ample time to safely remove car from track in event of the
approach of a train, it must be protected by flagging.
359. Use of Explosives on Company Property. — Dynamite or other explosives must
not be used on Company property without the knowledge and consent of the proper
officer.
SANITATION
370. Drinking Water. — Care must be taken to secure drinking water that is safe and
free from contamination. When in doubt as to the purity of water for drinking pur-
poses it should be boiled for a few minutes and allowed to cool, or be chlorinated,
before using.
371. Food Protection.— Food should be stored and prepared in spaces protected from
flies, and so far as practicable eaten in such spaces.
372. Camp Sites. — Camp sites should preferably be on high ground, be well drained
and kept in clean and sanitary condition.
373. Vermin. — To prevent and exterminate vermin, camps or camp cars should be
cleaned by scrubbing with soap and hot water, and the bedding should be aired and
sunned.
374. Toilets. — Where temporary toilets are provided, a suitable trench for excretions
shall be dug and the bottom covered with lime. Excretions should be covered periodically
with lime, or with earth until lime is available.
PROCEDURE IN CASE OF PERSONAL INJURIES
390. Summon Doctor. — In case of serious personal injury, the nearest Company
doctor must be summoned immediately. If a Company doctor is not immediately avail-
able, the most available doctor must be called to render emergency attention, until the
arrival of a Company doctor, who will then take charge. When a number of persons are
seriously injured doctors as needed and available should be summoned.
391. Information to Doctor. — In summoning doctors, information as to the number
and needs of the injured should he given.
392. Company Doctor Asstane Charge.— Upon arrival of the Company doctor, he
shall assume charge of the injured.
532 Rules and Organization
393. Fire Department Aid. — If a local fire department is available, it may render
valuable assistance and should be called on for aid when needed.
394. Minor Injuries. — In cases where injuries are minor, the patient should be sent
to the nearest Company doctor.
395. Employees Go to Company Doctor. — Employees will be expected, whenever
able, to visit the Company doctor for treatment, except where their residence is too far
away.
FIRST AID TO INJURED
See "First Aid Instructions for Railroad Employees," approved and published by
Operating-Transportation Division, Association of American Railroads, 30 Vesey Street,
New York City.
II ROADWAY AND TRACK
Section Foremen
500. Instructions. — Section foremen report to and receive instructions from the
designated officer.
501. Responsibility. — ^They are in charge of and responsible for the safe condition
of tracks, roadway and right-of-way on their sections, and for the economical use of
labor and material in their maintenance. They must do no work thereon that will
interfere with the safe passage of trains, except under proper protection.
502. Inspection. — Unless otherwise provided, they must go over their sections or
send a competent reliable man with suitable tools, at designated intervals, to make a
thorough inspection, and see that the track, culverts, highway crossings, bridges, fences,
and other railway property are in safe condition. If, in their judgment, the track or any
bridge or culvert is not safe, they must at once put out proper signals to warn approach-
ing trains, notify the proper officers of the condition and do everything in their power
to make the necessary repairs.
503. Accidents. — They must, in case of accident, immediately proceed to the scene.
In the absence of a ranking officer, the section foreman on whose section the accident
occurs, will have charge of the assembled track forces, and shall be responsible for the
character of the repairs made.
504. Investigation. — ^They must investigate all accidents resulting in derailment or
in damage to the track, roadway, or structures on their sections, and make report.
506. Obstructions. — ^They must give special attention to points where obstructions
are likely to occur.
507. Storms. — They must, during heavy storms or high water whereby tracks or
structures are likely to be damaged, patrol their sections to make sure that the track
is safe.
508. Watchmen. — They must see that watchmen are properly detailed to patrol the
track, watch bridges or perform other duties, whenever necessary.
Extra or Floating Gang Foremen
515. Instructions. — Extra or floating gang foremen, in charge of trackmen, shall
report to and receive instructions from the designated officer. They shall perform such
duties and employ the number of men as directed.
Watchmen
520. Instructions. — Track, bridge and tunnel watchmen report to and receive instruc-
tions from the designated officer or employee.
Rules and Organiz ation 533
Drainage
525. Roadbed.— Drainage of the roadbed is essential for economical maintenance of
track and must be given careful attention.
526. Ditches.— Bitches should be provided in cuts in conformity with the standard
roadbed sections and be kept open.
527. Drainage of Slopes. — Ditches should be provided where necessary, along the
tops of slopes of cuts to intercept water from higher ground.
528. Waterways. — Waterways through culverts, under bridges, and adjacent thereto
should be kept clear of obstructions.
Care of Roadway
540. Cross-section. — The cross-section of the roadway should conform to the stand-
ard plans and deviation therefrom must not be made without proper authority.
541. Vegetation. — Growth of vegetation on the slopes of cuts and embankments
should be encouraged in order to prevent erosion. When erosion damaging roadbed is
discovered protective action should be taken.
Ties
550. Inspection. — The selection of ties to be renewed must be made by careful in-
spection of the ties in track, and those to be removed designated as directed.
556. Installation. — All ties must be placed in track square to line of rail, spaced, and
lined as directed.
557. Handling. — Care must be taken to prevent damage to new or serviceable ties.
558. Tie Plugs.— Treated tie plugs should be driven into all holes from which spikes
have been drawn, in ties that are to remain in track.
563. Handling. — Ties removed from track, after all ties plates and rail fastenings
have been removed, shall be collected and held for disposition, as directed.
568. Distribution. — Ties delivered but not to be installed within a short time must
be stacked as directed.
Rail
573. Distribution. — ^When distributing rail it should, as far as practicable, be so
placed that it can be laid with the least handling. Care must be exercised to prevent
damage to rails during handling.
578. Renewal. — Temperature of rail shall be taken with rail thermometer and open-
ings provided for expansion by placing expansion shims of the designated thickness
between the ends of the rails.
579. Laying. — Rails shall be laid consecutively to line and gage, one rail at a time
wherever practicable. Joints must be fully bolted and bolts drawn up before spiking the
rail and joint to gage.
580. Closures. — Closures, both temporary and permanent, shall be made as directed.
587. Gaging. — Correct gage is essential to good track and must be maintained.
Joints and Bolting
594. Bolting. — All main track joints must be fully bolted. Care must be taken to
maintain prescribed tension.
597. Washers. — Spring washers or nut locking devices should be used, as directed.
598. Step Joints. — Compromise or step joints must be used to connect adjoining
rails of different sections.
599. Holes. — All holes in rails must be drilled.
534 Rules and Organization
605. Spikes. — Track spikes of the size prescribed must be used as directed.
606. Spiking. — The track shall be fully spiked to the gage required. Care must be
taken to drive spikes vertically.
Rail Braces and Tie Plates
614. Fixtures must be used in track as directed. Ties should be properly adzed for
even bearing of the tie plates.
Anti-Creepers or Rail Anchors
620. Approved anti-creeping devices should be applied to retard the creeping or
running of rail as directed.
Shims for Surfacing Track
627. The use of shims for surfacing track should be avoided, but when necessary,
shims of the size and type directed shall be applied on top of ties to the height required
to restore proper cross-level, and must be removed from the track as soon as possible.
Track Centers
640. The distance between track centers must be maintained as directed.
Surface and Alinement
645. Alinement. — On tangent track, the two rails should be kept to cross-level.
646. Super-elevation. — The super-elevation on curves and easements must be main-
tained in accordance with requirements and prescribed standards.
Turnouts, Switches, Frogs and Guard Rails
660. Installation. — Turnouts must be installed and maintained in conformity with
prescribed standards.
663. Switch Locks. — Switch locks must be maintained on all non-interlocked main
line switches, and as directed at other turnouts. Main track switches must be locked in
main line position when not in use.
Signs and Posts
681. Roadway signs must be installed and maintained as directed.
Street or Highway Grade Crossings
690. Public or private crossings at grade must be constructed and maintained in
accordance with prescribed plans and instructions.
Fences, Gates and Cattle Guards
699. Fences, cattle guards and gates shall be built and maintained as directed.
Ill BRIDGES AND BUILDINGS, WATER SERVICE AND
WORK EQUIPMENT
701. Supervisors of bridges and buildings are in charge, on their respective districts,
of the maintenance of bridges and structures, and of the employees engaged thereon.
702. Supervisors of water service are in charge, on their respective districts, of all
matters pertaining to water service, and of the employees engaged thereon.
703. When necessary to take out of service, or in case of trouble, facilities affecting
water supply, designated officer, including dispatcher if train operation is involved, must
be promptly advised and informed of the amount gf the water on hand. Notice must be
given when facihty is restored to service,
Rules and Organization S3S
704. Pumpers will be in charge of local water supply and will be responsible for
the general condition of the plant, and see that an ample supply of water for locomotive
use is available at all times.
705. In case of trouble affecting the water supply, pumpers must wire the dispatcher
and designated officer, stating fully the difficulty, what is needed for repairs and approxi-
mately how much water remains on hand.
706. In freezing weather pumpers must see that all parts liable to freeze are
properly protected.
707. Pumpers shall keep a daily record of water pumped.
708. Supervisors of work equipment will be in charge, on their respective districts,
of such work equipment as may be under the general supervision of the division engineer.
709. Supervisors of work equipment must keep a daily record of the location of
each machine, together with such records of performances as are required.
710. Supervisors of work equipment will instruct all operators of work equipment
in the operation and care of the machines.
IV SIGNALS AND INTERLOCKING
801. Supervisors must make frequent inspections of signals and interlocking plants
and have necessary repairs made as promptly as conditions require. They must see that
all failures of signals and interlocking plants are properly investigated and report made
on proper form.
802. Supervisors must keep themselves informed in regard to all work performed
on their district by contractors, or others who do not come under their charge, to see
that nothing is done that will interfere with the safe operation of signals.
803. Supervisors must investigate and report on accidents which may be attributable
to defects in, or result in damage to the signal apparatus.
804. Supervisors must not make or permit to be made any alterations or additions
to the interlocking or signal apparatus without proper authority. Such authorized changes
or additions as are made must be reported to the proper authority immediately upon
their completion, so that the other departments affected may have such information.
805. Signal foremen must do no work on signals and interlocking plants that will
interfere with the safe passage of trains, except under proper protection.
806. When any part of an interlocking plant is to be repaired, an understanding
must be reached with the signalman on duty, in order to insure safe movement of
trains and engines during repairs. The signalman on duty must be notified when the
repairs are completed.
807. Signal foremen must notify the supervisor of signals in advance of any work
requiring the removal from service of any part of signal or interlocking apparatus, and
such apparatus must not be taken out of service until proper authority is obtained.
808. Signal maintainers are responsible for the inspection, adjustment and proper
maintenance of signal and other apparatus assigned to their care.
809. Signal maintainers must personally instruct their subordinates with a view to
safety, efficiency and economy.
810. Signal maintainers must systematize their work, consulting the supervisor of
signals as to the most efficient system to be followed.
811. Signal maintainers must not make any alterations or additions to the inter-
locking or signal apparatus unless authorized by the supervisor of signals.
812. A thorough investigation must be made of every reported failure and the
trouble must not be reported as due to a cause which is only suspected. In all cases
an endeavor must be made to definitely determine the trouble and eliminate the cause.
536 Rules and Organization
Conduct of Work
See AAR Signal Section Manual, also ICC Order dated April 13, 1Q39, covering
rules, standards, and instructions for installation, inspection, maintenance, and repair of
automatic block signal systems, interlocking, centralized traffic control systems, auto-
matic cab signal systems continuously controlled — without automatic train stop or train
control — dragging equipment and slide detectors and other similar protective devices,
other similar appliances, methods, and systems.
V TELEPHONE AND TELEGRAPH
901. Line gang foremen must use every precaution to avoid causing wire trouble
while doing work, and keep wire chief advised at all times, while on duty, where they
can be located.
902. Linemen must maintain pole lines and wires and equipment and inside wiring
on their respective territories. They must clear trouble reported to them, reporting to the
designated officer the details of work they are not able to take care of, or which would
interfere with their regular work.
903. Linemen after clearing trouble must immediately report to the designated
officer the cause of trouble and time cleared.
904. Wire chief, or other designated officer, must locate all trouble in wires and
equipment used by the Railroad Company, and take charge of and issue instructions in
regard to clearing of trouble.
905. Wire chief must make a test of all Railroad wires each morning to determine
whether they are in serviceable condition, and make reports as prescribed.
906. Instructions from the wire chief govern in the rerouting of circuit facilities.
Conduct of Work
See AAR Telephone and Telegraph Section Manual.
VI ELECTRIFIED TERRITORY
1001. Power supervisors are responsible for the general operation of the electric
power system, and in all cases of trouble likely to affect the operation of the electric
power system must promptly report same to the designated officer and take such further
steps as may be necessary to insure continuity of operation.
1002. Supervisors of transmission must frequently inspect transmission system and
appliances, keeping a complete record of such inspections and recommending such changes
as may seem desirable.
1003. Patrolmen must carefully examine all facilities under their care and make sure
that everything is safe. They must report at frequent intervals, by telephone or tele-
graph, advising of any defects noticed, and must report at once any serious defects which
they cannot correct without assistance.
1004. Wires and overhead conductors, third rail and conductors are to be considered
alive at all times unless positive knowledge to the contrary is shown. Employees must
not place dependence for their safety on the insulating covering of wires.
1005. When persons other than qualified employees are required to work near third
rail or high tension overhead wires or apparatus, they must be protected by a qualified
employee, who will take necessary precautions for their safety before starting and during
the progress of the work.
Rules and Organization 537
1006. Employees noticing dangling wires must avoid coming in contact with them.
They must so protect the wires that they will not endanger other persons and must
correct the condition or promptly notify the proper authority.
1007. Employees (excepting qualiiied employees authorized to do so in the discharge
of their duties) are prohibited from going on top of box cars, locomotives, tenders or
other high equipment while on tracks electrified with overhead wires or while move-
ments are being made to such tracks from sidings, yards or other tracks which are not
electrified.
1008. Umbrellas, clothing and other material must not be placed where they may
come in contact with disconnecting switches or other portions of electric circuits.
1009. When fire occurs near high voltage overhead wires or when fire apparatus is
tested near live wires the power should preferably be shut off and the wires grounded.
When this is not possible special nozzles with grounding jumpers securely attached must
be used.
1010. In case of an electrical fire, water must not be used to extinguish it. Sand,
pyrene and other extinguishers containing carbon of tetrachloride may be used on elec-
trical fires on arcs or other live parts. The extinguishers containing carbon of tetachloride
must not be used in closed places due to danger of asphyxiation.
1011. No high tension disconnecting switch must be operated except by means of
the wood poles or other approved devices provided for that purpose.
1012. Hand lines, or measuring tapes containing metal strands or steel tapes must
not be used where they may come in contact with live wires.
1013. When necessary to work on transmission lines, either aerial or underground,
or any apparatus in connection therewith, the employees before doing so must notify
the proper officer, giving him full information as to what work is necessary, location
and length of time required.
1014. If the section or apparatus on which work is to be performed may be de-
energized, the power director will arrange for opening the necessary disconnecting
switches in the power stations and sub-stations affected, or on the line, will have them
properly tagged and grounded at each switch, opened for the protection of the employees,
and will then notify such employee that power has been shut off the section or apparatus.
Before allowing men to work on such section or apparatus or before doing so himself,
the said employee must make out a permit on the prescribed form and repeat the in-
formation entered theieon to the power director, who will answer "correct" if the permit
is properly made out. Said employee must then see that all wires or apparatus upon
which work is to be done are properly grounded at each side and near where the work
is to be done, first making test according to prescribed methods to ascertain that
apparatus is de-energized, not only at the source but also at point where work is being
done, and if men are working with him caution them by calling their attention to any
adjacent high tension wires or fixtures.
1015. After work has been completed the employee who has obtained the permit
must assure himself that all men are in the clear and that the grounds have been removed.
He must then personally notify the power director that the work has been completed,
that all men are in the clear and that the power may be turned on.
1016. When working on high voltage trolley system, the employee must see after
current has been shut off that grounds are placed on each side and near the point where
work is to be done. He must also ascertain from the power director that the line has
been grounded at each disconnecting switch opened for his protection. If work is to be
done near a section break, on both sides of which the power has been shut off the trolley
wire, he must see that grounds are placed on each side of this section break.
538 Rules and Organization
1017. Where physical and electrical conditions will permit and adequate safeguards
are provided, authorized employee may perform work on energized overhead trolley wires.
Third Rail
1018. When working on the third rail system the employee must either see that the
current is first shut off of the section on which work is to be done or must take proper
precautionary measures to avoid shock.
1019. Employees working on the track must be instructed previously on the dangers
of the third rail and must use every precaution to avoid coming in contact with it or
allowing any track tool to make contact with the third rail.
Track Bonding
1020. Loose connections to impedance bonds in the tracks must be regarded as aHve
and prompt report made to the train dispatcher.
1021. Tracks carrying power current must be bonded at each joint to insure free
flow of current, the joints in tracks carrying power current must be bonded, and the
bonds maintained in good condition.
1022. When one or more rails are removed, bonding must be done at the time of
renewal or, in emergency, a jumper placed around joints until joints can be bonded.
Conduct of Work
See Manuals of Electrical Section — Engineering Division and Electrical Section —
Mechanical Division, AAR.
Report of Committee 1 — Roadway and Ballast
A. E. BoTTS, Chairman,
F. W. Alexander
E. J. Bayer
E. J. Beugler
Clifton Brannon
H. F. Brown
G. H. Burnette
F. W. Capp
Paul Chipman
A. P. Crosley
L. J. Drumeller
R. L. Dyke
Herbert Ensz
J. A. Given
A. T. Goldbeck
F. L. Guy
Albert Haertlein
F. W. HiLLMAN
A. R. Jones
O. N. Lackey
G. E. Ladd*
H. W. Legro
P. J. McCarthy
Paul McKay
G. W. Miller
W. S. Moore
C. P. Nicholson
J. A. Noble
M. C. Patton
G. W. Payne
J. M. PODMORE
T. P. POLSON
A. D. Kennedy, Vice-
Chairman,
W. C. Pruett
C. S. Robinson
L. H. Roden
L. S. Rose
E. M. Smith
w. c. swartout
Raymond Swenk
H. E. Tyrrell
Stanton Walker
G. B. Wall, Jr.
C. S. Wicker
P. H. Winchester
A. H. Woerner
Committee
Died December 23, 1940.
To the American Railway Engineering Association:
Your committee reports on the following subjects:
1. Physical properties of earth materials:
(a) Their effect upon roadbed performance.
No report.
(b) Structural bearing power.
Progress report — submitted as information page 541
2. Natural waterways:
(a) Size of waterway openings, formulas.
Final report — with recommendations for inclusion in the Manual .... page 543
(b) Prevention of erosion.
No report.
3. Culverts:
(a) Vitrified clay pipe culverts — specifications.
Final report — with recommendations for inclusion in the Manual .... page 546
(b) Pipe line crossings. Specifications for non-inflammable substances under
pressure.
Progress report — ^intended for inclusion in the Manual in 1942 page 555
4. Formation of the roadway:
(a) Settlement; shrinkage, subsidence.
Final report — recommended for adoption to replace corresponding material now
in the Manual page 559
(b) Placing material in embankments. Consider preparation of receiving surface;
compaction by layers; spreading travel of equipment, rolHng, jetting, moisture
content, density requirements.
Progress report of special compaction of embankments, submitted as information
with recommendations for the revision of Section 33, "Formation of Layers" and
Section 34, "RoHing" of the Grading Specifications now in the Manual . . page 561
k
Bulletin 423, February, 1941.
539
540 Roadway and Ballast
5. Roadway drainage:
(a) Adherence to recommended practice.
No report.
(b) Effect of locomotive blow-offs on track maintenance, collaborating with
Committee 13 — Water Service, Fire Protection and Sanitation.
No report.
6. Roadway protection:
(a) Slope protection, including protection against slides and rock falls, collaborat-
ing with Committee II — Signal Section, AAR.
No report.
(b) Retaining structures:
(a) Cribbing; timber; concrete.
(b) Walls; dry rubble; masonry.
(c) Report on results obtained with sub-ballast slabs.
No report.
7. Tunnels:
Lighting
Final report — with recommendations for inclusion in the Manual page 565
8. Fences:
(a) Corrosion-resisting fence wire, collaborating with appropriate subcommittees
of Committee A-5 on Corrosion of Iron and Steel, ASTM.
Progress report — submitted as information page 566
(b) Wood fence posts, Specifications, etc.
Progress report — submitted as information with the expectation of offering specifi-
cations for adoption in 1942 page 567
(c) Electrified fences, collaborating with Committee 3 — Overhead Transmission
Line and Catenary Construction of the Electrical Section, Engineering Division,
AAR.
Progress report — submitted as information page 569
9. Signs:
(a) Design of signs.
Progress report — submitted as information page 570
(b) Specifications and plans for telltales — overhead and side.
No report.
10. Ballast:
(a) Section design.
Final report — with recommendations for inclusion in the Manual page 571
(b) Develop relationship of ballast materials between service behavior and results
obtained from Los Angeles testing machine.
No report.
(c) Investigate the use of asphalt in ballast.
Progress report — submitted as information page 571
(d) Adherence to stone specifications, particularly size.
Final report — with recommendations for inclusion in the Manual page 572
11. Revision of the Manual.
No report.
The Committee on Roadway and Ballast,
A. E, BoTTS, Chairman.
Roadway and Ballast S41
Report on Assignment 1 (b)
Physical Properties of Earth Materials
Structural Bearing Power
H. W. Legro (chairman, subcommittee), E. J. Beugler, H. F. BrowJi, Herbert Ensz,
F. L. Guy, Albert Haertlein, G. E. Ladd, Paul McKay, A. H. Woerner.
106. STRUCTURAL FOUNDATION SOILS
The purpose of a foundation is to support dead and live loads upon the earth in
such manner that the soil will not fail or undergo unequal deformation which would
harm the structure or be otherwise objectionable.
Certain fundamental principles concerning the relation of the footing to the founda-
tion must be observed; for example, the importance of the coincidence of the center of
pressure and the center of mass of the footing. In design, the distribution of dead and
live loads on the foundation depends greatly on the type of structure and nature of the
loads and requires trained judgment of the engineer. These matters must be taken into
account in the application of soil mechanics to foundation problems.
A. SETTLEMENT
In respect of settlement, soils under load may be classified under two basic divi-
sions: (a) Cohesive soils which include clays and sandy clays, and (b) cohesionless soils
of which sand, gravel and silt are the principal varieties. The behavior of these two
classes of soils differs greatly. Clay, for example, compresses very slowly due to the
slowness with which the contained moisture escapes. When a load is applied to a mass
of clay, the water first takes practically all the load. Then, as the water gradually
escapes under pressure, the soil skeleton composed of the clay particles carries more of
the applied load. Continued application tends to break down the internal structure, con-
soUdation takes place and settlement of the supported load results. Plastic or lateral
flow, if present, will also contribute to settlement.
With sand, the action is quite different. Each particle transmits its share of the
pressure received more directly to the adjacent particles. Consolidation is more rapid
and of a smaller magnitude, and unless vibration is present, a density will be reached
beyond which addition of load will have no effect until the ultimate resistance of the soil
is reached. Frictional resistance to lateral flow is much greater in granular soils.
The approach to the computation of settlement in cohesive soil is not, in theory,
different from the computations of deformations and deflections in a structure. The pro-
cedure is, first, compute the stresses; then, by means of the relations between stress and
deformation, compute the strains; and finally, by summation of the strains, obtain the
total movement, or settlement, at the surface.
The first part, the stress distribution in soil, is determined by equations developed
for the computation of stress distribution in elastic, isotropic and homogeneous solids.
As soils, however, possess these properties to Uttle degree, these computations can be
approximations only, but are useful if suitable allowances are made for the effects of
variations in soils.
The information required for the second part, that is, the relation between stress
and deformation in soil, may be obtained from laboratory tests of an undisturbed
sample of the soil. A comparatively simple test serves to determine the physical prop-
542 Roadway and Ballast
erties of the material for this condition. From the test, a pressure-void ratio curve is
obtained by measuring change in thickness due to increments of pressure at definite
intervals of time until equilibrium is reached. Thus a relation between load, time and
ultimate deformation may be obtained.
Deformation due to lateral flow, that is, failure in shear, generally is to be taken
into account in determining ultimate bearing capacity. In building construction, it seems
quite unHkely that ultimate bearing capacity will be reached with anything like present
practice as progressive settlement under such conditions would be excessive. Bridge
piers, earth embankments, dams, dikes, cofferdams, retaining walls and other structures
producing a highly concentrated load on soil are more likely to cause failure in shear,
or, otherwise expressed, exceed the ultimate bearing capacity.
An additional item to be considered in settlement of structures is the manner in
which the load is applied. The ratio of the depth of a foundation to its width or
diameter has a marked effect on its settlement under a given unit load. In cohesionless
soils, the settlement of a foundation under a given unit load is practically independent
of its width for large areas and directly proportional to the width for smaller areas;
while in soils having high cohesion and low internal friction, the settlement under a
given unit load increases directly with the diameter of the loaded area.
While it is important to design for the distribution of loads in soil with respec*
to its moisture content at the time of construction, it is also important to anticipate
future changes in moisture content. These may occur either by the raising or the
lowering of the water table.
If the moisture content of soil in which wood piles have been driven is materially
decreased, the preservative quality due to continuous submersion is lost and piling fails
from decay. When the ground water level is lowered in cohesive soils, the soil structure
undergoes change and structures with foundations designed for stability in the moisture-
bearing soil are likely to settle largely because of shrinkage of the soil mass. Granular
soil, if confined, may have considerable supporting power when merely saturated, but
that supporting power disappears if hydrostatic head is introduced. So-called quicksand
illustrates the effect of this condition.
B. BEARING CAPACITY
An assumption very commonly made is that for any given kind of soil there exists
a definite safe load intensity. Safe bearing values are not based alone upon a knowledge
of the properties and behavior of soils, but also upon the experience gained from observa-
tions made of existing foundations regarding which many pertinent facts are known.
Field loading tests and laboratory tests have a definite place in soil mechanics but in
the absence of other information, their results may be misleading. Field loading tests are
usually conducted with small-scale areas relative to the size of the foundation for the
structure. As above mentioned, bearing values for large and small areas are not
comparable.
Laboratory tests are valuable for measuring the physical properties of soil, but it is
necessary to consider that the soil sample under test has undergone some change during
the process of sampling that to some degree makes it different from the soil left undis-
turbed in the ground. It should be remembered also, that natural soil is not homogeneous,
and laboratory measurements reveal the properties of only the soil at the few spots
where the samples were taken.
Safe bearing loads for various kinds of soil as shown even in modern building
codes should be used for important structures only by an experienced engineer who can
Roadwav and Ballast 543
evaluate the effect of the many variables of his particular problem and modify as
necessary the application of tabular bearing values to his design.
Piling Foundations
The bearing capacity of piles depends on two different factors; first, the frictional
resistance acting along the sides of the pile, and second, the point resistance or resistance
of the soil against compression and displacement at the foot of the pile.
If the structure of clay is broken down during construction, by pile-driving for
instance, the effect is to increase the compressibility of the foundation area. A large
portion of the settlement of a foundation may be due to consolidation of the remolded
soil under its own weight rather than to the load distributed by the piles into the soil.
Usual pile-driving formulas are based on the energy of blow and penetration of the
pile, or a dynamic condition. What is desired is satisfactory static bearing capacity.
Thus, the driving formula is of value only in such cases as the dynamic resistance, or
rapid penetration, is some measure of the static bearing capacity, or slow penetration. In
sands, gravels and other relatively permeable, cohesionless soils, driving penetration and
static-load penetration are about the same. The dynamic formula in this case may give a
close approximation of the static resistance of an individual pile. In clays, silts and other
relatively impermeable, cohesive soils, there is no known relation between the dynamic
resistance and the static bearing capacity of piles, so that for such soils, a pile-driving
formula has not been developed that contains all factors necessary to produce satisfactory
results.
Comparing the penetration per blow immediately before with that after a period
of rest of at least 24 hours will determine whether the material of the foundation belongs
to the first or to the second class. If these two penetrations are alike, it is quite certain
that the material belongs in the first class, and that a pile-driving formula can be
expected to furnish fairly reliable results.
In all cases where the piles do not act strictly as columns, the summation of the
bearing power of the individual piles in a foundation may not represent the bearing
power of the foundation as a whole. The effect either of consolidating the soil by pile-
driving or of increasing the compressibility through re-molding must be considered in the
light of experience.
This report is presented as information.
Report on Assignment 2 (a)
Size of Waterway Openings, Formulas
L. S. Rose (chairman, subcommittee), E. J. Bayer, G. W. Miller, C. P. Nicholson, J. A.
Noble, M. C. Patton, G. W. Payne, T. P. Poison.
203. SIZE OF WATERWAY OPENINGS
A. FORMULAS
After all available data have been collected for the area under consideration the
next step in determining the proper size of a waterway opening is to reduce these data
to the quantity of water in cubic feet per second which will reach the opening. Where
no record of actual runoff measurement is available this is done with the aid of a runoff
formula or by tables or curves developed from formulas.
544 Roadway and Ballast
Many years of research have failed to develop a single formula which is applicable,
with any degree of accuracy, to all conditions. A bewildering number of factors, con-
stants and variants have been more or less ingeniously combined to make various form-
ulas fit the needs of given conditions. Nearly all such formulas contain some coefficient
C which groups many of these variables and the user is left with the problem of an
accurate evaluation of these factors. Text books, scientific papers and published discus-
sions all indicate that every runoff formula in more or less common use today has been
qualified either by the author, who has pointed out its limitations, or by other authorities
who have been free in their criticism. It is therefore apparent that the selection of a
formula and its factors must be made in each case with excellent judgment backed by
experience and careful observation.
Former reports of this committee contain practically all the formulas in use today,
with descriptive matter setting forth their limitations and usage. These will not be
repeated, but an understanding of the basic principles from which most of these formulas
evolve may be of value.
A study of runoff data in cubic feet per second platted against the square miles of
drainage areas, as analyzed by Jarvis,* indicates the relation,
M n
in which C and n are constants, M representing the square miles of drainage area and q
the runoff in cubic feet per second per square mile (See Fig. 1). Some authorities do not
agree with this conclusion, the principal reason being that it is based upon only one factor
of runoff, i.e., that of area. It is believed, however, that with the large number of ob-
servations made and for the purpose intended it does indicate the trend.
Based upon the above equation, the total runoff from the basin then would be
qM= -^^or Q = CM^
M~
This fundamental form is followed, with slight variations, by many of the widely used
formulas in which n generally takes a value between 1.5 and 6, and results in expressions
3 6 4-1
such as VM and through to VM^ For example, where n = 4, Q =i CM 4
3 4
or Q= CM* ,or 0 rr: C V M3.
In an attempt to reduce the many formulas to a common ground for comparison
Jarvis has selected the Myers type for modification and extension. In Myers formula
a = C^ A in which a equals the necessary area of opening, if velocity of flow is assumed
at 10 feet per second, A equals the area of the drainage basin in acres, and C is a co-
efficient varying from 1 to 4. Changing the area from acres to square miles; a =
C X 25.3 /'a ,— -
|/ 7T^> or fl^=CX25.3 vM. Then assuming C ^ 40 we have approximately
a = 1,000 VM and substituting Q, quantity, for a, area of opening, Q = aV or, with a
10-ft. velocity, Q = 10,000 VM. The resulting graph for Q, correlated with recorded
flood flows (Fig. 1) is found to lie above all but two platted points representing runoff
> Paper No. 1589— Flood Flow Characteristics— ASCE Transactions Vol. 89, 1926.
9000
8000
7000
6000
6000
4000
8000
2000
1000
900
800
700
0, 600
a 600
« 400
§ 300
c
CQ
« 200
04
o 90
% 80
03 70
.S 60
V 60
40
-3
o
20
o
s
1
s
10
1
9
8
1^
7
«M
6
o
1
6
V
4
JH
8
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.6
0.4
0.8
0.2
PLATE IX
TRAN8., AM. 80C. CIV. ENGR8.
VOL. 89, PAPER No. 15*9.
JARVIS ON
FLOOD FLOW CHARACTERISTICS.
4567891 2 3 4BC7S91
Hundreds Thousands
Areas of Drainage Basins in Square Milea
4 6 6 789 1
Haadr«d Xbousaada
1000
9
8
7
6
5
2 —
a: 100
_ 9
3 —
RELATION OF VARIOUS RUNOFF FORMULAS
TO DRAINAGE AREAS
TOTAL RUNOrF IN CUBIC FEET PER SECOND
a =CROSS SECTION OF WATERWAY IN SQUARE FEET
A =ORAINAGE AREA IN ACRES
M >=DRAINAGE AREA IN SQUARE MILES
T =TIME INTERVAL IN YEARS
C =A NUMERICAL COEFFICIENT
V =VELOCITY IN FEET PER SECOND
2 3 4 5 6 789 I
TENTHS
3 4 5 6 7 891
3 4567891 2 3 456789 I
TENS HUNDREDS
DRAINAGE AREA IN SQUARE MILES (M)
FIG. 2
2 3 4 567891
THOUSANDS
2 3 4 5 6 789 I
TEN THOUSANDS
2 3 4 567891
HUNDRED THOUSANDS
REPRODUCED FROM TRANS. AM SOC CIV ENGRS.
VOL 89- PAPER NO.I589 BY CS-JARVIS ON FLOOD
FLOW CHARACTERISTICS
Roadway and Ballast 545
rates and to conform closely with the enveloping curve, thus justifying the assumption
of C = 40 for maximum. This indicates that Myers maximum of C = 4 would corre-
spond to 10 percent of the maximum enveloping curve in Fig. 1.
Similarly for lower limits the path of the point, Q = 100 VM, conforms well with the
general slope and lies above only 5 percent of the more than 1,000 platted flood runoff
rates.
The wide range between the maximum and minimum curves illustrates clearly the
need of excellent judgment and careful consideration of all available data before any
important waterway structure is designed. As further evidence, recent studies made by
U. S. Army engineers, using the formula Q = C^M, indicates the danger of transfer-
ring a coefficient, which has been determined by actual measurements, from one water-
shed to another nearby or even to different areas in the same watershed. For example:
the curve for the upper Susquehanna basin follows the formula Q = 2,840 VM for areas
from 10 to 300 square miles, but for the remaining portion of the curve the coefficient
gradually increases until at 10,000 square miles it reaches a value of 4,000. Certain sec-
tions of the area have coefficients varying from 1,700 to 2,500 and in the Finger Lakes
region they run as high as 6,000.
Only the basic type of formula as correlated to actual measured flood discharges
has been considered. For a graphic illustration of the relationship between this formula
and other best known expressions of runoff see Fig. 2.
A very important factor in determining the quantity of runoff for which a structure
is to be designed is that of the time element or periodic expectancy of flood flows. Un-
fortunately stream flow records cover only a comparatively recent period and do not
yet permit the establishing of a dependable flood cycle if such a cycle actually exists.
For convenience, floods of different magnitudes are classified as 1, 10, 100 or 1,000-year
floods. It should be kept in mind, however, that the 100-year flood may occur next
year, followed a year later possibly by the 1,000-year flood. Several formulas have been
advanced f r determining the relationship of major floods of T years to those of a one
year maximum. Jarvis in his paper, referred to above, treats of this subject.' In spite of
the fact that no assurance can be had as to when so-called great floods will occur a flood
of some fixed maximum in most cases must be selected for design. This selection should
be based upon the following.
(a) First cost of structure
(b) Importance of structure
(c) Available detour lines
(d) Probable duration of flood flows
(e) Time required for replacement and cost
(f) Probable damage from back water
(g) Available overflow channels and areas.
SIZE OF OPENING
After the quantity of runoff has been determined for which the structure is to be
designed the wetted area of the opening then becomes a = — , in which Q = the total
yield of the watershed in cubic feet per second and V ^= velocity of flow in feet per
second. In most runoff formulas which solve direct for a, V is assumed at ten feet per
' See also, Flood Flows by Allen Hazen — Relief from Floods by Alvord and Burdick.
546 Roadway and Ballast
second. This figure however should not be taken arbitrarily. Consideration should be
given to the average rate of flow above and below the opening, the nature of the channel
material and the bridge foundation. In many cases, to avoid erosion the velocity should
not exceed two or three feet per second. It should also be kept in mind that if the
hydrauhc gradient of the stream is to be maintained no portion of the computed area
required should be above the elevation of the flood crest. However, additional headroom
should be provided to permit the free passage of floating debris. In general, this results
in low structures of long spans for wide streams and high structures of shorter spans
for narrow gorges. For pipe culverts, the elevation of the water surface may necessitate
a battery of smaller pipes instead of a large one of equivalent area.
CONCLUSIONS
Runoff formulas for determining the required sizes of waterway openings, although
not recommended, may be used where structures of low cost and minor importance are
involved, and when the formula is applied with an appreciation of its limitations, its
use is intended only as a guide, and the results are to be modified as other known data
and experience seem to demand.
This report was presented to the 1940 convention as information with the statement
that it would be offered this year for adoption and inclusion in the Manual, and it i.=
therefore so recommended.
Report on Assignment 3 (a)
Vitrified Clay Pipe Culverts — Specifications
W. C. Swartout (chairman, subcommittee), F. W. Capp, J. A. Given, Paul McKay, G. W.
Payne, L. H. Roden, E. M. Smith.
Last year your committee presented for your consideration as information, a
specification for Vitrified Clay Culvert Pipe adapted from ASTM Specification CI 3-3 5.
No criticisms of the specification have been received from any source and it has received
the approval of ASTM Committee C-4 on Clay Pipe to which it had been submitted.
The specification as presented below, with a few corrections of the form in which it
was published last year, is therefore submitted with the recommendation that it be
adopted and published in the Manual.
Ill CULVERTS
302. VITRIFIED CLAY PIPE CULVERTS
A. SPECIFICATIONS FOR VITRIFIED CLAY CULVERT PIPE
Extra Strong or Triple Strength
Adapted from ASTM Specification C 13-35
GENERAL
I. Scope
These specifications cover vitrified clay pipe intended to be used for the construction
of culverts and other projects where conditions require that extra-strength pipe be used.
Roadway and Ballast 547
2. Materials
(a) Clay pipe shall be manufactured from surface clay, fire clay, or shale or a
combination of these materials.
(b) These materials or any combination thereof, when molded into pipe and sub-
jected to suitable temperatures, shall produce a product that wDl be strong, durable,
serviceable, free from objectionable defects and shall conform to these specifications.
RESISTANCE TO ACTION OF ACIDS
3. Resistance to Action of Acids
The following tests as to the resistance of clay culvert pipe to the action of acids
may be prescribed.
When testing with either hydrochloric, nitric, sulfuric or acetic acid, as specified by
the purchaser, the acid having a normality of one (1.0 N)\ the percentage of acid-soluble
matter shall not exceed 0.25 percent, calculated as sulfates. The purpose of this test
is to determine the resistance of pipe to the action of acids and its use is optional.
4. Test specimens
Where possible the specimens intended for these tests shall be selected from pipes
which have been previously subjected to the crushing strength test. Specimens shall be
sound with all edges freshly broken, free from cracks or shattered edges, about 2 inches
square, not weighing more than 200 g. and shall be thoroughly cleaned with a wire brush.
5. Number of Tests
A test shall be made on at least one specimen cut from each size of pipe. The
results shall be reported separately for each individual specimen.
6. Weighing Apparatus
The weighing shall be made on a balance accurate to 0.01 g. when loaded with
200 g.
7. Test Procedure
(a) Specimens to be tested shall be dried to constant weight at a temperature of from
210 to 230 degrees F.
(b) The specimens upon reaching constant weight shall be completely immersed in
the test solution at a temperature of from 70 to 90 degrees F. for a period of 48 hours,
then removed from the solution, carefully and thoroughly washed with hot water, allowing
the washings to run into the solution in which the specimen was immersed. This solution
shall be filtered and to the filtrate shall be added 5 ml. of concentrated sulfuric acid.
This solution shall then be evaporated (avoiding loss of spattering) to about 5 ml.;
transferred to a porcelain crucible (previously ignited to constant weight) and heated
cautiously to dryness. It shall then be ignited to constant weight.
8. Calculation
The weight of the residue in the porcelain crucible divided by the weight of the dry
specimen before immersion, multiplied by 100, is the percentage of acid-soluble matter
calculated as sulfates.
., , , , ,. Wt. of residue in grams X 100
Percentage acid-soluble matter =-— — r^ H^
Wt. of dry specimen in grams.
^ The following percentages are required to make an acid of a normality of one: sulfuric acid, 4.90
percent; hydrochloric acid, 3.65 percent; nitric acid, 6.30 percent; acetic acid, 6.00 percent.
548
Roadway and Ballast
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND TESTS
9. Physical Requirements
The crushing strength and absorption of clay culvert pipe shall conform to the re-
quirements given in Table 1. The individual results of the various tests for each size of
pipe and for each shipment shall be tabulated separately so as to show the percentage
which fails to conform to the requirements of each test.
10. Test Specimens
The specimens for purpose of tests shall be sound full-size pipe and shall be selected
by the purchaser or his representative at the point or points designated by him when
placing the order.
11. Number of Tests
(a) The manufacturer or seller shall furnish specimens for test, without charge, up to
0.5 percent of the number of pipes in each size of pipe furnished, except that in no case
shall less than two specimens be furnished.
(b) In any case where more than five specimens are required for testing, not more
than five specimens shall be crushed to the point of failure. All specimens in excess of
five which show a testing strength of 10 percent above the requirements of this specifica-
tion shall be removed from the testing apparatus without being broken.
12. Measurement and Observation of Specimens
The specimens taken from pipe tested to destruction, shall be first freed from all
visible moisture. When dry, each specimen shall be measured and inspected. The results
of these observations shall be recorded.
13. Defective Specimens
Specimens which are observed to have fire cracks or other defects in form or
dimensions in excess of the limits permitted in these specifications, shall be discarded
and replaced with additional specimens from the shipment.
Table 1
Physical Test Requirements of Clay Culvert Pipe
Average crushing strength
minimum, Pounds per Linear
Foot
Three-Edge Sand-
Bearing Bearing
Internal Diameter, Inches Method Method^
12 2,000 2,860
15 2,500 3,570
18 3,000 4,290
21 3,500 5,000
24 4,000 5,710
27 4,500 6,430
30 5,000 7,140
33 5,500 7,860
36 6,000 8,570
' See Section 16.
' See Section 17.
Average
Absorption
Maximum
Percent
8
8
Roadway and Ballast
549
CRUSHING STRENGTH
14. Crushing Strength Tests
Pipe shall be tested for crushing strength by either the three-edge-bearing method
or the sand-bearing method. Either of the two specified bearing methods shall be used on
retests as provided for in Section 24 (a) and (b).
15. Application of Load
(a) Any prime mover or hand power which will apply the load at a uniform rate
of about 2,000 pounds per minute or in increments of not more than 100 pounds at the
same rate, may be used in making the test.
(b) The center of the load shall be applied to the top bearing block at a point
distant from the spigot end of the pipe equal to one-half of the over-all length of the
pipe. The test load shall be applied to the upper bearing block in such a way as to leave
the bearing free to move in a vertical plane passing midway between the lower bearings.
In testing pipe that is "out of straight," the lines of the bearings chosen shall be free
from those which appear to give most favorable conditions for fair test.
(c) The pipe shall not be allowed to stand under load longer than is required to
apply the load and to observe and record it.
(d) The testing machine shall be substantial and rigid throughout, so that the dis-
tribution of the load will not be affected appreciably by the deformation or yielding of
any part. The bearings shall be sufficiently rigid to transmit and receive uniform loads
throughout their lengths without deflection, and shall be so attached to the machine as to
transmit and receive the maximum loads produced by the tests without lost motion,
vibration, or sudden shock.
Socket
(beyond bearing)
^^ Barrel of Pipe
^ _ _ Space /"per foot
of Diameter but
Not Less than I"
Plaster of-
Paris fillet
'^yy. K At Least 6"x6"
Fig. 1. — Three-Edge Bearings.
(e) The bearings and the specimen shall be accurately centered so as to secure a
symmetrical distribution of the loading on each side of the center of the pipe in every
direction.
(f) The load shall be applied until the pipe yields by cracks passing through the shell.
(g) The crushing strength shall be calculated by dividing the total load required
to break each pipe by the net inside length of the barrel of the pipe, measuring from
the bottom of the socket to the end of the spigot.
550 Roadway and Ballast
16. Three-Edge-Bearing Method
When the three-edge-bearing method (See Fig. 1) is used, the ends of each specimen
of pipe shall be accurately marked in halves of the circumference prior to the test.
The two lower bearings shall consist of two wooden strips with vertical sides having
their interior top corners rounded to a radius of approximately Yz inch. The strips shall
be straight and securely fastened to a rigid block at least 6 by 6 inch in cross-section.
The interior vertical sides of the strips shall be parallel and a distance apart of 1 inch
per foot of pipe diameter but in no case less than 1 inch. Before the pipe is placed, a
fillet of plaster of Paris or other equalizing material, such as sand and sulfur, thick
enough to compensate for the inequalities of the pipe barrel shall be cast on and between
the two lower bearings. The pipe shall be placed on the fillet while the plaster of Paris
is still somewhat plastic. The use of the plaster of Paris fillet may be dispensed with
when mutually agreeable to the manufacturer and the purchaser. The upper bearing
shall be a rigid wooden block at least 6 by 6 inch in cross-section, straight and true
from end to end. A fillet of plaster of Paris thick enough to compensate for the inequali-
ties of the pipe barrel shall be cast along the length of the crown. The upper bearing
shall be brought in contact while the plaster of Paris is still somewhat plastic. The upper
and lower bearings shall extend the full length of the pipe exclusive of socket.
17. Sand-Bearing Method
When the sand-bearing method (see Fig. 2) is used the ends of each specimen of
pipe shall be accurately marked in quarters of the circumference prior to the test.
Specimens shall be carefully bedded, above and below, in sand, for one-fourth the
circumference of the pipe measured on the middle line of the barrel. The depth of bedding
above and below the pipe at the thinnest points shall be one-half the radius of the
middle line of the barrel.
The sand used shall be clean and moist, and shall be such as will pass a 4760-micron
(No. 4) sieve.^ The sand in the lower bearing shall be loose when the pipe is placed.
The top bearing frame shall not be allowed to come in contact with the pipe nor
with the top bearing plate. The upper surface of the sand in the top bearing shall be
struck off level with a straight edge, and shall be covered with a rigid top bearing
plate, with lower surface a true plane, made of heavy timbers or other rigid material,
capable of distributing the test load uniformly without appreciable bending. The test
load shall be applied at the exact center of this top bearing plate in such a manner as to
permit free motion of the plate in all directions. For this purpose a spherical bearing
is preferred, but two rollers at right angles may be used. The test may be made without
the use of a testing machine by piling weights directly on a platform resting on the top
bearing plate, provided, however, that the weights shall be piled symmetrically about a
vertical line through the center of the pipe, and that the platform shall not be allowed to
touch the top bearing frame.
The frames of the top and bottom bearings shall be made of timbers so heavy as to
avoid appreciable bending by the side pressure of sand. The interior surfaces of the
frames shall be dressed. No frame shall come in contact with the pipe during the test. A
strip of cloth may, if desired, be attached to the inside of the upper frame on each side,
along the lower edge, to prevent the escape of sand between the frame and the pipe.
' For requirements for this sieve, see Standard Specifications for Sieves for Testing Pun>oses (ASTM
Designation: E-11), 1933 Book of ASTM standards, Part II, p. 1244.
Roadwav and Ballast
SSI
Bedding of Barrel
j^:
^^^^
aj4;::ji--=t-"T" -"a- -|- y -„- r r ' '
"T^r---i.i__'i_Xj \ 1
Bj irv-j.-i 1-- — l] 1
' ' ■ ' '
.K- L
Kf L,-
• 'TTf:- S.IM
SL I'-l-
Bedding of Socket.
. Bolfs.
k
A
A U^l kl h
V llil k>-l fe
^<"'ls Upper
Bearing Frame.
"V
Side View,
Fig. 2. — Sand Bearings
ABSORPTION TEST
18. Test Specimens
The specimens shall be sound pieces, with all edges broken, and may be from pipes
broken in the crushing tests. They shall be from 12 to 20 sq. in. in area, and shall be as
nearly square as they can be readily prepared. They shall be free from observable cracks,
fissures, laminations or shattered edges.
19. Identification
Each specimen shall be marked so that it may be identified with the pipe used in
the crushing strength test from which the specimen was taken. The marking shall be
applied so that the pigment used shall not cover more than 1 percent of the total
superficial area of the specimen.
20. Number of Tests
One specimen shall be tested of each pipe broken in crushing strength test.
552
Roadway and Bal last
21. Weighing Apparatus
The balance used shall be sensitive to O.S g. when loaded with 1 kg. and weighing
shall be read to the nearest 1 g. When other than metric weights are used, the same
degree of accuracy shall be obtained.
22. Procedure
(a) Drying — Preparatory to the absorption test, the specimen shall be brought to
constant weight in a drier or oven at a temperature of not less than 110 degrees C. (230
degrees F.)
(b) Immersion — After reaching constant weight, the specimen shall be placed with
other similar specimens in a suitable wire receptacle, packed tightly enough to prevent
jostling, covered with distilled water or rainwater, raised to the boiling point and boiled
for five hours, and then cooled in water to a final temperature of IS to 25 degrees C.
(59 to 77 degrees F.)
(c) Reweighing — The specimen shall be allowed to drain for one minute, and after
the superficial moisture has been removed by towel or blotting paper, the specimen shall
be placed upon the balance and weighed.
r
1
1
1
1
V _ —
I
1 . 1
— _ »
+
'^
V
Fig. 3. — Apphca-
tions of Dimensions
Given in Table 2.
23. Calculation and Reporting of Results
The absorption shall be calculated as percentage of the initial dry weight. The results
shall be reported separately for each individual specimen, together with the mean for all
the specimens from the same shipment of pipe.
24. Acceptance or Rejection on Results of Test
(a) Failure of 20 percent of the specimens to meet the requirements of crushing
strength and/or absorption tests shall result in rejection of all the pipe in the shipment
or delivery, corresponding to the sizes thus failing to comply; except that in the event
of 20 percent of the specimens in any size failing to meet the requirements the manu-
Roadway and Ballast SS3
facturer or seller may, with the consent of the purchaser, furnish for test, without
charge, additional specimens from the same shipment. In case more than 80 percent
of the specimens tested, including those first tested, shall show substantial conformance
for each of the various tests performed, then the entire shipment or delivery for this
size shall be accepted; otherwise it shall be rejected.
(b) However, in case of failure of pipe to meet the requirements under the speci-
fied method, and the accuracy of the testing machine is questioned, a retest at the
request of the manufacturer shall be made upon a machine whose accuracy is known or
the machine originally used shall be recalibrated before the retest is made.
(c) In addition to the requirements in Paragraph (a) failure of 10 percent or more
of the individual specimens tested to develop 75 percent of the average crushing strength
requirements shall be cause for the rejection of the shipment, but the manufacturer or
seller may cull the pipe and submit the balance of the shipment for retest, and if the
shipment then conforms to all of the requirements of these specifications it shall be
accepted.
SIZES, DIMENSIONS AND PERMISSIBLE VARIATIONS
25. Sizes and Dimensions
Pipes shall be furnished of the sizes, internal diameter and with the dimensions given
in Table 2.
26. Permissible Variations
The permissible variations from the dimensions given in Table 2 shall not exceed
those specified in Table 3. Where the average diameter in the spigot is larger than the
nominal size, the average diameter at the inside of the socket shall be increased by the
same amount. Where the thickness of the barrel is increased beyond that given in Table 2,
in order to meet the specified requirements of strength, the diameter at the inside of
the socket shall be increased by double the increase in thickness of the barrel. Pipes
intended to be straight shall have a maximum ordinate as measured from the concave
side of the pipe not to exceed % inch per foot of length.
WORKMANSHIP AND FINISH
27. Absence of Defects
Pipes shall be substantially free from fractures, large or deep cracks and blisters,
laminations and surface roughness.
28. Salt Glaze
The glaze shall consist of a continuous layer of salt glaze substantially free from
large blisters or large pimples. No blisters shall exceed 3 inches in diameter and no
blisters or pimples shall project more than % inch above the surrounding surface of the
pipe for sizes up to and including 18 inches internal diameter. For sizes over 18 inches
internal diameter no blisters shall exceed in diameter more than 2 inches per foot of the
internal diameter of the pipe, nor project above the surrounding surface of the pipe more
than % inch per foot of the internal diameter of the pipe.
Not more than 10 percent of the inner surface of any pipe barrel shall be bare of
glaze except the socket, where it may be entirely absent. Glazing shall not be required on
the outer surface of the barrel at the spigot ond for a distance from the end of the pipe
equal to the specified depth of socket. There shall be no well defined network of crazing
Unes or hair cracks. ,
554
Roadway and Ballast
Table 2
Dimensions of Clay Culvert Pipe"
Internal Laying
Diameter Length
(D) Inches (L) Ft.
U 3
IS 3
18 3
21 3
24 3
27 3
30 3
33 3
36 3
Inside
Diam. at
Mini-
y^Inch
mum
Above
Depth
Taper
Thick-
Thick-
Base of
of
of
ness of
ness of
Socket
Socket
Socket
Barrel
Socket
(Ds) In}"^
(Ls) In.
(H
L.)
(T) In.
(Tn)
155/^
2V4
20
1%
The thickness
19^
23/4
20
1/2
of the socket
23
3
20
iVs
y2 inch from
26^
3J4
20
2^
its outer end
303/g
m
20
2V2
s h a 1 1 be not
34^
3/2
20
ly^
less than
375/^
33/2
20
3
three-fourths
41J4
4
20
3^
of the speci-
4434
4
20
3/2
fied thickness
of the barrel
of the pipe.
" Applications of dimensions given in this table are shown in Fig. 3.
•• When pipes are furnished having an increase in thiclcness over that given in last column, the
diameter of socket shall be increased by an amount equal to twice the increase of thickness of barrel.
<> When the pipes furnished have an average diameter larger than the nominal size, the inside
diameter of the socket shall be greater by the same amount than the values given in the third column.
Table 3
Permissible Variations in Dimensions of Clay Culvert Pipe
Limits of Permissible Variation in:
Lengths of Internal
Nominal Length, Two Opposite Diameter Depth
Size inches Sides, inches inches of
Internal per per foot Spigot Socket Socket
Diameter, in. ft.( — ) of length (-{-or — ) (-{-or — ) in. ( — )
12 ^ ^ ^ H Ya
IS Ya ^ ^ % Ya
18 Ya iff tfe Yi Ya
21 Ya ^ Y2 A 54
24 3/^ J4 T^ff §^ J4
2J H Ya n H Ya
30 Yfi Ya Vi H Ya
33 Yi Ya H Va Ya
36 V^ Ya Va it Ya
Thickness
of
Barrel
in. (-)
%
A
Ya
Ya
Note — The minus sign ( — ) alone indicates that the plus variation is not limited, the plus and
minus sign (-|- or — ) indicates variation in both excess and deficiency in dimensions.
29. Finish of Ends
The ends of the pipes shall be square with their longitudinal axes, except as provided
in Table 3.
MARKING, INSPECTION AND REJECTION
30. Marking
Each length of pipe shall bear the initials or name of the person, company or corpora-
tion by whom manufactured and the location of the factory. The markings shall be
indented on the exterior of the pipe near the socket and shall be plainly legible for
purposes of identification.
Roadway and Ball a s t 555
31. Inspection
All pipes shall be subject to inspection at the factory, site of project or other point
of delivery by a competent inspector employed by the purchaser. The purposes of the
inspection shall be to cull and reject pipes which, independent of the physical tests herein
specified, fail to conform to the requirements of these specifications.
32. Rejection
Pipes shall be subject to rejection on account of the following:
(a) Variations in any dimension exceeding the permissible variations given in
Table 3.
(b) Fractures or cracks passing through the shell or socket except a single crack
at the spigot end of the pipe not exceeding 75 percent of the depth of the socket, or a
single fracture in the socket not exceeding 3 inches measured around the circum-
ference, nor 2 inches lengthwise.
(c) Chips or fractures on the interior of the pipe exceeding 2 inches in length,
1 inch in width, and of a depth more than one-quarter of the thickness of the shell.
(d) Blisters which are broken or which exceed the dimensions specified in
Section 28.
(e) Fire cracks or hair cracks sufficient to impair the strength, durability or
serviceability of the pipe.
(f) Variation of more than ^ inch per linear foot in alinement of a pipe
intended to be straight.
(g) Glaze which does not conform with these specifications as specified in
Section 28.
33. Marking of Rejected Specimens
All pipes accepted may be plainly marked by the inspector. Rejected pipes shall not
be marked so as to be defaced or to impair their value, but shall be replaced by the
manufacturer or seller with pipes which meet the requirements of these specifications,
without additional cost to the purchaser.
Report on Assignment 3 (b)
Pipe Line Crossings — Specifications, for Non-inflammable
Substances Under Pressure
W. C. Swartout (chairman, subcommittee), F. W. Capp, J. A. Given, Paul McKay, G. W.
Payne, L. H. Roden, E. M. Smith.
In 1933, the Association adopted Specifications for Pipe Line Crossings Under Rail-
way Tracks. These are inclusive specifications for pipe lines carrying all substances and
were worked out in collaboration with Committee 20 of this A.ssociation and the American
Petroleum Institute after a protracted series of conferences.
It is believed that these specifications have been found satisfactory and workable,
but they are too rigorous for pipe Hnes carrying non-inflammable substances, hence the
assignment for this year's work "Pipe line crossings — Specifications, for non-inflammable
substances under pressure."
556 Roadway and Ballast
Your committee has prepared such specifications which are offered as information
this year for the purpose of inviting criticisms and suggestions with the thought of sub-
mitting them, with any revisions deemed desirable, at the 1942 convention for adoption
and inclusion in the Manual. Before these specifications can be adopted and included in
the Manual, it will be necessary to adopt a revision of the Specifications for Pipe Line
Crossings Under Railway Tracks Carrying Inflammable Substances referred to above.
The committee recommends that the first paragraph of Specifications for Pipe Line
Crossings under Railway Tracks, A. For Inflammable Substances, (page 1-2S of Manual) ,
be revised by deleting the last clause of the first sentence reading "or any substance
which from its nature or pressure might cause damage if escaping on or in vicinity of
railway property" as shown below. This revision is necessary in order that separate
specifications may be submitted to cover Pipe Line Crossings under Railway Tracks,
B. For Non-inflammable Substances.
Present Form
Pipe lines included under these specifications are those installed to carry oil, gas,
gasoline or other inflammable or highly volatile substance, under pressure, or any sub-
stancef which from its nature or pressure might cause damage if escaping on or in vicinity
of railway property. Gas transmission and distribution lines in city streets, carrying less
than 45 pounds pressure, are not to be considered as coming under these specifications.
Proposed Form
Pipe lines included under these specifications are those installed to carry oil, gas,
gasoline or other inflammable or highly volatile substance, under pressure. Gas trans-
mission and distribution lines in city streets, carrying less than 45 pounds pressure, are
not to be considered as coming under these specifications.
It is further recommended that each paragraph of these specifications be given a
heading as shown in skeleton form below;
1. Scope
Pipe hnes included under these, etc.
2. Installation
Pipe lines under railway tracks, etc.
3. Carrier Pipe
Carrier line pipe inside, etc.
4. Casing Pipe
Casing pipe and joints may, etc.
5. Seals
Where ends of casing are below ground, etc.
6. Depth of Casing
Where practicable the depth from, etc.
7. Length of Casing
Casing shall extend at least, etc.
Roadway and Ball a s t
S57
8. Shut-Off Valves
Where warranted by special local conditions, etc.
9. Location
Pipe lines shall, where practicable, etc.
10. Topography
Crossings under railway tracks, etc.
11. Approval of Plans
Plans for proposed crossing, etc.
Your committee submits the following specifications as information and invites
comments and criticisms. It is proposed, as stated above, to submit these to the 1942
convention for inclusion in the Manual.
309. Pipe Line Crossings — Specifications
B. FOR NON-INFLAMMABLE SUBSTANCES
1. Scope
Pipe hnes included under these specifications are those installed to carry steam,
water or any non-inflammable substance which from its nature or pressure might cause
damage if escaping on or in the vicinity of railway property.
2. Installation
Pipe lines under railway track shall be encased in a larger pipe or conduit installed
as indicated in Fig. 1.
5 o rfa ce -^
'Subgrode /^
^^
^^=^r
4.Ft6Ir\Mir\.
/-No 5cal-5ceNo+el •
«— ^
.^im,-^
'\^5eal-iec Hotel
^ 1-5 D-
NOTE:-
l. Seal not retyj\red if Casing ends oboVc Ground Where
Drainage ib available.
Fig. I.
3. Carrier Pipe
Carrier line pipe inside the casing under the railway track and right-of-way shall
be of approved construction.
4. Casing Pipe
Casing pipe and joints may be of any approved conduit construction and shall be
capable of withstanding the load of railway roadbed, track and traffic; al.so shall be so
constructed as to prevent leakage of any matter from the casing or conduit throughout
558 Roadway and Ballast
its length under the track and railway right-of-way except at the ends of the casing or
conduit where the ends are left open. The casing shall be so installed as to prevent the
formation of a waterway under the railway.
Casing shall be installed with even bearing throughout its length and shall slope to
one end.
The inside diameter of the casing shall be at least 2 inches greater than the largest
outside diameter of the carrier pipe, joints or couplings.
5. Seals
Where the ends of the casing are below ground they shall be suitably protected
against the entrance of foreign material, which might prevent ready removal of the
carrier pipe.
Where the ends of the casing are at or above ground surface and above high water
level they may be left open, provided drainage is afforded in such a manner that
leakage will be conducted away from the roadbed and structures.
6. Depth of Casing
The top of the carrier pipe shall be below the frost line, and at its closest point
shall not be less than 4^ feet below base of railway rail. On other portions of the rail-
way right-of-way where the casing is not directly beneath any track the depth from the
surface of the ground and from the bottom of ditches to the top of the casing, shall be
not less than 3 feet. Where it is not practicable to secure the above depths, special
construction shall be used.
7. Length
Casing shall extend each side from the center line of the outside track, measured
at right angles, a minimum distance of 11 feet -|- 5 feet -f- 1.5D (Where D equals the
depth of the bottom of the casing below subgrade). See Fig. 1. If additional tracks are
constructed in the future, the casing shall be correspondingly extended.
8. Shut-Off Valves
Where warranted by special local conditions, and when mutually agreed to by the
railroad company and the owner of the pipe line, accessible emergency shut-off valves
shall be installed within effective distance at each side of the crossing.
9. Approval of Plans
Plans for a proposed crossing shall be submitted to and approved by the Chief
Engineer or authorized representative of the railway before installation is begun and
the execution of the work on the railway right-of-way, including the supporting of the
track, shall be subject to his inspection and direction.
Roadway and Ballast 559
Report on Assignment 4 (a)
Formation of the Roadway — Settlement; Shrinkage, Subsidence
Paul Chipman (chairman, subcommittee), F. W. Alexander, E. J. Beugler, Clifton
Brannon, Herbert Ensz, Albert Haertlein, G. E. Ladd, Raymond Swenk.
In order to supplement the substance of present Manual material relating to shrink-
age and subsidence by adding the conclusions reported last year as information, the
committee recommends that material under "C. Shrinkage and Subsidence", pages 1-35
and 1-36, be withdrawn and that it be replaced by new material under the caption
"C. Settlement of Embankments."
Present Form
C. SHRINKAGE AND SUBSIDENCE
1. General
(a) In determining the allowance for shrinkage to be made in a fill, it should be
remembered primarily that it is easier to add to the height of a fill that settles than to
lower the track if the settlement does not amount td as much as that anticipated in the
original allowance. Therefore, unless the shrinkage of a material is well known in the
conditions under which the fill is made, it is best to be well on the safe side; i.e., little
or no allowance should be made in height; the extra material, when possible, being de-
posited where it will be conveniently available for raising the track, as required. The
allowance in width should be from, about 5 percent to 20 percent of the height of the
fill, depending on the'material and conditions.
(b) The material used for fill varies in shrinkage from sound, non-disintegrating
rock, or gravel, which is least, to certain swelling clays, which give the greatest shrinkage
both in compactibility and erosion at the slopes. While vegetable loam has a large per-
centage of actjial shrinkage, it so quickly produces a protection cover of vegetation that
the shrinkage due to erosion is usually small. Where frozen material must be used in
making a fill, heavy settlement must be expected, and this is to be avoided where possible.
(c) The material and contour of the ground supporting the fill is also a matter of
considerable importance. This is especially so where unstable material is encountered.
(d) The method of making the fill should also be carefully considered. When the
tracks are being raised under traffic, the vertical shrinkage will be largely taken care of
in the course of the work. When the fill is made by teams or such means as to reason-
ably tamp and compact the fill in thin layers, as it is made, the same is true. Where,
however, the fill is made by trestle and without puddling or other method of compacting,
the settlement is apt to be considerable.
2. Allowance for Shrinkage and Subsidence in Estimating
(a) Shrinkage:
(1) Figure a shrinkage of 10 percent of quantities measured in excavation on earth
removed from excavation to embankment.
(2) Ascertain local conditions and results and use them as a guide in estimating
swell of rock, considering nature of formation and method of handling.
(b) Subsidence:
(1) Some subsidence occurs under all embankments built on any ground except
rock. It is very light in sand and gravel. The percentage of subsidence is in general
greater under small fills than under large ones.
560 Roadway and Ballast
(2) Subsidence is due to compression or displacement of the strata of earth under
the embankment.
(3) Subsidence must always be anticipated in swamps, marshes and bogs, and any
land on which there is standing water.
(4) Serious subsidence is local and it is impossible to fix any rule as a guide in
estimating or anticipating same.
Proposed Form
C. SETTLEMENT OF EMBANKMENTS
Shrinkage
The shrinkage of an embankment after construction depends almost entirely on
two factors. One is the material of which it is made, the other the methods used in
making it.
Kind of Material
Embankments made of rock which does not disintegrate or of gravel have prac-
tically no shrinkage, and shrinkage of clean sand is small. For other materials, the
method of placement is the controlling factor. Aside from this factor, shrinkage in gen-
eral increases with the amount of clay or organic matter, or both, in the soil mixture,
being greatest in certain clays which swell extensively in the process of excavation.
Construction Methods
Future shrinkage of compactable soils can be eliminated , by rolling, combined with
regulation of the moisture content to approach the optimum as determined by tests.
In fills made by dumping from above, as in filling bridges, widening banks, or end
dumping of trucks, the natural shrinkage is not greatly reduced by the construction
process, and additional compaction at such places is desirable and economical. Fills
made with heavy hauling equipment, with teams and scrapers, or by lifting track
under traffic are quite compact and have little shrinkage. Additional compaction by
sprinkling and rolling is desirable where the soil is dry or where heavy or fast traffic is
to be carried.
Allowance for Shrinkage
It is easier to add to the height of a fill that settles than to lower the track. No
vertical allowance for future settlement should therefore be made unless it can be
estimated from past behavior of the same material under similar conditions; but addi-
tional width to the extent of about three times the maximum probable shrinkage should
be provided.
Shrinkage from Cut to Fill
The foregoing relates to shrinkage after construction. Shrinkage during construction
from volume in excavation to volume in embankment likewise varies with the kind of
material and method of construction but an average figure of 10 percent for earth will
usually be close enough for estimating quantities and distribution of earthwork. For
swell of rock the behavior of similar material under similar conditions should be
ascertained if possible.
Subsidence
1. Some subsidence occurs under all embankments built on any ground except rock.
It is very light in sand and gravel. The percentage of subsidence is in general greater
under small fills than under larger ones.
Roadway and Ballast 561
2. Subsidence is due to compression or displacement of the earth under the
embankment.
3. Subsidence must always be anticipated in swamps, marshes and bogs and any
land on which there is standing water.
4. Where any considerable amount of subsidence is anticipated, particularly sub-
sidence due to displacement, adequate depth tests should be taken and a study of the
material made, in order to determine the method of treatment and to make an estimate
of the amount of filling material required.
5. Good construction practice will avoid future subsidence by carrying the fill to
solid ground by:
(a) Setting the partly made fill by means of explosives or jetting.
(b) Excavating a short section of the soft material and replacing it with suitable
material dumped over the end of the advancing fill.
(c) A combination of these methods.
6. Railroad embankments subject to continuing subsidence should be studied to
determine whether their stabilization would be economically justified.
Report on Assignment 4 (b)
Placing Material in Embankments
Consider Preparation of Receiving Surface; Compaction by Layers; Spread-
ing Travel of Equipment, Rolling, Jetting, Moisture Content,
Density Requirements
Paul Chipman (chairman, subcommittee), F. W. Alexander, E. J. Beugler, Clifton
Brannon, Herbert Ensz, Albert Haertlein, G. E. Ladd, Raymond Swenk.
Highway Practice
Special compaction of embankments has in recent years become the standard prac-
tice of a number of state highway departments and has been used in railroad construction
to a limited but growing extent. Specifications for such work all require that material be
spread in level layers of uniform thickness, usually six or eight inches, and rolled with
either a tamping (sheepsfoot) roller or a ten-ton or heavier self-propelled roller; although
in some specifications only the former is permitted. Requirements as to the amount of
rolling vary in different specifications. The minimum number of trips may be specified,
rolling until no further compaction takes place, or rolling to the satisfaction of the
engineer; but the tendency is toward requiring 90 percent or more of the maximum
density at the optimum moisture content as determined by tests of the material.
In these tests, which were devised by R. R. Proctor, field engineer, Bureau of
Waterworks and Supply of Los Angeles, Calif., the moisture content most favorable to
compaction is determined by measuring resistance to penetration at different moisture
contents, and the density of compacted soil at the optimum moisture content is ascer-
tained. These tests and the apparatus for making them have been standardized and the
latter may be purchased in the market. Further description may be found in the refer-
ences given in the bibliography included in this report. The "Soils Manual" issued by
the State Highway Commission of Kansas, is especially complete in regard to the theory
and application of these tests.
562 Roadway and Ballast __^
The foregoing relates to compactable materials. Rock, gravel and clean sand do not
compact under rolling; but spreading in layers is a general requirement, two feet being
a thickness commonly used. The practice of settling embankments by jetting or ponding,
or both, has been used to some extent by certain highway departments. It has now been
largely superseded by mechanical compaction where the materials admit, but is still used
to some extent for clean sand and sandy gravel.
If all shrinkage of a fill is to be prevented, it is not consistent to place it on loose
soil. Specifications, therefore, usually require that under fills which are to be compacted,
the surface be plowed and then compacted in the same manner as the fill itself.
Applicability to Railroad Embankments
The extent to which such methods are applicable to railroad construction is a sub-
ject that merits discussion. A small amount of unequal settlement under a concrete
highway produces a roughness of surface that can be corrected only at considerable
expense; but in a railroad fill, such irregularities are ehminated by surfacing the track.
This being accompHshed, the slight dip below the original grade line which might result
from shrinkage of a fill made with modern equipment, but without rolhng or sprinkling,
would have no appreciable effect on cost of operation or riding comfort.
The sole disadvantage of the practice is its initial cost. This is made up of two
parts, the cost of additional compaction and the cost of additional material required to
make the more compact embankment. The latter is relatively small, and for higher fills
is practically offset by not having to widen them to provide a base for future hfts
necessitated by shrinkage.
The cost of sprinkling is the variable element. For earth dams, where impermeability
is essential, a close approach to the optimum moisture content is desirable; but a degree
of compaction that will prevent appreciable shrinkage can be attained at the moisture
content usually found in compactable soils when freshly excavated. In most localities,
the necessity for adding water in compacting railroad fills would be exceptional.
There is quite a range in the cost of such work reported by a number of state
highway departments, also the Missouri Pacific Lines, as shown below:
Illinois No definite figure, but mechanical compaction costs less than
the water soaking formerly used, which cost 3 cents to 4 cents
per cubic yard.
Averages
1937 1938 1939
Cents Cents Cents
Kansas Rolling and tamping 3.4 2.1 1.8
Class A Compaction 2.9 3.8
Class B " 2.0 2.2
Missouri Average 4 cents in 1939, not including water.
Ohio Think compaction has not increased cost.
North Carolina 2 cents to 4 cents.
Minnesota 1 cent to 2 cents, not including water, which might vary from
nothing up to 5 cents or more for very dry soil.
Missouri Pacific Lines . . 2 cents or less, not including water.
In some of these states, the only basis for measuring this cost is a comparison of
grading prices before and (after the specifications were changed to provide for compac-
tion. This accounts for the Ohio opinion and the indefiniteness of others. In Kansas the
case is clear cut, as compaction is a separate item in bids and contracts. As grading con-
tractors do more of this work, the price will possibly be lower, but at present 2 cents
per cubic yard is as low a figure as should be used for estimates and comparisons.
Roadway and Ballast 563
In grading operations of any considerable extent, the material is now hauled in
heavy units of equipment that are very effective agents of consolidation, if the material
be spread in layers and concentration of equipment travel is avoided. Comparatively
little grading by such methods has been done on railroads, and only a fraction of that
so done has been further compacted by rolling, either with or without regulation of the
moisture content. No definite figures are therefore available as to the saving in main-
tenance expense ^that results from thorough compaction. It is known that, while main-
tenance expense due to shrinkage of fills made with heavy hauling equipment is small,
such expense may be entirely eliminated by thorough compaction, as such treatment
definitely does away with future shrinkage. Compaction has no effect upon subsidence,
which is the usual cause of serious settlement and is dealt with in a previous report by
this committee.
What effect thorough compaction of the subgrade would have on the formation of
water pockets can only be surmised, as no evidence exists. Probably no amount of com-
paction would prevent the depression that is formed under each rail by the heavier
tamping that is done there. Water pockets start from these depressions which, although
they may not grow so fast or get so deep in a more compact subgrade, would also not
drain as readily.
In most cases compactable soil when freshly excavated contains enough moisture to
consolidate effectively under the rolling of heavy equipment or the trampling of animals.
However, there are many sections where at times this is not true, and the material as
excavated is too dry to compact properly. In such cases, sprinkhng and rolling is
necessary to obtain a satisfactory compaction.
In situations where compactable material is not subject to the rolling of heavy
hauUng equipment, such as in filling bridges and trestles, widening banks, or backfilling
behind abutments, or retaining walls, spreading in layers and special compaction is
necessary if settlement is to be avoided. Layers should be sloped away from abutments
and walls, as tests prove that the initial thrust is reduced thereby.
There are points of fixed elevation such as bridges, tunnels, and crossings, where the
original grade Une must be maintained. If shrinkage could be made good at such points
in a single ballast lift, the cost would generally be less than compaction of the entire
fill. But shrinkage takes place gradually and many surfacings over a term of years, with
perhaps light apphcations of ballast, are usually required, at correspondinglj' greater
expense.
It is difficult to so route equipment travel that the edges of a layer will receive as
thorough compaction as other portions. Rolling of the edges is desirable, especially for
high fills, even if not practiced elsewhere.
In some states this process is applied to all state highways; in others, to all except
secondary roads that are not to receive a rigid surface. Its justification on railroads
depends largely upon the nature and extent of the traffic. Under heavy or fast traffic,
surfacing to take up settlement must be done more frequently and at greater cost than if
traffic is light or slow.
Where the new fill is to carry fast or heavy traffic from the start, as in the case of a
change of line, special compaction may well be justified as an insurance against excessive
expense for lifting and surfacing track and possible slowing up of traffic. Further
experience will make possible a more definite appraisal of its benefits.
564 Roadway and Ballast
Bibliography
Compaction of Embankments
Engineering News-Record, Vol. Ill, Aug. 31, Sept. 7, 21, 28, 1933; R. R. Proctor.
Engineering News-Record, Vol. 114, Apr. 18, 1935; Pages 565, 566.
Soils Manual for the Control and Inspection of Earthwork. State Highway Com-
mission of Kansas.
Revision of the Grading Specifications
(page 1-37 of Manual)
Provision for sprinkling or rolling or both, in cases where such treatment is desirable,
calls for the revision of Sections 33 and 34 of the Specifications for the Formation of the
Roadway.
Formation in layers is such an important factor in obtaining a compact fill that it
should be required, except where otherwise directed. Such direction would be given in
the case of end dumping by wheeled scrapers, or by trucks on a fill across soft ground,
or, in some cases, where an incompactable material such as rock, gravel or clean sand
is used.
Uniform spreading of equipment travel is also an important factor in building a
compact fill, and should be required, unless otherwise directed. In other words, forma-
tion in layers and spreading travel of equipment should be the rule, instead of the
exception, as Section 33 in its present form would imply.
The committee recommends that Sections 33 and 34 of the Specifications for the
Formation of the Roadway be withdrawn and that they be replaced by new Sections 33
and 34.
Present Form
33. Formation in Layers
When directed, embankments shall be built in horizontal layers of
( ) inches in thickness. The layers must be the full width of the embankment,
without depressions between slopes, built to the true slope, and not widened with loose
material from the top. The most suitable material shall be reserved for finishing the
surface. Large stones shall not be permitted within a depth of
( ) feet below subgrade.
Proposed Form
33. Formation in Layers
Unless otherwise directed, embankments of earth shall be built in horizontal layers
of not more than twelve inches in thickness. Where the layers are to be rolled, their
thickness shall not exceed ( ) inches and they shall, if directed,
be harrowed with a spring tooth or' disc harrow. The layers must be the full width of
the embankment, without depressions between slopes, built to true slope and not
widened with loose material from the top. Layers shall be compacted as evenly and as
densely as possible by distributing the hauling over the entire area of fill already placed.
The most suitable material shall be reserved for finishing the surface. Large stones shall
not be permitted within a depth of ( ) feet below subgrade.
Present Form
34. Rolling
When directed, embankments placed in layers shall be thoroughly compacted by
rolling each layer with a roller weighing not less than ( )
Roadway and Ballast 565
pounds per lineal inch. Additional payment for stick compaction shall be made by the
cubic yard, measured in excavation.
Proposed Form
34. Moisture Content, Rolling
If the moisture content of material used for filling is insufficient to permit com-
paction to the density required by the Company, the Contractor shall furnish water
and apply it to the fill by suitable means of distribution and in the amount directed,
and shall mix it with the soil by harrowing. Such work shall be paid for on a force
account basis, unless otherwise provided in the contract.
Where directed, embankments placed in layers shall be thoroughly compacted by
rolling each layer with a self-propelled roller of the three-wheel type weighing not less
than 300 pounds per linear inch of width of the rear wheels, or with a tamping roller
weighing, when fully loaded, not less than 100 pounds per square inch of tamping area.
Tamping rollers used shall have tamping feet which project 7 inches or more from the
surface of the roller and are not less than 6 inches apart, and shall be equipped with a
cleaning device. Rolling shall continue until no further compaction results, unless other-
wise directed. Payment for rolling fills shall be per cubic yard of material rolled, meas-
ured in excavation, and shall be in addition to the price for excavation.
Where the material in an embankment is to be rolled, the natural soil on which the
embankment will rest shall be plowed to a depth of ( ) inches
and sprinkled, harrowed and rolled in the same manner as the embankment. Payment
for furnishing and applying water shall be on a force account basis, unless otherwise
provided in the contract; and for plowing, harrowing and rolling shall be on a square
yard basis.
Report on Assignment 7
Tunnels — Lighting
W. S. Moore (chairman, subcommittee), F. W. Alexander, H. F. Brown, F. W. Hillman,
G. B. Wall, Jr.
Your committee reported on this subject at the 1940 convention, which report was
offered as information in the Proceedings.
Further investigation has convinced the committee that the best lighting possible in
tunnels is none too good. Track must be maintained to a higher standard there than
anywhere else due to the limited clearances frequently found in older tunnels. Ample
Ughts are also necessary for proper inspection of tunnel lining, and drainage conditions
frequently require serious attention. Good lighting will increase the efficiency of the
workmen and reduce the hazard of personal injuries.
Ordinary hand lanterns, banjo torches and carbide lights give insufficient light or
are too low to do much good and some of them create objectionable fumes and smoke.
They are expensive, as it is often necessary to assign some of the workmen to hold
them up or move them frequently.
Of the 941 tunnels on which the committee obtained information last year, less
than 7 percent have any form of permanent electric wiring for lights, either in conduit
or in cable or open wiring. Corrosion and the maintenance cost of this type of con-
struction are excessive.
566 Roadway and Ballast
The following is therefore recommended for adoption and inclusion in the Manual:
704. LIGHTING
Portable lighting plants with gasoline engine driven generators producing 110- volt
current are economical and satisfactory for lighting tunnels. These may be secured in
units that deliver as low as 650 watts and weigh only 70 pounds. These portable plants,
placed in track ditches or along tunnel walls will easily clear passing trains. Lights used
with them may be mounted on adjustable tripods which can be raised or lowered, or on
wooden rods about 6 feet long, with pointed steel shoes so that they may be set up in
the track above the workmen.
Two 300-watt flood lights with suitable extension cords plugged into the portable
plants will produce ample illumination for all ordinary tunnel work.
Report on Assignment 8 (a)
Corrosion-Resisting Fence Wire
Collaborating with Appropriate Subcommittees of Committee A-5 on
Corrosion of Iron and Steel, ASTM
A. R. Jones (chairman, subcommittee), F. W. Hillman, P. J. McCarthy, W. C. Pruett,
P. H. Winchester.
Your committee is collaborating with and receiving reports of the exposure tests of
farm field fence, unfabricated wire, wire strand, barbed wire and chain link fencing of
ASTM Committee A-S on Corrosion of Iron and Steel. The first report of the Wire
Inspection Committee on Field Tests, published in the ASTM Proceedings for 1939,
Vol. 42, page 156, indicated the following trends:
Ordinary zinc coated wires do not show significant losses of strength until
after rusting of base metal has started.
Heaviest corrosion is in severe industrial atmosphere, next in sea coast ex-
posure, next in moderate industrial atmosphere and least in rural exposures.
Copper-bearing uncoated wires, copper content 0.22 percent to 0.25 percent,
are corroding less rapidly than the low copper content, 0.05 percent to 0.08 per-
cent, where exposed to severe industrial atmosphere.
Thus far there is no clear cut indication that the lighter gage uncoated wires
are being penetrated more rapidly than the heavy uncoated wires.
There is a tendency for the wires of lighter gages to lose coating somewhat
faster than the wires in heavier gages.
This report is presented as information.
Roadway and Ballast
567
Report on Assignment 8 (b)
Wood Fence Posts, Specifications, Etc.
A. R. Jones (chairman, subcommittee), F. W. Hillman, P. J. McCarthy, W. C. Pruett,
P. H. Winchester.
Your committee has collected a number of specifications for wood fence posts now
in use, and after a thorough study of these, offers the following specifications as informa-
tion and invites comments and criticisms prior to offering them for inclusion in the
Manual at the 1942 convention.
SPECIFICATIONS FOR WOOD FENCE POSTS
... , r rx, , MATERIAL
1. Kinds of Wood
Before manufacturing posts, producers shall ascertain which of the following kinds
of wood suitable for fence posts will be accepted.
Class U designates the kinds of wood that may be used untreated and Class T
designates the kinds of wood which should receive preservative treatment.
Class U
Black Locust
Cypress
Catalpa
Cedar
Chestnut
Douglas Fir
u
Class T
Black Walnut
Ashes
Hackberries
Heart Yellow Pine
Beech
Maple
Larches
Birch
Red Oak
Red Mulberry
Black Gum
Sap Yellow Pine
Redwood
Cherry
Sycamores
White Oak
Elm
Hickories
Sap Fir
_ , ^ PHYSICAL REQUIREMENTS
2. Defects*
Posts shall be free from the following defects: Decay, excessive crook, wane on rec-
tangular posts, holes in top of post, numerous holes, large knots, large shakes and splits.
3. Defects Allowable*
In round cedar posts, pipe or stump rot up to 0.75 inches in diameter in butt end.
Peck in cypress up to limitation of holes.
Crook that does not exceed 3 inches measured between the longitudinal axis and a
straight line from the center of one end to the center of the other end.
Wane on rectangular posts not exceeding one-fourth of the dimension of the faces.
Holes other than in top of post not exceeding 1 inch diameter and 3 inches deep.
Numerous holes that are not damaging in effect.
Knots in round posts whose average diameter is less than one-third the diameter
of post.
Knots in rectangular posts whose average diameter is less than 0.25 the width of
surface in which the knot appears.
Numerous knots that are not damaging in effect.
Large shakes in rectangular posts whose maximum dimension between parallel lines
does not exceed 0.25 of the minimum thickness of post.
In round posts shakes not damaging in effect.
Splits not damaging in effect.
* For definition of terms please see "Definitions of Maximum Defects and Blemishes" Manual
page 7-74.
568 Roadway and Ballast
DESIGN
4. General
Before manufacturing posts, producers shall ascertain which sizes will be acceptable
and whether posts are to be round, rectangular, halved or quartered.
5. Dimensions
All posts shall be in accordance with the designs and dimensions shown in the table.
Design and Dimensions of Fence Posts
Design Dimensions
Intermediate End, Corner, Anchor
or Line Posts and Gate Posts
At Small End Length At Small End Length
Round 4 in. diameter 7 ft. 8 in. diameter 8 ft.
5 in. diameter 8 ft.
Rectangular 4 in. by 4 in. 7 ft. 8 in. by 8 in. 8 ft.
5 in. by S in. 8 ft.
Halved ] 9 in. perimeter 7 ft.
21 in. perimeter 8 ft.
Quartered 19 in. perimeter 7 ft.
21 in. perimeter 8 ft.
MANUFACTURE
6. General Requirements
All posts shall be straight, well manufactured, of natural taper, free from projections
and cut square at ends unless small end is roofed. Inner skin must be removed and
roofing or gaining of treated posts shall be done before treatment.
INSPECTION
7. Place
Posts shall be inspected at points of shipment or destination, in suitable and con-
venient places satisfactory to the railroad. Posts will be inspected at points other than
the railroad property whenever in the judgment of the railroad there is sufficient number
to warrant it; but the shipper shall provide accommodations for the inspector at the
expense of the railroad, while away from rail or steamship lines, and transport him from
and to a railroad station or steamer landing.
8. Manner
Inspectors will make a reasonably close inspection of each post, which shall be
judged independently, without regard for decisions on others in the same lot. Posts too
soiled for ready examination will be rejected. Posts shall be turned over as inspected.
WORKMANSHIP
9. Tolerances
Posts shall not be more than 1 inch shorter nor 3 inches longer than the lengths
specified.
Posts shall not be more than % inch smaller nor more than 1 inch larger than the
diameters, widths and perimeters specified.
Roadway and Ballast 569
DELIVERY
10. Separated as Specified
Posts shall be separated according to the kind of wood, shape and size or as may
be required in the order for them.
PRESERVATIVE TREATMENT
11. Specifications
Posts requiring treatment shall be treated in accordance with the AREA Specifica-
tions for the Preservative Treatment of Wood.
Report on Assignment 8 (c)
Electrified Fences
Collaborating with Committee 3 — Overhead Transmission Line
and Catenary Construction of the Electrical Section,
Engineering Division, AAR
A. R. Jones (chairman, subcommittee), F. W. Hillman, P. J. McCarthy, W. C. Pruett,
P. H. Winchester.
Modern effective electric fences are usually single strand barbed wires that are
supported on insulators and so supplied with electricity that any animal touching them
will receive a shock strong enough to turn the animal, but the shock must not be strong
enough to be dangerous. As there is usually only one strand of wire supported on Ught
posts spaced 3 rods apart and as the pull of the fence is not excessive so that end post
bracing is simple, electric fences cost very Uttle in materials or labor as compared with
woven wire or regular barbed wire fences.
Electricity is regulated and supphed to electric fences through devices known as
electric fence controllers which may operate on (1) battery current only, or on (2)
central station alternating current only, or (3) either on battery current, or on alternat-
ing current that is so modified in the controller as to be a substitute for battery current.
An alternating current of 25 milliamperes is considered the amount of current nec-
essary to flow from the fence through the animal if all the perverse animals in a herd
are to be turned from the fence with reasonable certainty. Such current is effective if it
comes from the fence in brief shocks with an interval between of sufficient duration to
allow an animal to release itself from the fence. Off periods of at least 0.9 second and
shock periods of not over 0.1 second, coming not more frequently than once a second
are generally considered standard for alternating current controllers. Such controllers
are required to be made so that there is no reasonable probability that the interrupting
mechanism will fail to function or that the insulation will break down and connect the
power line directly to the fence.
There are now three codes or sets of rules setting forth how electric fences may
operate and how they should be constructed for safety. The code first issued is that of
the Industrial Commission of Wisconsin, the second the Electric Fence section of the
National Electric Safety Code which is sponsored by the U. S. Bureau of Standards; the
third is the Standard for Electric Fence Controllers by Underwriters Laboratories Inc.
sponsored by the National Board of Fire Underwriters.
570 Roadway and Ballast
The following are quotations in part from General Orders on Electric Fences dated
October 6, 1938 and issued and published by the Industrial Commission of Wisconsin.
An electric fence is a barrier to animals or fowls consisting of an electrified
conductor and an energizing and controlling device.
An electrified conductor may be wire, ribbon, tape, rod, tube, plate, mesh or
any other form suitable for its purpose, but may be referred to simply as fence
wire.
The energizing and controlling device is the device or combination of devices
by which the fence is electrified and may be referred to simply as the controller.
A battery controller is one for which the power source is a battery or batteries
limited to less than IS volts.
An alternating current controller is one for which the power source is alter-
nating current at voltages normally supplied by electric distributing agencies.
All controllers and converters which are sold or installed in Wisconsin after
October 6, 1938 shall comply with the requirements of these orders and be
approved by the Industrial Commission of Wisconsin.
Controllers supplied by a primary source of power in excess of IS volts and
which do not provide separation by insulation between the primary source of
electric energy and the fence, and those of the continuous vibration type delivering
more than S miliamperes Y.M.S. or 2S miliamperes peak shall be prohibited after
October 6, 1938.
Electric fences, when installed along public highways, or as property line
fence, shall be identified by approved signs clamped to the wire or fastened to
the posts at intervals of not more than 200 feet.
Electric fences are increasing in use for farm fencing. Their application to the
right-of-way would require determination in each state as to meeting requirements for
legal right-of-way fence. Policing is necessary to keep vegetation cleared as a possible
cause of short circuits. This type of fencing along the right-of-way would lend itself to
claims for injury to persons and to stock.
The committee is of the opinion that the electric fence is not suitable for general
use as a right-of-way fence.
The report is presented as information.
Report on Assignment 9 (a)
Design o£ Signs
L. J. Drumeller (chairman, subcommittee), Clifton Brannon, G. H. Burnette, F. L. Guy,
O. N. Lackey, A. H. Woerner.
For the purpose of developing information regarding current practice in the design
of signs, a questionnaire was sent to 28 representative railroads in the United States and
Canada having a total of 191,768 miles of road. From the data received in the rephes,
your committee has prepared the tabulation appearing on the folded insert, which shows
the materials of construction and the dimensions of the various types of signs used on
these railroads for the purposes indicated in Manual pages 1-87 and 1-88 under the
heading "901. Roadway Signs Required."
KIQHWAVMB I
VARD % APPRMCHTO 6 IjUNCTION I E llNFUIMUlf I - . ,.,^,
II LIMIT g DMWWBSt I «HISrrLE_ ^ STOR«_ i rnrifir»ri i VOlT«a
u.t, R rn = a. r. f, c'dT a abTT)';. S a bXdT g *»'c"d'e "
BALLAST SECTION NO. 3-A CURVES
= REPAREO GRAVEL 0-20% CRUSHED PARTICLES AND PIT RUN GRAVEL
TABLE OF VARIABLES
AND
QUANTITIES PER 100 FEET SINGLE TRACK-
FOR SECTION
3-A CURVES
SECTON
«
A
SUPERELEVATION I
1"
2 ,
3
4-
5-
6-
X-L "'
X-H
Cu.Yds.
X-L
X-H
UJ.YD5,
X-L
X-H
UiYds,
X-L
X-H
CuYds.
X-L
X-H [Cu.Yns.iX-L X-H ICuyos.
3-A a-ta
16"
6-8"
7- r
104
6'-7-
7-10"
108
6-6"
8-2"
113
6-5'
8-5"
116
6- 4"
8-9' 120 6-3' 9-0" 123
3-A cde-f
14"
6-3'
7-2'
92
6-2'
7-5"
95
6- 1"
7- 9"
100
6-0-
8-0"
104
5'-||'
8-4"
108 5-10" 8-7- 112 ;
3-A g-i
12
5-10
6-9"
78
5-9-
7-0"
81
5-8-
7-4"
86
5'- 7"
7-7-
89
5-6-
7-ir
93
5-5' 8-2' 98
3-A h-i-kn
10"
5' S"
6-4"
68
5-4-
6-7"
7.1
5-3-
6-11"
74
S- 2"
7-2"
77
5- r
7-6"
8 1
5-0-i 7'-9" 85
3-A 1-0
8-
5-0"
5-1 r
55
4-11'
6-2-
59
4-10-
6'-6-
62
4-9"
6-9
66
4-8"
7-1
69
4-7' j 7-4- 73
3-A m-p
«
4- 7"
5-6"
44
4-6"
5^9"
47
4-5"
6- 1'
51
4-4"
6^"
53
4-3"
6-8-
57
4-2' 1 6-l|-| 60
TABLE OF VARIABLES AND QUANTITIES PER 100 FEET SINGLE TRACK -FOR SECTION 4-A CURVES
«*^^ BALLAST SECTION NO. 4-A CURVES
materials: prepared GRAVEL 0-20% CRUSHED PARTICLES AND PIT RUN GRAVEL
NOTES
L OCPTH OF SECTION TO USE WILL DEPEND ON CONDITIONS PECULIAR TO EACH RAILROAD OR LOCATION.
2. UNOCR CERTAIN CONDITIONS IT MAY BE NECESSARY TO USE A DEPTH IN EXCESS OF MAXIMUM SHOWN IN TABLES.
3. ROADBED TO BE WIDENED ON HIGH SIDE WHEN NECESSARY TO PROVIDE MINIMUM OF IS INCHES FOR Y.
4. QyANTITIES COMPUTED ON BASIS OF 3200 TIES PER MILE AND \i,% ALLOWANCE FOR SHRINKAGE.
5. VARIABLES AND QUANTITIES FOR SUPERELEVATION UP TO 3 INCHES ARE SHOWN AS INFORMATION.
SECTION
•
A
SUPERELEVATION
1" 1 2"
3"
4"
5" 6"
X-L
X-H
CuYdsIX-L
X-H
Cu.>bs
X-L
X-H
Cu.Yds
X-L
X-H
CuYds
X-L X-H Cu.Yds X-L X-H CuYbs
4-A a
24"
9-0"
10-0"
170
8-11"
10-3"
173
8-10"
10-7"
178 |8-9"
10-11"
184 1
8-8-
11-3" 190 8-7 11-7" 196
•4-A b
22"
8-7"
9-6"
155
8-6"
9-10
159
8- 5"
10-2
163
8-4'
10-6"
169
8-3"
10-10'' 173 1 8- 1" , 11-2' 178 ,
4-A C
20-
8- 1"
9-0"
139
8-0
9-4
143
7-11"
9-8"
147
7-10'
10-0'
151
7-9'
10-4"
157 7-8' 10-8" 162
4-A d-e
18"
7-8
8-7"
123
7-7"
8-11"
127
7-6"
9-3"
133
7-4"
9-7"
136
7-3' i 9-10'
140 \ 7-2" 1 10-2" 146
4-A f
16"
7-2"
8- 1"
109
r-\"
8- 5"
112
7-0"
8-9"
116
6-11"
9- 1"
121
6-10" 9-5
125 6-9" 9-9' 130
4-A q-h
14"
6-9-
7^8"
96
6-8"
8-0
100
6-6"
8-3"
102
6-5"
8- 7"
106 1 6-4 8-11" 111 6-3 9-3 115 I
4-A i
12"
6-3' i 7-2'
81
6-2"
7-6
85
6-0"
7-IO°
89
5-11"
8-2'
93
5-10 8-6'
97 , 5-9" 8-10" 101 1
4-A j-k
10"
5-9- 6-8"
69
5-8"
7-0
72
5-7"
7-4"
76
5-6"
7-8"
81
5-5"
8-0"
84
5-4 8-4- 88
4-A 1
8"
5-4 6-3
57
5-3"
6'-7'
60
5-2"
6-11-
64
5-1"
7-3'
68
4-11 "
7'-7'
72
4'-IO', 7'-ia' 75
4-A m
6-
4-10'
5-9-
47
4-9"
6- 1"
51
4- 8"
6-5"
54
4-7"
6-9"
57
4-6"
7-1"
59
4-S-
7-5" 63
1
\ i
* SUB-LETTERS GIVEN IN SECTION COLUMN INDICATE CORRESPONDING
SECTIONS FOR TANGENT TRACK- SEE MANUAL, PAGE 2-18.
A.R.E.A.
BALLAST SECTIONS
SINGLE AND MULTIPLE TRACK-CURVES
(FOR SUPERELEVATION IN EXCESS OF 3 INCHES)
Roadway and Ballast 571
In view of the great diversity of signs now in use, as disclosed by this tabulation,
your committee is of the opinion that the development of recommended designs of signs
for these various purposes is not practical. For example, of the 28 roads canvassed,
there are 10, each of which uses a different shape for the speed control sign.
In the opinion of the committee, individual railroads should give consideration to
the economies to be effected by a reduction in the number of shapes of signs, so that a
sign for one purpose could be used for another simply by changing the legend. For
example, a "No Trespass" sign, which has been eliminated at one point could be reused
at some other location as a "City Limit", "County Line", "State Line", or other sign, by
having it relettered. However, it is desirable that the signs for the various purposes
listed under Item "D. Transportation" on Manual page 1-88 should each have a dis-
tinctive shape that can be easily recognized at a distance, so that appropriate action
thereon is not dependent upon an ability to read the legend.
The tabulation prepared from information in the replies to the questionnaire is pre-
sented not only for the purpose of showing the various types and shapes of signs actually
in use on the railways canvassed, but also with the thought that it would be found useful
in the design of signs on various roads to the end that there may eventually be some
semblance of uniformity in the shape and dimensions of each kind of roadway sign.
This report is offered as information.
Report on Assignment 10 (a)
Ballast Section Design
A. D. Kennedy (chairman, subcommittee), A. P. Crosley, R. L. Dyke, F. L. Guy, T. P.
Poison, G. B. Wall, Jr.
The committee has prepared two ballast section plans designed for curves: Section
No. 3a — Curves and No. 4a — Curves, for prepared gravel, under 20 percent crushed
particles and for pit run gravel.
These sections are recommended for superelevations in excess of three inches, and
are presented for adoption and inclusion in the Manual.
Report on Assignment 10 (c)
Investigate the Use of Asphalt in Ballast
J. M. Podmore (chairman, subcommittee), J. A. Given, P. J. McCarthy, J. A. Noble,
Stanton Walker, C. S. Wicker.
In the early fall of 1939 a test section of emulsified asphalt coated stone ballast
track was completed at Bryan, Ohio. This test section is 600 ft. long and is located on
tangent in the east bound high speed track at the station platform. A complete account
of the method of constructing this test section of track, the amount and kind of material
used, and the force employed was given by your committee in its report to the last
convention. Proceedings for 1940, Vol. 41, page 545.
572 Roadway and Ballast
After the completion of the test section, no work was done and no expense incurred
until minor repairs were made on August 16, 17 and 18, 1940. At that time a foreman
and three laborers worked 2^^ days, or 20 hours each; a total of 80 hours. The work
performed consisted of removing between five and six wheelbarrows of dirt, cinders,
sand, coal and other foreign material from the top of the asphalt ballasted track and the
ties.
It was found that the asphalt seal coat was shattered in a few places between the
ties, and this was removed and replaced with new material. There was some creeping of
track that was causing the bond between the edges of the ties and the seal coat to open
and show cracks. These cracks were filled with a mixture of sand and asphalt. There was
one joint low, which was dug out and retamped after which the carpet coat was replaced.
The work described above required 13^ cu. yd. of sand and 330 gal. of asphalt.
The track is in good line and surface and has maintained this condition since it was
installed. The water sheds off quickly after a storm and there is no foul or muddy track.
As it will require more time to determine the merits of this experiment, this report
is submitted as one of progress, with the suggestion that a further report be made on the
service behavior of this test at some later date.
Report on Assignment 10 (d)
Adherence to Stone Ballast Specifications, Particularly Size
A. D. Kennedy (chairman, subcommittee), A. P. Crosley, R. L. Dyke, F. L. Guy, T. P.
Poison, G. B. Wall, Jr.
For the purpose of obtaining information on the extent of the use of the stone ballast
specifications, the following questionnaire was addressed to the chief maintenance officers
of the principal railroads on June 12, 1940:
Attention Chief Maintenance Officers:
One of the subjects assigned to the Roadway and Ballast committee of the
AREA for this year is to determine the extent of adherence on the part of the
various railroads to the AREA stone specifications, particularly size.
The sizes of stone now specified are as follows:
Normal Size, Approximate
Square Size, Round
Designation Opening Opening
2-A 1" to 2" 114" to 21/^'"
3-A ^'" to 1" y&" to IYa"
3-B y^" to IJ^" %" to 1^"
23-B y^" to lYi" Yb," to 3"
Will you please indicate to what extent the above gradations are followed
by your road in purchasing ballast from commercial plants.
Further in this same direction, since the advent of higher speed schedules,
which call for more exactness in surfacing track, the trend is toward the use of
smaller sized ballast, especially for spot work; some roads are using ballast not to
exceed one inch in size.
Roadway and Ballast
573
In view of the foregoing, do you think the AREA ballast specifications should
provide a ballast gradation smaller than now shown? If so, please indicate your
preference for any of the following designations, which are included in the latest
recommendations of the National Bureau of Standards:
Normal Size, Approximate
Square Size, Round
Designation Opening Opening
57 l"-No. 4 1^"-]^"
6 Va"-%" V^'-V^"
67 ^"-No. 4 Vi-VA."
In response to the foregoing questionnaire, replies were received from 35 railroads,
representing 214,000 route miles in Canada and the United States. A compilation of the
data furnished indicates that 77 percent of the roads use crushed stone for ballast and
23 percent use gravel or special materials. The replies show that of the roads using
crushed stone, S3 percent adhere to the present AREA specifications in so far as gradation
is concerned, and 60 percent of the replies indicate that a smaller size gradation than
now specified should be added, a decided preference being shown for Bureau of
Standards gradation No. 57.
The table of gradation now appearing in Section 301 of the specifications conforms
with the Bureau of Standards Simplified Practice Recommendation R 163-36 issued in
1936. However, the bureau's recommendation R 163-39 issued in 1939 supersedes
R 163-36, and embraces changes in gradations and in the designating numbers. The
revised recommendation R 163-39 has been accepted by a majority of producers and
users of coarse aggregates and ballast.
The table of gradation now in the Manual, which conforms to Bureau of Standards
recommendation R 163-36, is given in Table 1, while the gradation conforming with the
bureau's recommendation R 163-39 is given in Table 2:
T^ommal
Size,
Square
Designation Openings
2A 1-2 "
3A yi-i "
3B H-iyi"
23B i'l-i'A"
Table 1. Present Form
Approximate Amounts Finer than Each Sieve (Square Opening)
Size, Round Percents by Weight
Openings 3" IVi" 2" V/i" 1" J4"
VA-iVi" 100 90-100 35-70 0-15 0-5
ii-lH" ... 100 90-100
Yi-lYi" 100 90-100 20-SS 0-15
H-i " 100 90-100 ... 25-60 ... 0-10
cnis
Size
No.
24
3
4
S
57
Nominal
Size,
Square
Opening
2Vi"- Va"
2 "_i «
1/2"- ^"
1 "- W'
1 "-No. 4
Approximate
Size,
Round
Opening
3 "- %"
2H"-i'A"
m"- Vs"
VA"'-"%"
3"
100
Table 2. Proposed Form
Amounts Finer than Each Sieve (Squarei. Opening Laboratory Sieve)
Percents by Weight No.
4
2 'A"
90-100
100
2"
95-100
100
1/2"
25-60
35-70
90-100
100
100
1"
6-15
20-55
90-100
V4"
0-10
0-15
40-75
'A"
0-5
0-5
i5-35
H'
0-5
0-15
90-100 2 5-60
0-5
0-10
No.
0-S
Note: Size numbers and gradations in size adopted from National Bureau of Standards' Simplified
Practice Recommendation R 163-39.
Aside from the addition of Size No. 57 in Table 2, the major differences between
Table 1 and Table 2 are in the arrangement, and that the tolerances allowed in Table 1
are subjected to further restrictions. For example, size 3-B in Table 1 corresponds with
574 Roadway and Ballast
size No. 4 in Table 2, except that the limit of IS percent placed on material finer than
J^-in. provided in Table 1, has been replaced by the requirement that only 5 percent is
permitted to pass a sieve with 5^-in. square openings.
Your committee recommends that the gradation table now in the Manual under
Section 301, of the Specifications for Ballast (shown above as Table 1), be withdrawn
and replaced with gradation Table No. 2.
Report of Committee 5 — Track
W. G. Arn,
J. W. Fulmer
A. E. Perlman,
Chairman,
F. S. Hales
Vice-Chairman,
Lem Adams
H. H. Harman
J. B. Myers
L. L. Adams
N. M. Hench
G. A. Peabody
C. W. Baldridge
F. W. Hillman
S. H. POORE
A. L. Bartlett
E. T. HowsoN
J. A. Reed
W. H. Bettis
A. F. Huber
0. C. Rehfuss
W. H. B. Bevan
W. G. Hulbert
C. J. RiST
F. J. Bishop
C. T. Jackson
W. L. Roller
L. H. Bond
F. J. Jerome
I. H. SCHRAM
C. W. Breed
A. A. Johnson
J. F. Shaffer
E. W. Caruthers
J. H. Kelly
G. L. Sitton
Armstrong Chinn
J. de N. Macomb
G. J. Slibeck
H. R. Clarke
G. M. Magee
G. M. Strachan
0. U. Cook
E. E. Martin
C. R. Strattman
E. D. COWLIN
L. I. Martin
Hermann von Schrenk
H. Q. Day
F. H. Masters
H. N. West
L. W. Deslauriers
K. R. McLennan
R. P. WiNTON
J. A. Ellis
R. E. Miller
J. G. Wish ART
H. F. FiFIELD
W. A. Murray
M. J. T. Zeeman
Committee
To the American Railway Engineering Association:
Your committee reports on the following subjects:
1. Revision ot Manual.
Progress report, embracing a number of recommended revisions page 576
For other revisions see Assignments 3, 4(a), 10, 12 and 13.
2. Fastenings for continuous welded rail, collaborating with Committee 4 — Rail.
Progress report — -submitted as information page 580
3. Plans and specifications for track tools and recommended Umits of wear, col-
laborating with Committees 1 — Roadway and Ballast, and 22 — Economics of Railway
Labor.
Progress report, including recommendations for revision of the Manual . . page 584
4 (a). Plans for svdtches, frogs, crossings, spring and slip switches, collaborating
with Signal Section.
Progress report, including plans submitted for adoption page 595
For plans previously published during year, see Bulletin 418, page 209, and Bulletin
419, page 139 and Part 2 of the same bulletin.
4 (b). Track construction in paved streets, collaborating with Committee 9 —
Highways.
No report.
5. Corrosion of rail and fastenings in tunnels, collaborating with Committee 4 — Rail.
Final report — submitted as information page 605
6. Design of tie plates for RE rail sections as developed, collaborating with Com-
mittees 3 — Ties, and A — Rail.
No report.
7. Practicability of using "reflex" units for switch lamps and targets, collaborating
with Committee 10 — Signals and Interlocking.
Progress report — submitted as information page 606
Bulletin 423, February, 1941.
575
576 Track
8. Welding of manganese castings in special trackwork, collaborating with Com-
mittee 27 — Maintenance of Way Work Equipment.
No report.
9. Bolt tension necessary for proper supporting of rail joints.
Progress report — submitted as information page 608
10. Lubrication of rail on curves, collaborating with Committee 16 — Economics of
Railway Location and Operation.
Progress report with recommendation for inclusion in the Manual page 626
11. Prevention of damage due to brine drippings on track and structures, col-
laborating with Mechanical Division, AAR.
Progress report — submitted as information page 628
12. Specifications for laying rails, designed to set up requirements for good
workmanship.
Final report — with recommendation for inclusion in the Manual page 633
13. Spirals for high speed operation, collaborating with Committee 16 — Economics
of Railway Location and Operation.
Final report with final recommendation for inclusion in the Manual .... page 636
The Committee on Track,
W. G. Arn, Chairman.
Report on Assignment 1
Revision of Manual
M. J. T. Zeeman (chairman, subcommittee), L. L. Adams, W. H. B. Bevan, C. W. Breed,
J. A. Ellis, E. T. Howson, A. A. Johnson, J. de N. Macomb, J. B. Myers, I. H.
Schram, J. G. Wishart.
The committee submits the following revisions:
Page 5-2
Paragraph 401 (e). Delete this sentence and in lieu thereof insert the following:
(e) Tie plates shall be paid for on the basis of actual weight as applied to the
entire order, except that payment shall not be made for any weight in excess of 3
percent over the weight calculated from the specified dimensions.
The reason for this change is to state more clearly that payments are made on the
basis of actual weights, whether under or over, but that not more than 3 percent
overweight will be paid for.
Page 5-14.2
Paragraph 401 (f). Delete this sentence and in lieu thereof insert the following:
(f) Tie plates shall be paid for on the basis of actual weight as applied to the
entire order, except that payment shall not be made for any weight in excess of 3
percent over the weight calculated from the specified dimensions.
The reason for this change is to state more clearly that payments are made on the
basis of actual weights, whether under or over, but that not more than 3 percent
overweight will be paid for.
Track
577
Fig. 509.
Page 5-16.2
Delete the drawing on this page, retaining the heading "Design of Cut Track Spike,"
also the title "For Use at Rail Joints and Alternate Design for General Use," and insert
the new design of spike, to be identified as Fig. 509.
The reason for this change is to overcome manufacturing difficulties encountered
with the design now in the Manual. While the specifications on page 5-16 permit a
variation of 3/32 in. over and 1/32 in. under the specified dimensions of the head of
the spike, some objection has been raised when all of this over tolerance comes at the
toe of the spike head, which makes the toe distance greater than 9/16 in. By retaining
the specification tolerances and reducing the head width and length from iH i"- to
578
Track
l-S/16 in., which also reduces the toe distance from 9/16 in. to J4 in., the manufacturers
will be able to produce a satisfactory spike. Fig. 509 shows that it will be acceptable if
the entire permissible head tolerance occurs at the toe of the spike head.
Page 5-34
Under "Speeds of Trains Through Level Turnouts" delete the text and the table
and in lieu thereof insert the following text and two tables, retaining the present heading:
The following tables show speeds through level turnouts giving riding conditions
equivalent to those obtained in traversing a curve elevated 3 inches less than that
required for equihbrium; when the center of gravity of equipment is 84 inches above
the rail, the resultant of forces will intersect the plane of top of rail approximately
6 inches outside the center line of the track.
Speeds through turnouts with either straight or curved switch points are calculated
from formula £ =z 0.00066 D Sr-Z, (See Manual page .5-42) where D equals the degree
of curvature of the closure curve or the switch curve, whichever is sharper; for turnouts
with straight switch points, D for the switch point curve is the degree of curvature of
a curve having a central angle equal to the switch angle and a chord length equal to
the length of the switch points.
Turnouts With Straight Switch Points (AREA)
Turnout Length of Speed In
Number Switch Points Miles Per Hour
5 ll'-O" 12
6 ll'-O" 14
7 16'-6" 16
8 16'-6" 19
9 16'-6" 21
10 16'-6" 21
11 22'-0" 27
12 ..' 22'-0" 28
14 22'-0" 28
15 30'-0" 37
16 30'-0" 38
18 30'-0" 38
20 30'-0" 38
Turnouts With Curved Switch Points (AREA)
Turnout Length of Speed In
Number Switch Points Miles Per Hour
5 ll'-O" 12
6 ll'-O" 14
7 19'-6" 17
8 19'-6" 20
9 19'-6" 23
10 19'-6" 2S
11 19'-6" 2S
12 30'-0" 30
14 30'-0" 35
15 30'-0" 39
16 30'-0" 41
18 39'-0" 46
20 39'-0" SO
Track 579
This change is desirable because the AREA track plans now include both straight
and curved switches as recommended practice, and a speed table for curved switches
should be added. The lengths of switch points for each turnout shown in the proposed
tables are AREA recommended lengths.
Page 5-35
Delete Fig. 511, diagram of Speed of Trains Through Level Turnouts, as the
essential data shown therein are incorporated in the text and tables presented next above.
Page 5^5
Delete the heading "Proper Methods of Tamping," and the entire text, and in lieu
thereof insert the following:
TAMPING
1. General
(a) The distances shown below for tamping inside and outside of the rail are
recommended for heavy or fast traffic, but these distances may vary to some extent,
depending on the kind of traffic.
(b) The term "power tamper" used as a tamping tool includes any tamping
machine, whether operated mechanically, pneumatically or electrically.
(c) Uniformity of cross level in tamping is the prime requisite for good riding track.
2. Tamping Tools
(a) For broken stone, crushed and washed gravel or slag ballast, use a tamping
pick, tamping bar, ballast fork or power tamper. The power tamper should have a
tamping bar with a tamping end similar to a tamping pick face.
(b) For gravel, volcanic cinders, chats or chert ballast, use a shovel, tamping pick,
tamping bar or power tamper. For heavy traffic, a tamping pick, tamping bar or power
tamper should be used. The power tamper should have a tamping bar with a tamping
end of sufficient area. For Ught traffic, shovel tamping is sufficient.
(c) For engine cinders ballast, use a shovel only, for out-of-face or spot tamping.
3. Methods of Tamping
In surfacing out of face, for a raise of 3 inches or more, track with 8-foot cross-
ties should be tamped from 12 inches inside of the rail to the end of the tie, and track
with 9-foot crossties should be tamped from 18 inches inside of the rail to the end of
the tie. For a raise of less than 3 inches, the tamping distances inside the rail should
be decreased to 10 inches and 16 inches, respectively. Ties should also be tamped on
the outside of the ends. Tamping should not be permitted at the center of the tie.
between the above stated tamping limits, but this center area should be filled lightly
with a ballast fork. Both ends of the ties should be tamped simultaneously and tamping
inside and outside of the rail should be done at the same time. Thorough tamping of
ballast under the rail seat should be required.
Regardless of the kind of ballast or the kind of power tamper used, two tamping
bars should always be worked opposite each other on the same tie. It is recommended
that power tampers be started from a nearly vertical position and used directly against
the sides of the tie to be tamped, and work downward past the bottom corner, after
which the tools may be tipped down to force the ballast directly under the tie.
The track should be raised on jacks to true surface and the ties tamped to a tight
bearing against the raised rail, but without disturbing the surface.
580 Track
For spot tamping, tamping picks, tamping bars or power tampers should be used.
The track should be promptly filled in and finished in accordance with the standard
section.
This change is offered for the purpose of setting up recommended practices that
conform with modern methods.
On Page Containing Table of Contents
Below the two items under "See Portfolio of Trackwork Plans for the following"
insert "Data for Gages and Flangeways in Curved Track."
Report on Assignment 2
Fastenings for Continuous Welded Rail
Collaborating With Committee 4 — Rail
G. M. Magee (chairman, subcommittee), Lem Adams, L. L. Adams, C. W. Baldridge,
A. L. Bartlett, W. H. B. Bevan, F. J. Bishop, O. U. Cook, E. D. Cowlin, J. A.
Ellis, H. F. Fifield, F. S. Hales, H. H. Harman, N. M. Hench, E. T. Howson,
J. de N. Macomb, E. E. Martin, W. A. Murray, J. B. Myers, J. A. Reed, G. J.
Slibeck, C. R. Strattman, R. P. Winton.
The subcommittee has collaborated with a subcommittee of Committee 4 — Rail,
in preparing a questionnaire to secure information on various installations of welded
rail and reports of failures occurring in the welds. This information may be found in
the report on Assignment 6 of the Rail committee and has much of interest bearing
on this assignment.
In previous reports, the subcommittee presented descriptions of installations of
continuous welded rail on the Delaware & Hudson, the Bessemer & Lake Erie, and
the Central of Georgia, together with reports of the service performance of these installa-
tions. The officers of these railways have furnished supplemental service reports this
year to bring this information up to date. In addition, a description is given this year
of a test installation of continuous welded rail on the Great Northern Railway in
which the type of rail fastening used is different from those used in the three installations
mentioned above. The reports follow:
Delaware & Hudson Installations
(M & L Rail Clips and Screw Spike Tie Plate Fastenings)
We have experienced no difficulty with this track further than that outhned
in Volume 40, page 558 of the Proceedings, with the exception that in July,
1940, the welded rail installed at Windsor, N. Y., kicked out of hne adjacent to
where it connects with joint bar track.
Early this spring we experienced some creepage of the joint bar track in a
direction toward the welded rail, and it is beheved that the difficulty experienced
with the welded rail kicking out of hne was due to this joint bar track bunching
against the end of the welded rail.
Traek _ 5gl
Bessemer & Lake Erie Installation — River Valley, Pa.
(GEO Rail Clips and Tie-Plate Construction)
Our last report was dated September 19, 1938, and since that time we have
had no trouble whatever with the mile of welded track, except for one broken
joint — no difficulty, whatever, as to buckling, excessive movement, failure or
slippage through any of the fastenings. We have continued current records of
track movements which show nothing of interest.
On January 3, 1940, our section foreman discovered a broken rail, joint
No. 174, east side of track, in the low rail of a S-deg. 43-min. curve. The tem-
perature when the break was discovered was 8 deg. F., and the rail at the break
had opened up ^ in. Without any difficulty, a section of rail 38 in. long was
cut out, and a new section put in and fastened with angle bars. It was not until
June that the Metal & Thermit Corporation was in a position to replace the
short section put in in January. At that time we inserted a new piece of rail,
39 ft. long, and two welds were made, this being done between trains. The parent
metal in the rail, adjacent to the break, M'as across the top and either side of a
weld, and it is our opinion that this metal had been damaged in the preheating
process at the time the original weld was made. Both the Metal & Thermit Cor-
poration and we are of the opinion that methods have been developed to control
the preheating operation, which should minimize, or prevent, the danger of
damaging the parent metal in the preheating process.
We estimate the total tonnage, including weight of equipment, over the
welded rail since it was installed in November, 1935, at 65,000,000 tons, up to
August 1, 1940.
Practically no maintenance work, other than inspection and the replacing
of the one broken rail, mentioned above, has been necessary since our last report.
The track remains in first class fine and surface and is giving very satisfactory
performance.
Central of Georgia Railway Installation — Lovejoy, Ga.
(Cut Spike Rail Fastening, Cut Spike Tie-Plate Fastening, Rail Anchors)
A complete report on this installation was given in Vol. 40, page 549, including
measurements of temperature stresses and rail movements due to temperature and
traffic. The subcommittee suggested that it would afford valuable information to increase
the number of rail anchors and repeat these measurements.
Mr. R. R. Cummins, general manager, Central of Georgia, advises that 12 rail
anchors per panel have been appHed to this track, and the measurements resumed on
July 30, 1940. Data will be furnished the subcommittee after the rail has gone through
a year's cycle of high and low temperatures.
No difficulties in maintenance of the installation were reported.
Great Northern Railway
(M & L Rail CUps, Cut Spike Tie-Plate Fastening)
In August 1937 we laid a total of 5,667.8 track feet of 110-lb. rail with
welded joints and M & L fastenings just east of our station at Rexford, Mont.
The east 759.4 ft. of this rail is on tangent, then there is a 3 -deg. curve for
531 ft., and then tangent for 4,377.4 ft.
Before any work was done in connection with the rail the track was given
a Hft with washed gravel ballast from our washing plant at Warland. The instruc-
582
Track
View of the Welded
Rail on the Great
Northern at Rexford
tions called for at least 12 in. of ballast below the bottoms of the ties and pro-
vided for 19 ft. between ballast lines and a 12->2 ft. width of ballast level with
the tops of ties.
The rail was furnished by the Bethlehem Steel Company from its Lacka-
wanna plant in 39-ft. lengths, undrilled, and controlled cooled, of Great Northern
standard 110-lb. section. The rail was distributed on the north side of the track,
the nearest rail being 4-J^ ft. from the track and the distance between rails
2-y2 ft. The ends were supported on two ties.
The weld was of the Thermit process, the work being done under the super-
vision of the Metal & Thermit Corporation. The welding was started on August
10 and completed on August 21.
New double-shoulder tie plates 8-J^ x 12 in., according to the Great Northern
standard plan, were used with M & L clips. The tie plates were fastened to the
ties in the outside holes with cut spikes.
Screw Spikes for Holding Down Tie Plates,
Independent of the Rail Fastenings
Your subcommittee was asked to submit a recommended design of screw spike
which could be used for securing the tie plate to the tie independently of the rail
fastening. Investigation showed that most railways using screw spikes for this purpose
had purchased spikes according to Designs A or B in the accompanying drawing,
except that some of the roads using Design A have lengthened the cylindrical portion
of the shank under the head. The principal differences in the two designs are in the
shape of the head, the diameter of the shank, depth of thread, length of the straight
portion of the shank under the head, and the taper. These differences, in the opinion
of the subcommittee, did not justify the adoption of a new design and it was thought
one of these designs should be recommended.
Track
583
Accordingly, a questionnaire was addressed to various manufacturers of screw
spikes which, together with abstracts of the replies, is included in the accompanying
tabulation.
Design B
The shape of the head in design "B" insures longer life of the chucks used in
applying the screw spikes and also affords a better grip during the life of the spike
as the head is reduced by corrosion. Also, the greater depth of thread affords a con-
siderable increase in the holding power of Design B compared to Design A. These
advantages would seem to offset the objections expressed by certain of the manufacturers.
584
Track
Questionnaire Sent to Screw Spike Maniifacturers and Abstracted Repllos
Question
ManuXact
irer
1, la there any difference
A
B
C
D
Square head on
Square head on
Design A costs
Prefer design
in the coat of nianufactur-
Design A oosta
Design A costs
less
3. No differ-
Ine Designa A and B?
less to manufacture
less. Should
have 9/16" point.
ence In cost
2. Can you roll Design B
from 15/16 In. stock to 5/8
Yes
Yea
Yes
Yea
in. dlametor at the root of
the threads'?
3. Can the length between the
Thinks one length
Length can be
Length can be
underaldo of the head and the
should be made
varied, but at
varied to l/2
Yes
thread be varied to suit the
standard.
extra cost.
in. minimum.
purchaser and without extra
cost?
Ij. Is the base price for
Suggest Design
Yes, but if
dosigns A and B the same?
No
A be made stand-
ard and Design B
a special alter-
nate.
design B Is made
standard a high-
er price for
screw spikes will
probably result.
Yes
5, To i*at railroads ha-re you
Chesapeake and
Pennsylvania;
Illinois Central;
Bessemer and
sold screw spikes for holding
Ohio;
Delaware &
Duluth, Uissabo,
Lake Erie;
dawn tie platea within the
Erie
Hudson;
i Iron Range;
Chesapeake &
oast five years?
Erie;
Missouri Pacific;
Ohio;
Chesapeake 4
Pere Mfirquette;
Hew York Central
Ohio.
Chesapeake 4 OhiO]
Southern Pacific;
Milvmukee Road;
A hole of 11/16 in. diameter should be pre-bored in hardwood ties for insertion
of the spike. In softwood ties, the hole should be of ^ in. diameter. Care should be
taken to locate the hole in the center of the tie plate hole and also to avoid overdriving
the screw spike and stripping the wood threads formed by the screw spike threads.
This report is submitted as information.
Report on Assignment 3
Plans and Specifications for Track Tools and Recommended
Limits o£ Wear
Collaborating with Committee 1 — Roadway and Ballast and
Committee 22 — Economics of Railway Labor
W. L. Roller (chairman, subcommittee), W. H. B. Bevan, E. W. Caruthers, L. W. Des-
lauriers, J. A. Ellis, J. W. Fulmer, F. S. Hales, E. T. Howson, F. J. Jerome, J. H.
Kelly, E. E. Martin, J. B. Myers, C. J. Rist, I. H. Schram, J. F. Shaffer, G. M.
Strachan.
The committee submits the following revisions to the Manual:
Plan No. 7 — Tie Tongs, appears in the Manual, page S-S7, Fig. 519. These tongs
were found to be too light in construction to render satisfactory service in the handling
of cross and switch ties now in use, being too flexible and prone to become worn around
the rivet. Plan No. 7-41 has been prepared, which is of sturdier design and reinforced
around the rivet, and it is offered for adoption and publication in the Manual in place
of Plan No. 7.
Plan No. 27-41 — Track Level, has been revised to show some corrections on dimen-
sions of the fixed end casting to agree with over all dimension. It is offered for publica-
Track
S8S
t^V-
586
Track
NOTE.'
17i
.POINTS TO Bt
FIN15HE.D BY QRlNOlNG
3i"
FURNISHED IN OPEN HEARTH
OR ALLOY STEEL
NO HARDNE5S TESTS REQUIRED
TOLERANCE—
2 % ON le:ngth
5 % ON CROSS SECTION
APPROX. WT 10 LB.
A. R. E. A
TIE TONGS
MAR. 1941 PLAN NO.7-41
!=^
■r-m-
^SlIUklGHT GRMNtO NORTHtRH WHITE ASH
. il.tU I!
o » o
4' Sf " GUARD CHECK SAGE.
4'fi2
4«
A.R.E.A.
TRACK GAGE
MAR. 1938 PLANNO20-A-4I
Track 587
tion in the Manual in place of Plan No. 27^0, now appearing in the Manual on
page 5-68.
Last year the committee submitted as information, Plan No. 20A-40 — Wood Con-
nected Track Gage, as shown on page 562 of Volume 41, Proceedings for 1940. This plan
has been revised to provide better clearance over guard rail and as to type of wood in
the beam. It is now submitted as revised for adoption and publication in the Manual as
Plan No. 20A-41.
Recommended Limits of Wear of Track Tools
Last March the committee was given the added assignment of Recommended Limits
of Wear of Track Tools (for Reclamation purposes) and submits the following progress
report —
It was assumed in pursuing the study of Limits of Wear for Track Tools, that a defi-
nite recommendation is desired for each particular tool which would indicate the minimum
limit of reclaimed tools. Only tools which are otherwise sound and serviceable without
flaw or physical defect should be considered for reclamation and the minimum recom-
mended sizes of reclaimed tools are indicated in dashed lines on original plans.
The committee recommends the reclamation of the tools listed below (now included
in the Manual) either by grinding or by forging as specified in each case and to the
outline (minimum) indicated in dashed lines on plans. It is understood in making these
recommendations that the tool is to be reshaped, using only the native or original metal
and no new metal is to be applied by welding to restore the tool to desired contour.
The original physical properties are to be unimpaired.
Tools showing checks, cracks or other physical defects, which might impair their
usefulness or safety, are not to be repaired.
Tools recommended for reclamation may be repaired and reconditioned for re-use
from time to time and until the minimum limit is reached. When worn beyond these
limits, tools should be scrapped.
Tools to be reclaimed must be in such condition that after preparation for re-issue,
their minimum size shall not be less than as outlined in dashed lines on plans Nos. 1, 2,
3, S, 12, 12A, 13, 14, IS, 16, 17, 18, 19, and 21, as included as a part of this report.
Plan No. 1. — Clay Pick. To be reclaimed by forging and/or grinding. Tool should
be kept in good balance by keeping ends approximately equal in length and weight.
Original contour should be maintained at or near the eye.
Plan No. 2. — Tamping Pick. To be reclaimed by forging and/or grinding. Tool
should be kept in good balance by keeping ends approximately equal in length and
weight. Original contour should be maintained at or near the eye.
Plan No. 3. — Spike Maul, Design No. 1. If made of open hearth steel, reclaim by
forging; if alloy, by grinding.
Plan No. 3. — Spike Maul, Design No. 2. If made of open hearth steel, reclaim by
forging; if alloy, by grinding.
Plan No. 5. — Lining Bar.
Plan No. 12. — Track Adze. As this is an alloy tool, it should be reclaimed by grind-
ing only.
Plan No. 12 A. — Carpenter Adze. As this is an alloy tool, it should be reclaimed by
grinding only.
Plan No. 13. — Double Face Sledge.
Plan No. 14. — Tamping Bar, Chisel End. Reclaim by forging to limits shown.
Plan No. IS. — Tamping Bar, Spear End. Reclaim by forging to limits shown.
588
Track
TOLERANCE -
2% ON LENGTH
5% ON CROSS SECTION
DOUBLE POINTED PICK SHALL BE
fURNISHED WHEN SPECIFIED. EITHER
TYPE SHALL BE FURNISHED IN OPEN
HEARTH OR ALLOY STEEL AS SPECI-
FIED.
DETAIL OF
EYE
-ARROWS SHOWING POINT WHERE HARDNESS IS TAKEN
^
h3H
\-2i^
Tf —
=1®
^
BRINELL 425 - 500
FOR O.H. STEEL ONLy,
APPROX. WT 7 LB.
RtClAIM LIMITS:
DASHED UNE5 INDICATC OUTimE
(MINIMUM] or TOOLS AS RLCUUMCD
note:-
CURVATURE OF BACK SHALL BE
CONTINUOUS AND OF 30* RADIUS
EXCEPT WHERE FLATTENED OVER
THE EYE. RADIUS TO BE COINCIDEKT
WITH CENTER LINE OF EYE,
A. R. E. A.
CLAY PICK
MAR. 1939 PLAN NO.I-42
TOLERANCE -
2% ON LENGTH
5 % ON CROSS SECTION
FURNISHED IN OPEN HEARTH OR
ALLOY STEEL AS SPECIFIED
APPROX
8 LB
RECLAIM LlMlTj:
DASHtD UNE5 INDICME.
OUTLINE (minimum) OF TOOLS
AS RECUlMtO
NOTE :■
CURVATURE OF BACK SHALL BE
CONTINUOUS AND OF 3O"RA01US EXCEPT
WHERE FLATTENED OVER THE EYE,
RADIUS TO BE COINCIDENTWITH CENTER
LINE OF EYE.
A. R. E. A.
TAMPING PICK
MAR. 1939 PLAN N0.2-4E
Track
589
DIA
NO
APPROX WEIGHT 10 LB
EYE TAPERED TO CENTER
4' ON LONG DIAMETER
3' ON SHORT DIAMETER.
TOLERANCE -
2%0N LENGTH
5540N CROSS SECTION.
FURNISHED IN OPEN HEARTH OR
ALLOY STEEL AS SPECIFIED.
BRINELL 4.25-500
NO. 2.
APPROX WEIGHT
RECLAIM LIMITS;
DA5HtO LlNtS mOlCATt
OUTLINE [minimum) Of TOOLS ti
RtCLAlMEO.
A. R. E. A.
SPIKE MAULS
MAR. 1936 PLAN NO.3-42
hH
TOLERANCE -
ZX ON LENGTH
^y. ON CROSS SECTION
3€
'4r
^-?::xl\
•«=^i "5-^
Pe^
^^iZ^ -i^-..
y
— E-*
!i-J
t
■•
3C
ARROWS SHOWING POINT
WHERE HARDNESS IS TAKEN
SCHEDULE OF DIMENSIONS |
APPROX
WEIGHT
A
B
C
D
E
F
N
18 LB
5-0"
3"
4
14
14"
3"
■i"
10"
20 "
5-3"
3°
4
14"
14"
3"
li"
lO'
26"
5-6"
7"
8
14"
14"
3"
'-^"
10'
ORDER SHALL SPECIFY TYPE OF
POINT AND LENGTH OF BAR
BRINELL 300-375
RtCLWM LIMITS
DASHtO UNtS INOlCkTl OUTUNf.
(minimum) of tools « RULWMtO
A. R E. A.
LINING BAR
MAR. 1936 PLAN NO. 5.
590
Track
TOLERANCE -
2% ON LENGTH
5% ON CROSS SECTION
FURNISHED IN OPEN HEARTH OR
ALLOY STEEL AS SPECIFIED.
SECTION X-X
POINT WHERE HARDNESS IS TAKEN-
7"- BIT 5 LB.
APPROX. WT. - 8"- BIT Sj LB.
_ 9"- BIT 6 LB.
RtCLMM UWnS"-
OASHtD uiits mmcMt outuhe.
(minimum) Of TOOLS AS RECLA\MED
A. R. E. A.
TRACK ADZE
MAR. 1936 PLAN NO. 12
RECLAIM UMHS:
DASHED L',HE5 WOltATt
OUTLINE (minimum) OF TOOLS AS
RtCLMMED.
TOLERANCE -
2% ON LENGTH
5% ON CROSS SECTION
FURNISHED IN OPEN HEARTH OR
ALLOY STEEL AS SPECIFIED
A. R. E. A.
CARPENTERS ADZE
MAR. 1935 PLAN NO.I2-A-48
Track
591
TOLERANCE -
2% ON LENGTH
5^ ON CROSS SECTION
FURNISHED IN OPEN HEARTH
OR ALLOY STEEL AS SPECiriED
BRINELL 425-500
RECLAIM UMllS-
DASHED LINES IHDICATE OUTUNE
(minimum) of tool as RECLAIMED.
EYE TAPERED TO CENTER
4* ON LONG DIAMETER
3* ON SHORT DIAMETER
SCHEDULE OF DIMENSIONS IN
INCHES
APPROX
WEIGHT
A
B
c
D
E
F
H
6 LB.
6
2^
3
, 3
3
16
'- 4
8 LB.
4
2J
3l
1 3
3
16
zi
10 LB
7
4
3i
.3
1
4
3
12 LB
7i
4
3|
.3
'a
1
4
3i
14 LB.
8
2|
4
,3
1
4
3i
16 LB
8i
3|
4
.3
'a
1
3-1
A. R E. A.
DOUBLE FACED SLEDGE
MAR. 1936 PLAN NO 13-42
TOLERANCE -
2% ON LENGTH
5/i ON CROSS SECTION
~M
ARROWS SHOWING POINT WHERE HARDNESS IS TAKEN
BRINELL 425- 500
etCUlM LIMITS
DASHED LINES INOlCMt. OUTLlUE
(minimum) of TOOLi AS RECLA\MtD
APPROX WT 13 LB
AREA
CHISEL END TAMPING BAR
MAR. 1936 PLAN NO 14-42
592
Track
TOLERANCE—
2% ON LENGTH
5^0N CROSS SECTION
H
T
2 9 — tr
4-7^
-5-8'
3"
-'/.I''
5-er-
3 C
ARROWS SHOWING POINT WHERE HARDNESS IS TAKEN
BRINELL 425-500
APPROX WT 15 LB
RtCLAlM LIMITS
DASHtO UNtS INDICATE OUTLlNt
(mihimum) of tools A.S RE.CLA1MLD
AREA
SPEAR END TAMPING BAR
MAR 1936 PLAN NO 15-48
i-ARROWS SHOWING POINT WHERE HARDNESS IS TAKEN
TOLERANCE -
2%ON LENGTH, 5% ON CROSS SECTION.
EYE TAPERED TO CENTER
4' ON LONG DIAMETER
3* ON SHORT DIAMETER.
FURNISHED IN OPEN HEARTH, OR
ALLOY STEEL AS SPECIFIED.
RRIWFI I JPOINT 477-5321 ""OR O. H.
t3«iNE.L.i_ |heaD 2e6-340J STEtL ONf
APPROX WT
A
B
F
R
C
5^ LBS.
9i"
4'
5,1'
I8b"
5"
e^ LBS
loi"
6^
6l|"
334
5^"
RECLAIM LIMITS;
DASHtO Lints IMDlCATt
OUTLINE (minimum) OF T0OL5 AS
RECLAIMED
A. R. E. A.
TRACK CHISEL
DESIGN NO. I.
MAR. 1939 PLAN NOIS-42
Track
593
kii'^
THIS DESIGN FURNISHED IN ALLOY STEEL ONLY
APPROX WEIGHT bi LB.
TOLERANCE -
2%0N LENGTH, 5% ON CROSS SECTION.
EYE TAPERED TO CENTER
4* ON LONG DIAMETER
3* ON SHORT DIAMETER
RtCLAIM limits:
OASHLO LlHtS mOlCATE. OUTUNt
(Mimt^UM) OF TOOIS AS RtCLAlMtO.
A. R. E. A.
TRACK CHISEL
DESIGN NO. 2.
MAR. 1939 PLAN NO.17-42
ARROWS SHOWING POINT WHERE HARDNESS IS TAKEN
-^1
POINT- 4.77-532
HEAD — 286-340
TOLERANCE -
25iON LENGTH
SJiON CROSS SECTION
EYE TAPERED TO CENTER
4* ON LONG DIAMETER
3* ON SHORT DIAMETER
RtcuiM uMni;
DASHIO UNtS mOICATt
OUTLINE (minimum) OF TOOLS
AS RlCLAIMtD.
APPROX WEIGHT 4 LB
A R E, A
TIE PLUG PUNCH
MAR. 1936 PLAN NO. 18-4?
5Q4
Track
-ARROWS SHOWING POINT WHERE HARDNESS IS TAKEN -
SECTION y-x
APPROX WEIGHT SJ LB.
TOLERANCE —
2/6 ON LENGTH
5% ON CROSS SECTION
EYE TAPERED TO CENTER
4° ON LONG DIAMETER
3' ON SHORT DIAMETER
RECLWM LIMITS:
DASHtO LlN£i INOICHTE. OUUINE.
(minimum) or TOOLS as RtCHlMtD
BRINELL
^1
POINT 477-532
HEAD 286-340
A R. E A
ROUND TRACK PUNCH
MAR. 1936 PLAN NO 19-42
WELDED OR RIVETED TYPE
NOTE:
'a- HANDLE TOPS WILL BE FURNISHED SUBJECT TO APPROVAL
OF PURCHASER AS SPECIFIED IN SPLIT WOOD"d" MALLEABLE
"d"OR COMBINATION STEEL WOOD"d'.'
'B- FOOT TREAD ON TOP OF BLADE APPROX, i WIDE SHALL
BE FURNISHED WHEN SPECIFIED '^
ROCKWELL 45-50
SOLID SHANK TYPE
A. R. E. A.
TRACK SHOVELS
MAR. 1936 PLAN NO. 21.
Track 595
Plan No. 16. — Track Chisel, Design No. 1. Reclaim by forging if open hearth and
by grinding if alloy.
Plan No. 17. — Track Chisel, Design No. 2. By grinding only.
Plan No. 18. — Tie Plug Punch. Reclaim by forging.
Plan No. 19. — Round Punch. Reclaim by forging.
Plan No. 21. — Track Shovel. Length of blade 10 in., economical wear limit.
The report on Recommended Limits of Wear of Track Tools is a progress report.
The committee recommends the subject be continued.
Report on Assignment 4 (a)
Plans for Switches, Frogs, Crossings, Spring and Slip Switches
Collaborating with Signal Section
E. W. Caruthers (chairman, subcommittee), L. L. Adams, W. H. Bettis, L. H. Bond,
C. W. Breed, E. D. Cowlin, H. Q. Day, L. W. Deslauriers, J. A. Ellis, J. W. Fulmer,
N. M. Hench, F. W. Hillman, A. F. Huber, W. G. Hulbert, C. T. Jackson, A. A.
Johnson, L. I. Martin, F. H. Masters, K. R. McLennan, R. E. Miller, W. A. Murray,
J. B. Myers, G. A. Peabody, S. H. Poore, J. A. Reed, O. C. Rehfuss, C. J. Rist,
I. H. Schram, G. L. Sitton, G. J. SUbeck, C. R. Strattman, H. N. West, R. P. Winton,
J. G. Wishart, M. J. T. Zeeman.
As stated in the report of the committee appearing in Proceedings, Vol. 41, page 565,
a review is being made of all of the trackwork plans and specifications which have been
approved by the Association as recommended practice. Following the acceptance by the
Association of the key plans presented with the above mentioned report, work has
progressed on the remaining plans of the various series, in line with the details accepted
in the approved key plans.
To place the information in the hands of the association at the earliest date possible,
groups of plans embraced in this report were published in Bulletin 418, June-July, 1940,
page 209, and Bulletin 419, September-October, 1940, page 139 and Part IL
To serve as a temporary index, the following list shows the status of all of the old
plans as well as a complete list of the reissued plans. Plans adopted in 1940 are identified
by suffix "-40", those now offered for adoption by the suffix "—11", and these which
are to be reissued without revisions requiring convention approval are designated by a
suffix indicating the year of adoption. There is also a list of plans to be withdrawn.
All details with which the use of signal material is involved have been developed
in collaboration with the Signal Section of the AAR.
The Standardization committee of the Manganese Track Society has continued its
valuable assistance in the preparation of these plans and specifications and also
contributed all of the necessary drafting work.
Conclusions
The committee offers for adoption as recommended practice and publication in the
Manual the plans with the suffix "-41" in the followinc list:
596
Track
Plan No.
Title
Switches
111-41
16' 6" Straight Split Switch
with Uniform Risers.
112-41
16' 6" Straight Split Switch
with Graduated Risers.
113-41
11' 0" Straight Split Switch
with Uniform Risers.
114-41
11' 0" Straight Split Switch
with Graduated Risers.
115-41
22' 0" Straight Split Switch
with Uniform Risers.
116-41
22' 0" Straight Split Switch
with Graduated Risers.
117-41
30' 0" Straight Split Switch
with Uniform Risers.
118-41
30' 0" Straight Split Switch
with Graduated Risers.
121-41
11' 0" Curved Split Switch
with Uniform Risers.
123-41
19' 6" Curved Split Switch
with Uniform Risers.
125-41
30' 0" Curved Split Switch
with Uniform Risers.
127-41
39' 0" Curved Split Switch
with Uniform Risers.
209-41
Numerical and Classified Index
of Detail Numbers Covering
Switch Fittings.
213-41
11' 0" Split Switch Point
Derail.
221-40
Details for Switch Points.
222-41
223-40
224-40
241-41
Switch Stands
251-41
Remarks
Revision of Plan No. 111-40.
Revision of Plan No. 112-40.
Supersedes Plan
vised 1938.
Supersedes Plan
vised 1938.
Supersedes Plan
vised 1938.
Supersedes Plan
vised 1938.
Supersedes Plan
vised 1938.
Supersedes Plan
vised 1938.
Supersedes Plan
adopted 1939.
Supersedes Plan
adopted 1938.
Supersedes Plan
adopted 1938.
Supersedes Plan
adopted 1937.
Supersedes Plan
adopted 1938.
No. 103, re-
No. 104, re-
No. 105, re-
No. 106, re-
No. 107, re-
No. 108, re-
No. 121,
No. 123,
No. 125,
No. 127,
No. 209,
Switch Rods and Clips.
Switch Plates and Rigid Rail
Braces.
Switch Plates and Adjustable
Rail Braces.
Details and Typical Applica-
tions of Twin Tie Plates.
Switch Stands and Appurten-
ances.
Supersedes Plan No. 213, re-
vised 1934.
Supersedes in part Plans Nos.
101 and 108 inc., 201 and 204
revised 1934, Plan No. 215
adopted 1937, and Plan No.
140 adopted 1938.
Revision of Plan 222-40.
Supersedes in part Plans Nos.
201, 202,205,206,207.
Supersedes in part Plan No. 240,
revised 1935 and Plan No. 215,
adopted 1937.
Replaces Plan No. 325, revised
1934, withdrawn 1940.
Supersedes Plans Nos. 251 to
254 inch, revised 1934.
The plans published during the year, which are now offered for adoption, appear in bulletins as
follows:
Bulletin 418
June-July, 1940
111-41
112-41
113-41
114-41
llS-41
116-41
117^1
118-41
241^1
Bulletin
419
September-October, 1940
121-41
704-41
123-41
705-41
125-41
706-41
127-41
708-41
222-41
710-41
600-41
755-41
611-41
757-41
612-41
761-41
613-41
910-41
614-41
911-41
615-41
912-41
702-41
920-41
703-41
921-41
Bulletin 423
February, 1941
209-41
213-41
251-41
320-41
322-41
323-41
324-41
401-41
405-41
640-41
670-41
700-41
768-41
774^1
775-41
Track
597
Plan No. Title
255-34 Plan and Specifications for
Switch Lock.
Bolted Rigid Frogs
320-41 Data and Sections— Bolted
Rigid Frogs.
322-41 No. 4, No. 5 and No. 6 Bolted
Rigid Frogs.
323-41 No. 7, No. 8 and No. 9 Bolted
Rigid Frogs.
324-41 No. 10, No. 11 and No. 12
Bolted Rigid Frogs.
Spring Rail Frogs
401^1 No. 10 Spring Rail Frog
405-41 No. 10 Spring Rail Frog
Short Spring Rail Type.
Guard Rails
502-40 Setting for Guard Rails; Tee-
Rail Design.
503-40 Guard Rails; Tee-Rail Design
with Planed Flares and
Canted Plates.
504-40 Guard Rails; Tee-Rail Design
with Planed Flares and Flat
Plates.
505-40 Specifications for Guard-Rail
Clamps.
510-40 Manganese Steel One-Piece
Guard Rails.
590-40 Diagram Illustrating Preferred
Names of Parts for Guard
Rails.
Rail Bound and Solid Manganese Frogs
Remarks
Reissue of Plan No. 255, revised
1934.
Supersedes Plan 320, revised
1938.
Supersedes in part Plan No.
301-3 and Plan No. 309, re-
vised 1934.
Supersedes in part Plan No.
301-3, revised 1934.
Supersedes Plan 304-6, revised
1934.
Supersedes Plan No. 401 and
Plan No. 404, revised 1934.
Supersedes Plan No. 405, adopt-
ed 1939.
Supersedes Plan No. 502, re-
vised 1934.
Companion plan to Plan No.
504-40, but showing canted
instead of flat plates.
Supersedes Plan No. 504, re-
vised 1934.
Revision of Plan No. 505,
adopted 1934.
Revision of Plan No. 510,
as revised 1934.
Revision of Plan No. 590 as
revised 1934.
600-41
600B-34
611-41
612-41
613-41
614-41
615-41
640-41
670-41
700-41
Data and Sections for Rail
Bound Manganese Steel
Frogs.
Standard Manganese Steel
Frog Point and Flangeway
Layout.
No. 4 and No. 5 Rail Bound
Manganese Steel Frogs.
No. 6, No. 7 and No. 8 Rail
Bound Manganese Steel
Frogs.
No. 9, No. 10, and No. 11
Rail Bound Manganese
Steel Frogs.
No. 12, No. 14, and No. 15
Rail Bound Manganese
Steel Frogs.
No. 16, No. 18, and No. 20
Rail Bound Manganese
Steel Frogs.
Solid Manganese Steel Self
Guarded Frogs.
Solid Manganese Steel Frogs.
Applications of AREA Cross-
ing Designs and Recom-
mended Practices.
Supersedes Plans Nos. 600, re-
vised 1938, and 600-A, re-
vised 1934.
Reissue of Plan 600-B, adopted
1934.
Supersedes Plan No. 608, re-
vised 1937.
Supersedes Plan No. 601-3, re-
vised 1937.
Supersedes Plans Nos. 609, re-
vised 1937, and 604-5, revised
1937.
Supersedes Plans Nos. 609, re-
vised 1937, and 610, revised
1937.
Supersedes Plans Nos. 606-7, re-
vised 1937, and 610, revised
1937.
Supersedes Plan No. 640, re-
vised 1938.
Supersedes Plan 670, revised
1938.
Supersedes Plan No. 700, re-
vised 1934.
598
Track
Plan No.
Title
Bolted Rail Crossings
701-40
Bolted Rail Crossings, Angles
90° to 50° incl. Three-Rail
Design.
702-41
Bolted Rail Crossings, Angles
90° to 50° incl. Two-Rail
Design.
703-41
Bolted Rail Crossings, Angles
Below 50° to 35° incl. Three
Rail Design.
704-41
Bolted Rail Crossings, Angles
Below 50° to 35° incl. Two-
Rail Design.
705-41
Bolted Rail Crossings, Angles
Below 35° to 25°. incl.
Three-Rail Design.
706-41
Bolted Rail Crossings, Angles
Below 35° to 25° incl. Two-
Rail Design.
708-41
Bolted Rail Crossings, Angles
Below 25° and Above 14°
15'.
Bolted Rail Crossings, Angles
710-41
14° 15' to 8° 10' incl.
Remarks
Supersedes Plan No. 701, re-
vised 1934.
Supersedes Plan No. 702, re-
vised 1934.
Supersedes Plan No. 703, re-
vised 1934.
Supersedes Plan No. 704, re-
vised 1934.
Supersedes Plan No. 705, re-
vised 1934.
Supersedes Plan No. 706, re-
vised 1934.
Supersedes Plans Nos. 707 and
708, revised 1934.
Supersedes Plans Nos. 709 and
710, revised 1934.
Manganese Insert Crossings
751-40
755-41
757-41
761-41
768-41
Design and Dimensions of
Manganese Steel Inserts for
Crossings, of Angles from 14'
15' to 45° 0'.
Manganese Steel Insert Cross-
ings, Angles 45° to 35°, incl.
Manganese Steel Insert Cross-
ings, of Angles below 35° to
25°, incl.
Manganese Steel Insert Cross-
ings, of Angles below 25°
and above 14° 15'.
Manganese Steel Insert Cross-
ings, Angles 14° 15' to 8°
10', incl.
Supersedes Plan No. 751, re-
vised 1934.
Supersedes Plan No. 755, re-
vised 1934.
Supersedes Plan No. 757, re-
vised 1934.
Supersedes Plan No. 761, re-
vised 1935.
Supersedes Plans Nos. 753, re-
vised 1934, and 768, revised
1935.
Solid Manganese Crossings
771-40
772-40
773-40
774-41
775-41
Supersedes Plan No. 771, re-
vised 1934.
Supersedes Plan No. 772, re-
vised 1934.
Solid Manganese Steel Cross-
ings, Angles 90° to 60°, incl.
Solid Manganese Steel Cross-
ings, Angles below 60° to 40°,
incl.
Solid Manganese Steel Cross-
ings, Angles 40° to 25°, incl.
Crossings with Solid Mangan-
ese Steel Frogs and Interior
Rolled Closure Rails, Angles
below 25° and above 14° 15',
Single-Rail Construction.
Crossings with Solid Mangan- Supersedes Plan 775, revised
ese Steel Frogs and Interior 1939.
Rolled Closure Rails, Angles
14° 15' to 8° 10', incl., Single-
Rail Construction.
Supersedes Plan No. 773, re-
vised 1934.
Supersedes Plan No. 774, re-
vised 1939.
Track
S99
Plan No.
776-40
777-40
780-40
781-40
790-34
791-34
792-34
793-40
Title
Solid Manganese Steel Cross-
ings, Steam Railroad over
Electric Railway, Angles
90° to 60°, incl.
Solid Manganese Steel Cross-
ings, Steam Railroad over
Electric Railway. Angles
below 60° to 40°, incl.
Solid Manganese Steel Cross-
ings for 7" and 9" Girder
Rails, Angles 90° to 60°,
incl., for Steam Railroad
over Electric Railway and
for Steam Railroad Tracks
both ways.
Solid Manganese Steel Cross-
ings for 7" and 9" Girder
Rails, Angles below 60° to
40°, incl., for Steam Rail-
road over Electric Railway
and for Steam Railroad
Tracks both ways.
Data for Gages and Flange-
ways at Frogs and Crossings.
Data for Gages and Flange-
ways in Curved Track.
Data for Gages and Flange-
ways in Curved Track.
Data Sheet for AAR Standard
Wheel Flanges, Treads and
Gages.
Turnout and Crossover Data
910-41
911-41
912-41
920-41
921-41
Turnout and Crossover Data
for Straight Split Switches.
Location of Joints for Turn-
outs with Straight Split
Switches.
Bills of Timber for Turnouts
and Crossovers.
Turnout and Crossover Data
for Curved Split Switches.
Location of Joints for Turn-
outs with Curved Split
Switches.
Remarks
Supersedes Plan No. 776, re-
vised 1934.
Supersedes Plan No. 777, re-
vised 1934.
Supersedes Plan No. 780, re-
vised 1934,
Supersedes Plan No. 781, re-
vised 1934.
Reissue of Plan No. 790, re-
vised 1934.
Reissue of Plan No. 791, re-
vised 1934.
Reissue of Plan No. 792, re-
vised 1934.
Supersedes Plan No. 793, re-
vised 1935.
Supersedes Plan No. 900, re-
vised 1934.
Supersedes in part Plans Nos.
901 to 908 incl., revised 1934.
Supersedes in part Plans Nos.
901 to 908 incl., revised 1934.
Supersedes Plan No. 920,
adopted 1938.
Supersedes Plans Nos. 124-A,
124-B, 126-A, 126-B, adopted
1938, 128, revised 1938.
Track Construction for Paved Streets
980-34
982-34
983-35
984-35
Reissue of Plan 980, revised
1934.
Reissue of Plan No. 982, re-
vised 1934.
Alinement Details for Turn-
outs, Tongue-Switch Con-
struction
200-ft. Radius Tongue Switch
and Mate, Solid Manganese
Steel, for 7" and 9" Girder
Rails.
Solid Manganese Steel Frogs Reissue of Plan No. 983, re-
for 7" and 9" Girder Rails. vised 1934.
Nos. 4 and 5 Frogs, Iron Reissue of Plan No. 984, re-
Bound Manganese Steel Cen- vised 1934.
ter, for 7" and 9" Girder Rail.
600
Track
Plan No.
985-35
986-35
987-34
988-34
Title Remarks
Nos. 6 and 8 Frogs, Iron Reissue of Plan No. 985, re
Bound Manganese Steel Cen- vised 1934.
ter, for 7" and 9" Girder
Rails.
No. 10 Frog, Iron Bound
Manganese Steel Center, for
7" and 9" Girder Rails.
Straight Double Tongue
Switches, For Engine Wheel
Base not over 14' 6", Solid
Manganese Steel, 7" and 9"
Girder Rails.
Straight Double Tongue
Switches, For Engine Wheel
Base over 14' 6", but not
Exceeding 19' 0", Solid
Manganese Steel, 7" and
9" Girder Rails.
Reissue of Plan 986, revised
1934.
Reissue of Plan No. 987, re-
vised 1934.
Reissue of Plan No. 988, re-
vised 1934.
Data for Rail Sections, Etc.
Revision of Plan No. 1001 as re-
vised 1934.
Revision of Plan No. 1002 as re-
vised 1934.
Revision of Plan No. 1003 as re-
vised 1934.
Revision of Plan No. 1004 as re-
vised 1934.
Supersedes data in Appendix A,
Section 36A, adopted 1938.
In view of the issuance of the plans listed above, the committee recommends with-
drawal of the following plans from the PortfoHo:
1001-40*
Data for Tee-Rail Sections.
1002-40*
Girder Rail Sections.
1003-40*
Data Sheet for AREA Girder
Grooved Rails, Girder Guard
Rails and Plain Girder Rails.
1004-40*
Data for Head-Free Rail
Sections.
1005-40
Beveling of Rail Ends for
Special Trackwork.
103 Revised 1938 11' 0" Split Switch with
Uniform Risers.
104 Revised 1938 11' 0" Split Switch with
Graduated Risers.
105 Revised 1938 22' 0" Split Switch with
Uniform Risers.
106 Revised 1938 22' 0" Split Switch with
Graduated Risers.
107 Revised 1938 30' 0" Split Switch with
Uniform Risers.
108 Revised 1938 30' 0" Split Switch with
Graduated Risers.
111-40 16' 6" Straight Split Switch
with Uniform Risers.
112-40 16' 6" Straight Split Switch
with Graduated Risers.
121 Adopted 1939 11' 0" Curved Split Switch
with Uniform Risers.
123 Adopted 1938 19' 6" Curved Split Switch
with Uniform Risers.
124A Adopted 1938 Location of Joints for No. 7
and No. 8 Turnouts with
19' 6" Curved Switches.
Superseded by Plan No. 113-41.
Superseded by Plan No. 114-41.
Superseded by Plan No. 115-41.
Superseded by Plan No. 116-41.
Superseded by Plan No. 117-41.
Superseded by Plan No. 118-41.
Superseded by Plan No. 111-41.
Superseded by Plan No. 112-41.
Superseded by Plan No. 121-41.
Superseded by Plan No. 123-41.
Superseded by Plan No. 921-41.
* These drawings are sheets of information rather than recommended practice.
Track
601
Plan No.
124B Adopted 1938
125 Adopted 1938
126A Adopted 1938
126B Adopted 1938
127 Adopted 1937
128 Revised 1938
140 Adopted 1938
201 Revised 1934
202 Revised 1934
203 Revised 1934
204 Revised 1934
205 Revised 1934
206 Revised 1934
207 Revised 1934
208 Revised 1934
209 Revised 1938
210 Revised 1934
211 Revised 1935
Title
Location of Joints for No. 9,
No. 10 and No. 11 Turnouts
with 19' 6" Curve Switches.
30' 0" Curved Split Switch
with Uniform Risers.
Location of Joints for No. 12
and No. 14 Turnouts with
30' 0" Curved Switches.
Location of Joints for No. 15
and No. 16 Turnouts with
30' 0" Curved Switches.
39' 0" Curved Split Switch
with Uniform Risers.
Location of Joints for No. 18
and No. 20 Turnouts with
39' 0" Curved Switches,
Method of Beveling Heel End
and Round Stock Rail Side
of Split Switch Points.
Split Switch Fixtures for
Medium Weight Rails.
Split Switch Fixtures for
Medium Weight Rails.
Split Switch Fixtures for
Medium Weight Rails, Heel
and Turnout Plates for 16' 6
and 11' 0" Split Switches.
Split Switch Fixtures for
Medium Weight Rails, Heel
and Turnout Plates for 22' 0"
and 30' 0" Split Switches.
Split Switch Fixtures for
Heavy Rails. (General)
Split Switch Fixtures for
Heavy Rails.
Split Switch Fixtures for
Heavy Rails, Heel and
Turnout Plates for 16' 6"
and 11 '0" Split Switches.
Split Switch Fixtures for
Heavy Rails, Heel and
Turnout Plates for 22' 0"
and 30' 0" Split Switches.
Numerical and Classified
Index of Detail Numbers
Covering Switch Fittings.
Bills of Material for 11' 0"
and 16' 6" Split Switches.
Bills of Material for 22' 0"
and 30' 0" Split Switches.
213 Revised 1934 Details for Split Switch Point
Derail.
215 Adopted 1937 Split Switch Details for
Heavy and Medium Weight
Rails.
222-40 Adopt'd 1940 Switch Rods and Clips.
240 Revised 1935 Specifications for Adjustable
Rail Braces.
251 Revised 1934 Requisites, Including Connect-
Rods for Switch Stands.
Remarks
Superseded_by Plan No. 921-41.
Superseded by Plan No. 125-41.
Superseded by Plan No. 921-41.
Superseded by Plan No. 921-41.
Superseded by Plan No. 127-41.
Superseded by Plan No. 921-41.
Superseded by Plan No. 221-40.
Superseded by Plans Nos.
221-40, 222-41, 223-40.
Superseded by Plans Nos.
221-40, 222-41, 223-40.
Superseded by Plans Nos.
111-41, 113-41, 223-40.
Superseded by Plans Nos.
115-41, 117-41, 223-40.
Superseded by Plans Nos.
221-40, 222-41, 223-40.
Superseded by Plans Nos.
222-41, 223-40.
Superseded by Plans Nos.
111-41, 113-41, 223-40.
Superseded by Plans Nos.
115-41, 117-41, 223-40.
Superseded by Plan No. 209-41.
Superseded by Plans Nos.
111-41, 112-41, 113-41,
114-41.
Superseded by Plans Nos.
115-41, 116-41, 117-41,
118-41.
Superseded by Plan No. 213-41.
Superseded by Plans Nos.
221-40, 224-40.
Superseded by Plan No. 222-41.
Superseded by Plan No. 224-40.
Superseded by Plan No. 251-41.
602
Track
Plan No.
252 Revised 1934
253 Revised 1934
254 Revised 1934
256 Revised 1934
257 Revised 1934
258 Revised 1938
259 Revised 1938
260 Revised 1938
261 Revised 1938
262 Revised 1938
278 Revised 1938
279 Revised 1938
281 Revised 1938
282 Revised 1938
283 Revised 1938
291 Revised 1938
292 Revised 1938
320 Revised 1938
401 Revised 1934
404 Revised 1934
405 Adopted 1939
600 Revised 1938
600A Revised 1934
Title
Detail of Lamp Tips for
Switch Stands.
Detail of Switch Stand
Target Shapes.
Day Target Discs for Switch
Lamps.
No. 4 Frogs for Medium Weight Withdrawn.
Rails, Angle 14° 15' 00".
No. 5 Frogs for Medium Weight Withdrawn.
Rails, Angle 11° 25' 16".
No. 6 Frogs for Medium Weight Withdrawn.
Rails, Angle 9° 31' 38".
No. 7 Frogs for Medium Weight Withdrawn.
RaUs, Angle 8° 10' 16".
No. 8 Frogs for Medium Weight Withdrawn.
Rails, Angle 7° 9' 10".
No. 9 Frogs for Medium Weight Withdrawn.
Rails, Angle 6° 21' 35".
No. 10 Frogs for Medium Withdrawn.
Weight Rails, Angle 5° 43'
29".
No. 1 1 Frogs with Uniform Tie Withdrawn.
Spacing, For Heavy and
Medium Weight Rails, Angle
5° 12' 18".
No. 12 Frogs with Uniform Tie Withdrawn.
Spacing, for Heavy and Med-
ium Weight Rails, Angle
4° 46' 19".
No. 14 Frogs with Uniform Tie Withdrawn.
Spacing, for Heavy and Med-
ium Weight Rails, Angle
4° 5' 27".
No. 15 Frogs with Uniform Tie Withdrawn.
Spacing, for Heavy and Med-
ium Weight Rails, Angle
3° 49' 6".
No. 16 Frogs with Uniform Tie Withdrawn.
Spacing, for Heavy and Med-
ium Weight Rails, Angle
3° 34' 47".
No. 18 Frogs with Uniform Tie Withdrawn,
Spacing, for Heavy and Med-
ium Weight Rails, Angle
3° 10' 56".
No. 20 Frogs with Uniform Tie Withdrawn.
Spacing, for Heavy and Med-
ium Weight Rails, Angle
2° 51' 51".
Data and Sections, Bolted
Rigid Frogs.
No. 10 Spring Rail Frog.
No. 10 Spring Rail Frog with
Uniform Tie Spacing.
No. 10 Spring Rail Frog;
Short Spring Rail Type.
Data and Sections for Rail
Bound Manganese Steel Frogs.
Application of Wing Wheel Superseded
Risers to Manganese Steel plans.
Frogs.
Remarks
Superseded by Plan No. 251-41.
Superseded by Plan No. 251-41.
Superseded by Plan No. 251-41.
Superseded by Plan No. 320-41.
Superseded
Superseded
by Plan No. 401-41.
by Plan No. 401-41.
Superseded by Plan No. 405-41.
Superseded by Plan No. 600-41.
by various other
Track
603
Plan No. Title Remarks
601-3 Revised 1937 No. 6, No. 7 and No. 8 Rail Superseded by Plan No. 612-41.
Bound Manganese Steel Frogs,
for Heavy and Medium
Weight Rails.
604-5 Revised 1937 No. 10 and No. 11 Rail Bound Superseded by Plan No. 613-41.
Manganese Steel Frogs, for
Heavy and Medium Weight
Rails.
606-7 Revised 1937 No. 16 and No. 20 Rail Bound Superseded by Plan No. 615-41.
Manganese Steel Frogs, for
Heavy and Medium Weight
Rails.
608 Revised 1937
609 Revised 1937
610 Revised 1937
No. 4 and No. 5 Rail Bound Superseded by Plan No. 611-41.
Manganese Steel Frogs, for
Heavy and Medium Weight
Rails.
No. 9, No. 12 and No. 14 Rail Superseded by Plans Nos.
Bound Manganese Steel 613-41, 614-41.
Frogs, for Heavy and Medium
Weight Rails.
No. 15 and No. 18 Rail Bound Superseded by Plans Nos.
Manganese Steel Frogs, for 614-41, 615-41.
Heavy and Medium Weight
Rails.
640-40 Revised 1938 Data and Sections for Solid
Manganese Steel Self
Guarded Frogs.
Data and Sections for Solid
Manganese Steel Frogs.
Crossing Designs and
Recommended Practices.
Data and Record Sheet for
Ordering Crossings.
670-40 Revised 1938
700 Revised 1935
700A Revised 1934
Superseded by Plan No. 640-41.
Superseded by Plan No. 670-41.
Superseded by Plan No. 700-41.
Superseded by Plan No. 700-41.
700A Example 1
Revised 1934
700A Example 2
Revised 1934
702 Revised 1934
703 Revised 1934
704 Revised 1934
705 Revised 1934
706 Revised 1934
707 Revised 1934
Data and Record Sheet for
Ordering Crossings.
Data and Record Sheet for
Ordering Crossings.
Bolted Rail Crossings,
Angles 90° to 50°, Inch,
Two Rail Design.
Bolted Rail Crossings, Angles
below 50° to 35°, inch. Three
rail Design.
Bolted Rail Crossings, Angles
Below 50° to 35°, incl., Two-
Rail Design.
Bolted Rail Crossings, Angles
Below 35° to 25°, incl.,
Three-Rail Design.
Bolted Rail Crossings, Angles
Below 35° to 25°, incl..
Two Rail Design.
Bolted Rail Crossings, Angles
Below 25° and Above 14° 1 5',
Single-Rail Design and Two-
Rail Design, With Short
Easer Rails.
Superseded by Plan No. 700-41.
Superseded by Plan No. 700-41.
Superseded by Plan No. 702-41.
Superseded by Plan No. 703-41.
Superseded by Plan No. 704-41.
Superseded by Plan No. 705-41.
Superseded by Plan No. 706-41.
Superseded by Plan No. 708-41.
604
Track
Plan No.
708 Revised 1934
709 Revised 1934
710 Revised 1934
716 Revised 1934
717 Revised 1934
753 Revised 1934
754 Revised 1934
755 Revised 1934
756 Revised 1934
757 Revised 1934
758 Revised 1934
759 Revised 1934
760 Revised 1935
761 Revised 1935
767 Revised 1935
Remarks
by Plan No. 708-41.
by Plan No. 710-41.
by Plan No. 710-41.
Withdrawn.
Title
Bolted Rail Crossings, Angles Superseded
Below 25° and Above 14° 15',
Single-Rail Design and Two-
Rail Design.
Bolted Rail Crossings, Angles Superseded
14° 15' to 8°, incL, Single-Rail
Design and Two-Rail Design
with Short Easer Rails.
Bolted Rail Crossings, Angles Superseded
14° 15' to 8° 10' inch, Single-
Rail Design and Two-Rail
Design.
Bolted Rail Crossings, Steam Withdrawn.
Railroad over Electric Rail-
way, Angles 90° to 50°, incl.
Bolted Rail Crossings, Steam Withdrawn.
Railroad over Electric Rail-
way, Angles Below 50° to
30°, incl.
Manganese Steel Insert Cross- Superseded by Plan No. 768-41
ings. Designs and Dimensions
of Manganese Steel Inserts,
for Angles 8° 10' to 14° 15',
incl.
Manganese Steel Insert Cross-
ing, Angle Below 45° to 35°,
incl. — Detail A, Three-Rail
Design.
Manganese Steel Insert Cross- Superseded by Plan No. 755-41
ing, Angle Below 45° to 35°,
incl. — Detail A, Two-Rail
Design.
Manganese Steel Insert Cross- Withdrawn.
ing, Angle Below 35° to 25°,
incl.— Detail A, Three-Rail
Design.
Manganese Steel Insert Cross- Superseded by Plan No. 757-41
ing. Angle Below 35° to 25°,
incl.— Detail A, Two-Rail
Design.
Manganese Steel Insert Cross
ing, Angle Below 25° and
Above 14° 15'— Detail A,
Two-Rail Design, With
Short Easer Rails.
Manganese Steel Insert Cross- Withdrawn
ing. Angle Below 25° and
Above 14° 15'— Detail A,
Two-Rail Design.
Manganese Steel Insert Cross- Withdrawn
ing, Angle Below 25° and
Above 14° 15'— Detail A,
Single-Rail Design, With
Short Easer Rails.
Manganese Steel Insert Cross-
ing, Angle Below 25° and
Above 14° 15'— Detail A,
Single-Rail Design.
Manganese Steel Insert Cross-
ing, Angle 14° 15' to 8° 10',
incl., Two-Rail Design.
Withdrawn.
Superseded by Plan No. 761-41.
Withdrawn.
Track
60S
Plan No.
768 Revised 1935
770 Revised 1934
774 Revised 1939
775 Revised 1939
900 Revised 1934
901 Revised 1934
902 Revised 1934
903 Revised 1934
904 Revised 1934
905 Revised 1934
906 Revised 1934
907 Revised 1934
908 Revised 1934
920 Adopted 1938
Remarks
Superseded by Plan No. 768-41.
Withdrawn.
Title
Manganese Steel Insert Cross-
ing, Angle 14° 15' to 8° 10',
incl., Single-Rail Design.
Insulated Internal Joint for
Crossings — Three-Rail
Design, Angle 45° to 25°,
incl.
Crossing with Solid Manganese Superseded by Plan No. 774-41.
Steel Frogs and Interior
Rolled Closure Rails. Angles
below 25° 0' and above 14°
15'. Single-Rail Construction.
Crossing with Solid Manganese Superseded by Plan No. 775-41.
Steel Frogs and Interior
Rolled Closure Rails. Angles
14° 15' to 8° 10', incl. Single-
Rail construction.
Tables of Turnout Leads and
Other Turnout Data.
Typical Layout, No. 6 Turn-
out and Crossover.
Typical Layout, No. 7 Turn-
out and Crossover.
Typical Layout, No. 8 Turn-
out and Crossover.
Typical Layout, No. 9 Turn-
out and Crossover.
Typical Layout, No. 10 Turn-
out and Crossover.
Typical Layout, No. 11 Turn-
out and Crossover.
Typical Layout, No. 16 Turn-
out and Crossover.
Typical Layout, No. 20 Turn-
out and Crossover.
Turnout Data for Curved
Switches.
Superseded by Plan No. 910-41.
Superseded by
911-41, 912-
Superseded by
911-41, 912-
Superseded by
911-41, 912-
Superseded by
911-41, 912-
Superseded by
911-41, 912-
Superseded by
911-41, 912-
Superseded by
911-41, 912-
Superseded by
911-41, 912-
Superseded by
Plans Nos.
41.
Plans Nos.
41.
Plans Nos.
41.
Plans Nos.
41.
Plans Nos.
41.
Plans Nos.
41.
Plans Nos.
41.
Plans Nos.
41.
Plan No. 920-41.
Report on Assignment 5
Corrosion of Rail and Fastenings in Tunnels
Collaborating with Committee 4 — Rail
A. E. Perlman (chairman, subcommittee), W. H. Bettis, O. U. Cook, L. W. Deslauriers,
S. H. Poore, G. M. Strachan, Hermann von Schrenk.
The subcommittee has continued its study in the laboratory and the field to deter-
mine methods for the control of corrosion of rail and fastenings in tunnels. This year's
study has been of various commercial alloys, zinc spray, galvanized products, and other
resistant coatings.
The study leads to the following conclusions:
1. No practical, or economical corrosion resistant alloy has been found because the
materials tested depend upon a protecting film of corrosion products for their resistance.
This protecting film naturally cannot be maintained on the running surface of the rail.
606 Track
The initial corrosion rates of all ferrous alloys, excepting the 18-8 stainless steel, are
practically the same.
2. Zinc metal spray or galvanizing is the best means of protecting angle bars, bolts,
spikes, etc., since zinc is not rapidly corroded by the tunnel gases.
3. Galvanic action of zinc, plated or sprayed on the sides of the rail head, is not
sufficient to offer any noticeable protection to the running surface.
4. Neutralization of the corrosive elements in stack gases cannot be accomplished b\
practical means.
5. One means of increasing life of rail in tunnels would be to roll a special rail sec-
tion with more metal in the head by increasing the height of the rail head. This would
allow for more metal to be lost from the running surface before replacement is neces-
sary. The remainder of the rail, and fastenings, could be sprayed with zinc or a similar
coating to give protection.
6. The annual penetration of the running surface in the Moffat tunnel, where tests
were conducted, is 0.08 of an inch per year.
7. The only solution to the problem of corrosion of the rail and fastenings in tun-
nels because of steam operation is to change to either electric or Diesel operation. With
Diesel power, special control of the corrosion elements in the fuel oil is required.
This report is submitted as information with the recommendation that the subject
be discontinued.
Report on Assignment 7
Practicability o£ Using Reflex Units for Switch Lamps and Targets
L. L. Adams (chairman, subcommittee), F. J. Bishop, J. F. Shaffer, I. H. Schram, G. L.
Sitton, M. J. T. Zeeman.
Reports on this subject were made in 1933 and 1939. In 1933 only three railroads
reporting had an appreciable number of units in service, while in 1939 this number had
increased to thirteen. No questionnaire was sent out this year to determine if there
had been any increase in this number, but information secured in an informal manner
indicates that the use of reflex units for switch lamps and targets is being extended on
roads that had them in use in 1939 and also the number of roads using them has in-
creased. One road that reported 1,250 units in service in 1938 now reports 3,100. This
road has also extended the use of reflex units to caution and resume speed signs for
protecting slow orders at night.
There are certain states that have laws which might prohibit the use of reflex units
for switch lamps. The following states have such laws:
Arkansas. — Statutes read: "Switch Lights: Any company, corporation or officer of
court or any person or persons operating any line of railroad during the night time in
this state shall be required to place and maintain sufficient lights during the night time
on all its main line switches of the line of railroad so operated, and of the color green
indicating main line and red to indicate side tracks. Act February 10, 1911.
Penalty: Any company, corporation or officer of court or any person or persons
operating any railroad in this state, who shall violate any of the provisions of this act,
shall be liable on conviction to a penalty of a fine of not less than twenty-five dollars
Track 607
nor more than one hundred dollars for each separate offense, which penalty shall be
recovered in a civil action in the name of the state."
Colorado. — Any railroad, or railroad company, owning or operating within this
state any line or branch of railroad connecting with any main line of railroad by means
of a switch, shall provide such switch with a suitable light, such as is commonly used
for such purpose, and shall keep the same lighted from sunset on each and every
calendar day of the year, until sunrise of the following day.
Authority is vested in the Public Utilities Commission of the State of Colorado to
permit or order substitution of reflex lenses for switch lights after a hearing on petition
or on its own motion.
Indiana.- — Requires maintenance of switch and derail lights.
Kansas. — It shall be the duty of any person, firm or corporation or receiver, owning
or operating any railroad, in whole or in part, in the State of Kansas, to keep and
maintain in good condition, switch lights on all main line switch stands, except where
automatic block signals are used, where such automatic block signals are so located as to
answer the purpose of switch lights, and to keep all lights controlling the movement of
trains on the main line burning from sunset to sunrise: Provided, this act shall not
apply to branch lines, where trains are not regularly operated at night, or in cases
where the lights have; been properly lighted, but have failed for causes beyond the
control of the company and it has not had reasonable time to relight them.
Massachusetts. — Required to notify Public Service Commission of intention to
install interlocking block or special signals.
Michigan. — From wording of act it is apparent that burning lights must be provided.
Missouri. — All common carriers, their officers, agents and employees, operating any
railroad or part of railroad in this state, are hereby required on or before the 1st day of
June 1915, to adopt, put in use and maintain lights between sunset and sunrise, on
main line switches, and all lead switches in yards, where cars are switched in making up
or breaking up of trains. Provided that this law shall not include branch lines where
trains do not operate at night, or independent lines of less than SO miles in length. Pro-
vided further, that the provisions of this section shall not apply to trailing point switches
on double track.
Nebraska. — Every person, firm, corporation, lessee or receiver of any railroad engaged
in the business of transportation in this state shall equip with proper lights all switch
stands to each and every switch leading from all main tracks of any such road, on which
trains generally are operated at night; except lines fully equipped with automatic block
signals. The lights upon such switch stands shall be kept in good condition constantly,
and shall be lighted and kept burning between the time of sundown and sunrise and at
such other times, when by reason of excessively foggy weather the condition of such
lights or signals would render it unsafe for the employees of such railroad company and
for the general public.
South Dakota. — Switch lights required: Civil penalty. It shall be the duty of every
railroad company operating any line of railway in this state to maintain good and suffi-
cient switch lights on all switches connected with its main line, and to keep the same
lighted from dark until daylight. Such lights shall be required only on such main line
switches over which trains shall be operated between sunset and sunrise.
Other states do not have laws pertaining to switch lamps.
No additional information has developed that will change or modify the information
as published in the Proceedings for 1939, Vol. 40, pages 566, 567.
This is a progress report, submitted as information.
608
Track
Report on Assignment 9
Bolt Tension Necessary for Proper Supporting of Rail Joints
C. W. Breed (chairman, subcommittee), C. W. Baldridge, A. L. Bartlett, E. D. Cowlin,
L. W. Deslauriers, H. F. Fifield, J. W. Fulmer, F. S. Hales, C. T. Jackson, J. de N.
Macomb, G. M. Magee, E. E. Martin, W. A. Murray, S. H. Poore.
Your committee submits the following report of progress in the tension tests of
bolts installed in the tracks of several railroads, as described in the Proceedings for 1939
and 1940, Vol. 40, page 565, and Vol. 41, page 574.
Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul & Pacific
The test installation on the Milwaukee Railroad near Winona, Minn, was described
in the committee report given in Vol. 40, page 570. This test section is approximately
J4 mile in length. The rail is 112-lb. RE section with 6-hole toeless joint bars and 1-in.
track bolts without spring washers. The rail was laid new June 22, 1938. In the report
last year, Vol. 41, page 582, information was given in Table 4 showing the loss in bolt
tension between December 2, 1938 and June 30, 1939, a period of approximately 7
months. The bolts on the north rail were tightened to an average of 10,800 lb., and the
Table 1
BOLT THISIOH LiEAamB'JNTS
C U St.P & P ER Test Installation
NORTH RAIL
SOOTH RAIL
lTera<
;e Bolt Tension Per Joint - Lbs.
Applied Remaininf^
Average
Bolt Tension
Per Joint - Lbs.
Jt.
Applied
Remaining
No.
6-30-39
6-12-40
Loss
6-29-59
6-12-40
Loss
1
10,200
4,000
6,200
14,100
8,100
6,000
2
11,400
3,300
8,100
12,200
3,100
9,100
3
8,700
7,000
1,700
23, 200
12,000
11,200
4
11,800
6,800
5,000
21,100
10,200
10,900
5
9,700
9,700
0
20,900
14,100
6,800
6
7,900
5, TOO
2,600
19,500
14, TOO
5,200
7
8,100
5,400
2,700
-
-
. *
8
10,300
7,900
2,400
17,500
11,200
6,300
9
9,500
6,400
3,100
18,900
11,600
7,300
10
9,300
6,800
2,500
16,600
11,600
5,000
11
10,300
7,700
2,600
16,800
9,100
7,700
12
7,700
4,300
3,400
13,400
9,800
3,600
13
12,100
7,900
4,200
14,800
6,700
8,100
14
8,300
4,500
3,800
15,600
11,100
4, TOO
15
11,500
8,000
3,500
15,600
6,700
6,900
16
8,fO0
3,300
5,200
13,800
6,400
7,400
17
9,900
7,400
2,500
17,000
11,000
6,000
18
10,500
4,400
6,100
14,900
8,800
6,100
19
10,800
3,700
7,100
18,100
10,600
7,500
20
11,500
5,800
5,700
18,600
8,900
9,700
21
11,400
4,100
7,300
17,400
6,700
10,700
22
10,800
7,400
3,400
14,200
6,700
7, TOO
23
9,800
7,000
K,800
15,700
5,400
10, TOO
24
10,800
5,800
5,000
14,300
9,100
5,200
25
8,900
5,700
3,200
16, TOO
9,800
6, MO
26
13,200
7,600
5,600
13,600
8,400
5,200
27
13,200
10,100
3,100
14,500
5,100
9,400
28
9,500
4,900
4,600
15,700
5,000
10,700
29
10,500
4,800
5,700
16,700
7,400
9, TOO
30
8,500
6,800
1,700
19 , 200
8, TOO
10,900
31
10,100
7,4-00
2,700
16,900
11,100
5,800
32
10,200
7,100
5,100
15, TOO
11,000
4, TOO
33
10,700
8, 400
2,300
19,100
10,200
8,900
34
3,910
16,000
16,5TO
8,600
9,0TO
7,400
Ave.
10,170
6,260
7, TOO
55 Los,
s of Original Tansion
Sff/S
45J5
♦CroEsing Plank
Track
609
Westbound ^
ATerago Change in Out-to-Out Distance of Joint Bars
C U St.P & P Test Installation
(From 13-2-38 to 6-12-40)
NORTH RAIL
SOUTH KAIL
Location
Average Change
Inches
Average Change
Inches
A
.018
.022
B
.023
.024
C
.013
.021
D
.015
.015
X
.008
.014
F
.012
.008
Avexaga
Note: The average chanre Is a decrease in out-to-out distance
at the locations shown.
bolt tension had decreased to 6,400 lb. in the 7 months time. The bolts on the south
rail were tightened to 17,200 lb. and decreased to 9,600 lb. in the same period.
In Table 1 similar information is given for the period June 30, 1939 to June 12,
1940, sUghtly less than one year. On June 30, 1939, the bolts on the north rail were
tightened to an average of 10,200 lb. tension and at the end of one year, under regular
traffic, the bolt tension had decreased to an average of 6,300 lb. The bolts on the south
rail were tightened to an average of 16,500 lb. bolt tension and this tension decreased
to 9,000 lb. in the same period.
The loss in bolt tension on both the north and south rail was about the same in
the 12 -months period as in the preceding period. The south rail with higher initial bolt
tension, lost considerably more bolt tension during the test period than did the north
rail with the lower bolt tension. However, even with this loss, at the end of the test
period the remaining bolt tension on the south rail was some SO percent higher than
on the north rail.
Wear of Joint Bars and Rail Fishing Surface
Out-to-out measurements of joint bars were made by means of a joint caliper (See
Vol. 40, page 570). Measurements were made on the top and bottom ribs of the bar
near each end and at its middle. The location of these measurements is shown in the
drawing. The out-to-out measurements were made December 2, 1938, on all joint bars
included in the bolt tension tests. These measurements were repeated on June 12, 1940,
and in Table 2 is given the average change in the out-to-out distance during this period.
In this table the change in out-to-out distance is averaged for each location on the
610 Track
joint bar separately, and also for the north and south rail separately. The average change
given is the average distance in inches by which the out-to-out measurements of the
joint bars have decreased during the test period. It will be noted that the amount of this
change in out-to-out distance is approximately the same on both the north and south
rail. This indicates that in this test period of 19 months little difference in the amount
of joint bar and rail fishing wear resulted from the difference in bolt tension. The
measurements show more wear at the receiving end of the joint than at the leaving end.
Chicago, Burlington & Quincy
The bolt test installation on the Burlington near Western Springs, 111., was described
in the report of two years ago (Vol. 40, page 568). The test includes approximately 40
joints on the north rail and 40 joints on the south rail on the eastbound main track
between Western Springs and Highlands. The rail in the test is 131-lb. rail with 6-hole
toeless joint bars of both head free and head contact types, 1-in. heat-treated track
bolts, and "Triflex" or "double-coil improved Hi Power" washers. The rail on this
test was laid new in August, 1938 and the bolt tension obtained in the tightening was
measured and described in the 1939 report. Since many of the bolts had been tightened
beyond their elastic limit, and the bolt tension measurements depended upon the elastic
elongation of the bolts, the bolts were loosened on October 5, 1938 and the permanent
set was measured. The bolts on the south rail were then retightened to a bolt tension of
approximately 15,000 lb. and those on the north rail to a bolt tension between 20,000
and 25,000 lb.
Loss of Bolt Tension Under Traffic
After the October 5, 1939, tightening of the bolts, the bolt tension was accurately
measured and the bolts were left undisturbed. Measurements of bolt tensions were
repeated on November 1, 1938; November 30, 1938; April 25, 1939; August 4, 1939,
and April 24, 1940. On this last date it was thought that the bolt tension had decreased to
where the bolts should be retightened. Before tightening, however, it was desired to
check the "no load" lengths of the bolts. To do this without disturbing the fishing surface
contacts of the joints, only three bolts of each joint were loosened at one time for "no
load" readings. The bolts were then retightened, aiming for an average of lS,000-lb.
bolt tension on the south rail and 25,000 lb. on the north rail. Bolt tension readings
were taken immediately following the tightening and another series of readings was
taken on October 16, 1940.
There are four different test sections on both north and south rails of approximately
10 joints each, in the following order from west to east:
Head free bars with "Hi Power" washers
Head free bars with "Triflex" washers
Head contact bars with "Hi Power" washers
Head contact bars with "Triflex" washers
In Fig. 1 the average bolt tensions at the various dates of measurements are given
for each separate test section on the north rail. The estimated trend of the bolt tension
loss as indicated by these averages is also shown. It will be noted that the decrease in
bolt tension was relatively rapid following the October 5, 1938, tightening for a period
of about two months. The rate at which the bolt tension had decreased since then has
been much less rapid. Corresponding data for the bolts on the south rail are shown
in Fig. 2, and it will be noted that on this rail, also, the loss in bolt tension for the first
two months after tightening was relatively much greater than it was subsequently.
Track
611
FIG. I
LOSS OF BOLT TENSION UNDER TRAFFIC
ORIGINAL TIGHTENING OCT. 5, IMS RETIGHTENEO APRIL 25, 1940
APPROXIMATE TRAFFIC DENSITY 15,000,000 G. T. PER YEAR
40,000
30,000
S 20,000
O 10,000
Generally the rate of bolt tension loss was greater with the "Hi Power" washers than
with the "Triflex" springs. The rate of bolt tension loss was not greatly different for
the head contact and head free types of bars. The bolt tension values shown in these
two figures are somewhat different from those given in the committee report last year
(Vol. 41, page S77, Fig. 2). This is due to the fact that the bolt tension values this
year could be corrected for the permanent set of the bolts as determined from the
April 24, 1940 readings. Also, for the north rail only those bolts were included in the
averages last year which had an original tension on October S, 1938 of approximately
25,000 lb. However, this so reduced the number of bolts in the test that it was thought
preferable this year to include all the bolts in the test. This had the effect of lowering
considerably the amount of the tension throughout for the Triflex springs, but the
rate of bolt tension loss was very little affected.
Figures 1 and 2 show the average bolt tension as retightened on April 25, 1940 and
as found on October 16, 1940. These values arc subject to later correction for permanent
set. Furthermore, the trend of bolt tension loss can be better estimated when more
measured values are available. However, it does seem apparent that the rate of bolt
tension loss in the six months' period following October 16, 1940 was not as great as
in the six months' period following October 5, 1938.
It should be noted that the bolts in the north rail with the higher original tension
on April 24, 1940, after 19 months' service had much higher remaining tension than did
those of the south rail.
612
Track
FIG. 2
LOSS OF BOLT TENSION UNDER TRAFFIC
ORIGINAL TIGHTENING OCT. 5. 1936 RE.TIGHTE.NED APRIL 25, 1440
APPROXIMATE TRAFFIC DENSITY IS,000,000 G. T PER YEAR
40,000
30,000
20,000
o lopoo
LEC
END
30UT
i RA
IL
HEAD
HEAD
FREE
^CT H
HI P<
1 POW
IWER
•R X
—
HEAD
HEAD
CO NT/
FREE
CT T
TRIP
UFLE)
-EX
— <
SUBJ :CT T<
LATEf REVISION
-
-^
I
&
^-
"^
^^
1
<
^.•
»
II^
===»
S>
^^
T~^^
:^rt~..^
^~^
■ ^
■-1
'■^rz^
Table 3 shows the average loss in bolt tension per month on each of the various
test sections during the 19 months' period from October 5, 1938 to April 4, 1940.
Table 3. — Average Loss in Bolt Tension from October S, 1938 to April 24, 1940.
Average Bolt Tension in Lb. No. of No. Bolts
Loss Per Bolts Loose
South Rail 10-5-38 4-24-^0 Loss Month in Test 4-24-40
Head free Triflex 14,730 4,090 10,640 570 60 6
Head free Hipower 16,710 2,190 14,520 780 58 20
Head contact Tri 12,410 4,090 8,320 450 54 7
Head contract H.P 19,880 2,820 17,060, 910 60, 17
North Rail
Head free Triflex 18,400 7,050 11,350 610 58 4
Head free Hipower 27,560 8,040 19,520 1,047 53 3
Head contact Tri 17,840 5,500 12,340 660 41 2
Head contact H.P 25,030 8,530 16,500 880 60 5
Wear of Joint Bars
When the test was started accurate measurements were made of the out-to-out
distances between the outer faces of the bars at each joint on both top and bottom ribs
at each end and near the center of the bar. (See Fig. 3, page 570, Vol. 40). As wear
occurs on the fishing surfaces of the joint and rail the bars are moved closer together
Track
613
TABLE 4.
EASTB0l//iO
ATerege Change in Out-to-Out Distance of Joint Bars
C. 5. !c Q. H.R. Test Installation
(From October 5, 1938 to October 16, 1940)
Type of Joint
tc Spring Washer
Location on Joint
North Rail:
Headfree HI power
Headfree Trlflei
Head Contact H.P.
Head Contact Trl.
A
B
C
D
Z
y
ATS.
- .009
- .014
- .034
- .060
- .053
- .052
- .023
- .049
- .031
- .028
- .058
- .104
- .079
- .068
- .065
- .084
- .022
- .020
- .058
- .068
- .063
- .057
- .054
- .054
- .043
- .040
- .049
- .070
South Raili
Headfree Hlpowor
Headfree Trl flex
Head Contact H.P.
Head Contact Trl.
- .005
.003
- .049
- .054
- .055
- .052
- .026
- .046
- .019
- .023
- .108
- .102
- .079
- .088
- .081
- .094
- .008
- .013
- .076
- .062
- .065
- .082
- .060
- .058
- .038
- .043
- .067
- .069
Note: All values shown are in Inches. The " - " sign indicates the
"""^ average charge if e decrease in out-to-out distance.
by the bolt tension and a comparison of subsequent out-to-out measurements with the
original measurement is an indication of the rate of joint bar wear. The purpose of
making these measurements was to determine whether the amount of bolt tension had
a major effect upon the rate of joint bar wear.
In Table 4 the average change in out-to-out distance of joint bars for the eight
test sections is given separately for each position of measurement of the bar. It will
be noted from this table that there was no appreciable difference in the rate of wear
on the north and south rail even though the average bolt tension over the test period
was considerably greater on the north rail. It will also be noted from this table that
the head free bars generally show little inward movement at the top, which is to be
expected due to the design of the bar, but the inward movement at the bottom of the
bar is approximately the same as the average inward mov^ement of the head contact
type bars. Generally, somewhat more wear and inward movement is indicated at the cen-
ter of the bar than at the ends. In general, the results for the four test sections for each
type of bar are in good agreement, the only exception being that the head contact Hi
Power on the north rail showed considerably less inward movement than the other three
head contact test sections. There was considerable difference in the amount of out-to-out
movement in individual joints in each test section and since only 10 joints were included
in each test some variation is to be expected. It should be pointed out that the amount
of out-to-out change in these joint bars in the two-year period is much greater than
in the corresponding period on the Milwaukee and the D. & R. G. W. tests. The
traffic density on the Burlington test is from three to five times as great as on these
other two test installations, and this seems a probable explanation for the difference.
It will be of interest to note whether the change in the out-to-out distance continues
614 Track
at the same rate in the future and, if so, to estimate the probable traffic period when
the 3/16-in. clearances between joint bar and rail web will be exhausted by the inward
movement of the joint bars resulting from fishing surface wear.
Denver & Rio Grande Western
The rail was laid for this test installation on the D. & R. G. W. single track main
line near Glenwood Springs, Colo., on September 7, 1938 (See Vol. 40, page 568). The
rail is 131 lb., with 4-hole toeless joint bars, IJ^-in. heat-treated bolts, and National
grooved spring washers. At the time the rail was laid, the bolts on the north rail were
tightened with a Nordberg power wrench, and the bolts on the south rail were tightened
by hand with a 48-in. wrench. Very high bolt tensions were obtained, particularly with
the power wrench, and in many cases the elastic limit of the bolt was exceeded. Since
the bolt tension measurements depend upon a true elastic elongation of the bolt it was
not possible to determine the bolt tension originally applied in tightening until the bolts
could be loosened and the permanent set measured. In the committee report last year,
therefore, only the loss in tension at succeeding periods of measurement was reported.
Loss of Bolt Tension Under Traffic
It was decided that the bolt tension had been so decreased by traffic that the bolts
should be retightened this year. Accordingly, measurements were taken on October 10,
1940, and the bolts were then all loosened and the permanent set was measured. From
these and the preceding measurements, it was then possible to determine the bolt tension
originally applied on September 7, 1938, and the bolt tension remaining at the suc-
cessive periods of measurement up to October 10, 1940. This information is shown in
Table S. To conserve space, the average bolt tension is shown for the four bolts of
each joint (except as otherwise noted) , instead of for each individual bolt. One point to
be noted in Table 5 is that the loss in bolt tension is not the same at each joint. On the
north rail, although a wide variation in the bolt tension was applied to individual bolts
with the power wrench, as will be discussed later, nevertheless the average bolt tension
apphed per joint was reasonably uniform. However, at the time of the measurements
on October 10, 1940, the average bolt tension per joint was relatively quite different at
individual joints. A comparison with the joint gap measurements (Table 7, Vol. 41,
p. 586) indicates that generally those joints showing the greatest loss in bolt tension
also showed the greatest expansion movement, as indicated by the joint gap openings in
cold weather.
In Fig. 3 the average bolt tension for the north and south rail has been plotted
with respect to time after the original tightening. The bolts were not touched from
September 7, 1938 to October 10, 1940, so the reduction in bolt tension resulted from
service conditions only. Smooth curves have been drawn to coincide as nearly as possible
with the measured values for each rail. The rate of bolt tension loss was relatively
great for the first two months after tightening and much smaller thereafter.
Uniformity of Tightening
At the time of the original tightening of the bolts on September 7, 1938, it was
desired to gain information on the variation in bolt tension obtained in tightening.
Since many of the bolts were tightened beyond their elastic limit, as previously stated,
it was not possible at that time to show this variation for bolt tensions above 30,000 lb.
per sq. in. (See Vol. 40, pages 573, 574). It became possible, however, to show this
information after the permanent set was measured on October 10, 1940, and Fig. 4 has
Track
615
5 ?
o
u
(-
o
111
o
a.
z
111
u.
K
I-
od
-t
X
<
O
a.
d
ID
1-
11.
h
O
y-
<
2
O o
SBI Nl NOI«N3J. Xnoe 30VW3AV
616
Track
^ z S
^ z o
= o a
< t
o
d
■
_)
<
m
m
^
z
^^^B
H
a
_l
o
■■■
<
o
a
^
>-
<
o
z
z
u
z
■■
3
u
O
c
w
1
»
■■i
J
<r
_^_
±
H^^l
<
a.
(0
1-
z
o
z
IJ
O
a
-
i
o
->
<0
■—
O
^
z
o
-1
o
X
o
z
-
IT
O
Z
-
z
I
u
z
z
-1
>-
^
i
1
o
o
^^^^1
o
^B
u
<
bJ
Z
— ■
z
o
■
7
^g^H
7
«
u
It
It
i
1
^^m
s
■
<A
1-
t-
.1
O
tM
o
1
(D
4 VX'ZL
000 'Oi ■
OO^'IO ■
000'S9 ■
OOS'Z» ■
000*09 ■
00%'^«'
ooo'ss-
OOS'iS •
000 'OS •
00«'i^-
OOO'S^ •
oos'e* ■
000 *0f •
ooc'ic ■
000 'sc ■
OOS'CT ■
OOO'OC ■
oo«Vs ■
000 'S2 -
OOC'ZZ ■
000*02 -
OOS'il-
OOO'SI -
OOS'^I -
000*01-
00? *i -
000 's -
009*2 -
000* ox
■ OOS'l»
. O00'C9
• oos'z*
000*09
• OOS'it
■ ooo*ec
oo«*w
000 'oc
OOS'it
000* s»
005 '2»
OOO'OC
• OOS'IC
'00 0*CC
oos*zt
OOO'OC
OOS'iZ
ooo*«z
005' 22
000*02
00«' L\
000 ' SI
OOS'21
000*0 1
oos'x
ooo*s
OOS'2
0
niva HDV3 Nl Sn08 XS3X
Track
617
#2 F^rtCy^^'^rH ^* ^i>4rH
O O Q O
«**ttl O KN
nO (^ CO
00 OQOOOOOOOQOOQOQOOQQ QQQOOO O
rt^ Oj W K*, N 1-1 r^ iH rH t-< <M CM •-• -H "^ ^!?i?3S] iS
a) OOOOQQOOQOOOOOOOOOO
\ \0 CI P- 1^ IT* o i-io\mc\ir\coc\jHoco{Kou\
\ CNI -? <n -^ CO O^ W ITi KMT* <0 t- CM^-^ W J rrv W
(S^ «n',KNKNC\J ^N CM rt (M CM Ca ?t rH^ a 71 WN
^ CMCMCMCMl<^K^K^ fc, kS kn k\ KNhr, Ks^3ji^:3 ^SSSS S\
3 QO gOOOOOOOOOQOQOQOO
On QO OOQOOOQOQOOOOOOOO
^ lArH t--r<>0 KN Jov^iTisO^^O^ t~r-a3 0>0
> r4^ CM CM CM ^ CM CM 77 i-l ^ r-< >H ^ rH ,H fH r4
o S o O
S. g CM CM
\ < c?ir> u>
O IT? (< ir\ CM
I
ogoooQooooooooooo
ISIII
1
1
^JJSliiS
tH
■3 PCiCD ScM
0
R
III
II-
C^CD (D 0 O^
<o
pHf^CM r<
55i:
»,5
4> 4>
0 0 0 0 Q
S?8^8»S
0
3
* i K\
u^oa)^o ^O
iH CVJ OJ OJ M
81
K>CM J
CD 00 QOOQOOOOOOOOOPOQO
^ |Rk\ lACM^KN&'S^rt JM cm cm <-<'W cm 8?Si'2l Jti
-3C0-^a> <D
CM CM kSCM cm
^ QQ goooogooooQOOQooo 00000
618
Track
Table 6
ODT-TO-ODT MEASDHEMENTS
Change from 9/l/i& to lO/lO/UO
D. ft R.G.V. R.R. Test Installation
Measurements in inches. Minus el^ ' dsorease in out-to-
1
2
3
7
8
9
11
12
13
ll*
15
16
17
18
19
. Average
26
27
29
30
32
33
3U
35
36
38
UO
Ul
I42
U3
Ui
Average
Position
A
B
0
D
North Bail
- .011
.001
-
.010
- .005
- .023
.00
-
.019
- .001
- .023
.
.006
-
.016
- .008
- .020
.OOU
-
.021
- .002
- .027
.
.012
-
.029
- .019
- .011
-
.(xa
-
.023
- .001*
- .006
-
.021
-
.012
- .019
- .019
-
.012
-
.011
- .025
- .007
-
.012
-
.011
- .018
- .056
-
.d42
-
.oU3
- .011
- .007
.
.002
-
.oil*
- .013
.ooU
-
.023
.003
- .028
- .009
-
.009
-
.011
- .010
- .diR
-
.029
- .035
- .001
-
.010
-
.011
- .012
- .018
-
.011
-
.017
- .Oil*
South Bail
- .001
-
.010
-
.001
- .017
- .015
-
.006
-
.012
- .005
- .003
-
.007
-
.008
- .010
- .010
-
.019
-
.009
- .016
- .007
_
.006
-
.011
- .012
,00
_
.020
-
.008
- .025
- .och
_
.015
-
.012
- .021*
- .065
_
.061
-
.026
- .017
- .007
.
.009
-
.018
- .006
- .oitS
.
.007
-
.038
- .001*
- .020
-
.(?2
-
.018
- .023
- .039
-
.053
-
.020
- .029
- .058
-
.05i*
-
.021*
- .027
- .035
.015
-
.057
- .010
- .001*
-
.003
-
.009
- .021
out distance.
E
F
027
- .003
016
- .OQl*
022
- .013
OQl*
- .006
017
- .009
Q2U
- .002
ocJ*
- .013
007
- .022
oil
- .027
022
.006
020
- .017
021
- .056
022
- .005
OQl*
- .020
015
- .005
015
- .013
005
- .009
Oil*
- .010
Oil
- .015
OQl*
- .oil*
,009
- .012
.008
- .013
026
- .038
,006
- .031
.021
- .oci*
,052
.006
003
- .003
012
- .007
001*
- .005
060
- .026
002
- .021
.019
- .016
.013
u
o
o
r
^
EAST ^
been prepared to give this information. This figure shows the percentage of the test
bolts which lay within successive ranges of bolt tension. It will be noted that the bolt
tension obtained varied over a very wide range with both the hand and machine-
tightened bolts.
Out-to-Out Measurements of Joint Bars
On September 7, 1938, following the bolt tightening, careful measurements were
made of the out-to-out distance between joint bars on both bottom and top ribs near
each end of the bars and at their center. These measurements were repeated on October
10, 1940, and the individual measurements are shown in Table 6, together with the
average at each joint location. A particular purpose of these measurements was to deter-
mine whether the amount of bolt tension had a major effect upon the rate of wear of
the joint bars. Although the tension on the north rail was very much above the tension
on the south rail throughout the test period, it will be noted that there is little change
in the respective amount of out-to-out distance on each rail, indicating that the amount
Track 61Q
of joint bar wear was approximately the same regardless of the bolt tension. Also, there
does not seem to have been much more wear at the center of the joints than at the
ends during this traffic period. A somewhat greater amount of wear apparently occurred
at the A and B positions, which would be the receiving end of the joint in the direction
of fast movement down grade.
Continuation of Measurements
The test bolts were replaced with new bolts on October 11, 1940, and retightened
by hand, and bolt tension measurements were taken. It is planned to continue measure-
ments to determine the rate of loss in bolt tension and also joint bar wear. Joint gap
readings were taken but they will not be shown at this time as no significant change
appears to have occurred since the recording of the facts given in Table 7, page 586,
Vol. 41.
Erie Railroad Test Installation
The test installation on the Erie is on the westbound track of the double-track
main Hne at M.P. 223, near Griffith, Ind. The rail is 112-lb. section laid new on July 19,
1939, with 6-hole angle bars and one-inch heat-treated bolts. The test installation con-
sists of 8 joints on the north rail and 10 joints on the south rail, a total of 18 joints
and 105 test bolts. Triflex springs were placed on 33 of the test bolts, chrome improved
Hi Power spring washers on 32, and improved Hi Power spring washers on 39.
Loss of Bolt Tension Under Traffic
Last year's report included a chart showing the range of bolt tension obtained in
tightening. The bolts were left undisturbed following this tightening until December 17,
1939, approximately five months, at which time the bolt tension remaining in the bolts
was measured. The individual bolt tensions measured at this time and at the original
tightening on July 14, 1939, are shown in Table 7 and the average values are given
for both bolt positions and joints for each type of spring washer used.
The bolts were then retightened with a Raco power wrench and the tension
measured. No further tightening was done until October 15, 1940, at which time the
tension remaining in the bolts was read. The individual bolt tension measurements
obtained at these two times are shown in Table 8.
Out-to-Out Measurements of Joint Bars
At the time of making the bolt tension measurements, the out-to-out distance
between joint bars was measured with the joint bar caliper on the center line of the
joint bar near each end and at the middle. Readings could not be taken on the bottom
ribs with the caliper because the joint bars were of the angle bar type and the caliper
would not span the outstanding flanges.
In Table 9, the change in out-to-out measurements at each location of measure-
ment is shown during the periods that the loss of bolt tension under traffic was
measured. Comparison of the loss in bolt tension with the change in out-to-out distance
affords an interesting study. In the first five months' period after the rail was laid,
the change in out-to-out distance averaged about 0.02 in., being perhaps SO percent
greater at the middle of the joints than at the ends and nearly the same for the different
types of springs. The bolt tension decreased considerably in this period with the Hi
Power springs and decreased more at the two center bolts than at the remaining bolts.
The loss in bolt tension was somewhat less, with the Triflex springs.
620
Track
Sf 888888 8 888888 8
^ t- ^r^_d■ NMA r- iTv
I CO CJs r-l CO i~< 0\
8888888 8
O^CVJ •-• o3h} CM >«
88 888
t-* i^ I fO ON O
OS OJ t<\^ Os
888888 8
<x) r- <H rfN_d" ^ K\
888888 8
JCJ OVOO dlTv I K\
« ft « * % 4 •
18 888
> UN I KNCJ J
' t-t--f-(D CO
>-l rt iH
88 888 S
m J- O ^ NN oo I CTv
CJ t~ t~K\-
135
is
g5
SlTv I lf\rO oo
I -P »C\ O^CO CO rH O N
J lA -It iH C\J
888888 8
t— CO 00 ir\ 00 KN CD
O lA cy ITS rr\ _CJ
888888 8
0\K>rH-4 ON O CO
o ^
8,500
8,500
11,600
5.U00
3.100
10,100
8
888888
«Mr>-35 CO cNov 1
to
7,700
11,600
11,600
7.700
10,100
8
t-
8888888
CVJ #H CO oNOnOnOn
8
*
9,500
7,000
15.900
8,500
15.900
8
§8 88
1 vO ir> 1 ir\0^
1
8888888
CM-C\J*<t-Ca KN
1
rH 00 CO (<\ O
K K X CO CO CO tf
'oa?JuNcor<N oo
oazKcacococo
■§vo r~co r-c& cf\<4
w e-1
O -H
rf B o5 5*5 -3cy t--
» I lA IA_^ rH CVl OJ
> -rj rH r-l H »H rH ^
isS 888
„ 3 OJ o rt t~3
vO O ft « I • ft •
rH_3 (DOW
Cy f-1 «-l H H
^ ir>8 38 8
8888888 8
j<3rH o cy t-^ CO
*H rA 1-1 (H ro K\_:t OJ
888888 8
• *•««* «
-qO^*^ OJ iH rH fA
888888 8
CM CVJ i^r-fco hr\
a
^^ j:^^i3
^
K\»AC0-4>O_^
rH rH rH rH H
»
88 888
8
888888
8
•^8^
C-IA 0\fH CO
t-
LAsO 0\0MA
o
JiJ'-J^'S'^i
uoIh
J8
88|888
1
88888
8
■P 4> NN
r-l OJ O rH CU
^S
CO t-_d"lAONO
OJ
O K\-4 O rr\
a
1 888888 8
■H. CVJ jK\Olf\K\CVJ K\
88888 8
w r^-^ rH r- r<^ ^ o t^ "^"^^ S^
cg-SSSSSSS 8
r- O* ON uS rH OJ t*- »?\
5 C?0 CD 0?iH-:Jor rH
Jtr-tt-* ^ f-tr^ rH rH
I
«888888 8
O t~-:tl7\CJ lA On
J O CVI nO KNnO K\
M r1 f* r^ I-* tH e-t
888888 8
-^CJ rH O OJ K\ UN
888888 8
oB3i-i^r-rt cv^
if\r---^oj o <y\ CO
8888888 8
O^0JH)ffir40i3 rCN
On CD nO LA On f<\ OJ On
rH rH
8888888 8
O 3 CO t- CMTv UN 00
888888 8
r-r-t— t^-3co CVJ
o uNUNcJcvi c^ -*
iH i-l IH r-l H iH rH
S§§S8 8
I ft ft ft ft ft •
U\<H i-l KNCO ^
8888888 8
OJ Oi lA f- c-3 ^ o
KM<\rHUMAMON K\
fl iHtVJKNiHCVJKN » t<\3 1^1-3 lAvO O NOt~*t-*OvO «
Track
621
SS88 8 8888SS 8
■^ ^ CMf\ UN ir\N0 0\NN0\O o?
888888
CO t— -5 ^ CMf\
» t- ON •-« ^ r
S8888SS 8
vO OJ O ir^ CO r- rt 3
rJ I> 00 f^ C\J CM CU r^
(-1 <H p-t r-4 H r4
11. Ill
<y in o_rt w
888888 8
K^0tf\.-^3^0 co
• ** * * • * «
Of^CO O M rH On
' ' »H H I-!
888888 8
) J I >-• O CO
r-M O'S'Sj CO r-l
888888
.zjr^ Ovcy UMA
88 888
K\co I o3co
8 888888 8
^ >0 ir\>B (u m iH ^
bD-H
a CO
.9 "^ 8
d -P K\ O^ O CVi KNJ rH
Br-I ««««^^
• O -ZJO^COHNt^Os
Oh CQ
88 8
«H 03 r-iNO eg O CO
88888 §
" O CVJ o7cO CD O
r-l H rH rH rH
888888
UMT* rH m N-» ON I
rH oT-d' '-' f^ ON
8 0 O O O O Q O
o o o o o o o
J-ONNNrH lA_:JrH CJ
OJ -Zj N^ ON i-t t^ CJs CO
888888 8
o cu fo* o oj ir» CO
88888 8
t^l**hNKNOJ CO
OJ CJ OJ ir\_:t_:jcD
CO MN ro, rH OJ <\l ON
888888
88 88 8
*cg-0 "eS-^ o
r- CO a t- vo w -3
0 I I I I I I
..4 HOfH CO Pl^^^ Cy KN
45
3 So
5,1888888
0\ i( (I, t^ N© t^ in ON iTv
OS • d-q f<>K\hrvasON
«-H ^ W H rH r-l CVJ r^ rH
^888888 8
«H iH ir> rH us OS ^ c^
I ox-
>_:tN6 iH CO CO <
r^ Urtrt^r-lrHrH 7-1 5 ?l rt T5 <M M r< rt .-I
O -H rH
'fi . i88 888 8
O _ C r-l J KSjrH K\
s ^
CO OJ «H fH CO
•a
88 888
51-='
•»>
88 888
rH C> rH CO CO
rH Cy rHrH
88||88
so OS JtMTvsO
1 .
1
15.700
UL,eoo
6,600
28,000
19,800
15.700
r*
§§§888
o o>o osK^sS
^■3
W OJ OJ <NJ W
MTv O CO On
rH rH rH CU rH OJ
-^nO ^ rH O rrs CO
oTrHrHO t^O ^
rH rH rH OJ rH rH ^
888888 8
iTvO r- rH CO r- ir\
3cO COnO CO lA OJ
OJ O r^ rH O m NN
88 8 888888 8
CO lA cy -arHjcosC^ | a,
0_a^ W OslTvCD
OJ »H r-* Cy r-)
8 88888 8 8888888 8
CO lAO^NOr- nO 3oNOj-4^uxr- *-»
nO ir.r-ONrHJ ir\ nO c^moi ir\sO tr\ r^
r^ t-i r^ t-t ,-i '-i f-4 OJ rHrHOJrHrH t-t
8 88888 8 8888888 8
to ONNOCTvh-f^ ^ irNCOLTNrHNO m_:J i/\
• !*•••• • «««««*« «
sO KNrHO-a^rH sO sOONOtDOvOrH 00
i-H rHrHOjHOJ rH rHrHrHrHOJrHOj ,-«
:8 88 8 8888888 8
»OJ .OOs OJ tr*-^ rH ov ir\ O o if\
f^ ft rH OJ >^
O sO vOrHtOmOO^
rH OJ rH OJ K^
S^
* & 5> 6
•3 rH CM K\ »H CU lA • HsJlA^USsfl » sfl c- CO t- tO Os O •
622
Track
Change in Ont-to-Out Measuroncnt of Joint Bars
Erie B.H. Tost Installatioit
July lU
, 1939 to Boo.
17, 1939
Deo. 17,
1939 to Oct,
15.
i9Uc
Position
Position
Joint Bo.
A
B
C
A
B
c
ChroiQo
Hi-Pou/er
Spring Hashers
1-N
- .012
- .007
- .021
-
.010
- ,017
-
.006
2-N
- .015
- .019
- .017
-
.006
- ,025
.
.008
3-H
- .017
- .012
- c030
-
.007
- .027
-
.000
1-6
- .069
- .0U5
- .007
-
.ooU
- .006
-
.0124
2-S
- .017
- .030
- .015
-
.007
- .oil*
.
.009
3-s
- .020
- .<«3
- .oil*
-
,001*
- .012
-
.002
Iron go
- .018
- .oeii
- .017
-
.007
- ,017
-
.006
rriflez Springs
3-«
- .017
- ,012
- .030
-
.007
- .027
-
.000
i«-l
- .013
- .033
- .022
.
.009
- .016
.
.008
£.'
- .015
- ,025
- .010
.
.011
- ,010
_
.007
- .018
- .026
- .020
.
,007
- .016
.
.Olii
5-6
- .022
- .031
- .015
-
.006
- ,013
_
.003
6-8
- .016
- .020
- .019
-
,010
- .010
-
.006
Average
- .017
- .02U
- ,019
-
.008
- .015
-
.006
Hi-Povrer Springs
6-N
- .015
- .03i*
- .019
-
.010
- .016
-
.009
7-N
- .026
- .016
- .019
-
.001
- .025
_
.005
S.H
- .022
- .031*
- .023
.
.010
- .019
_
.005
7-S
- .026
- .032
- .oU*
-
.000
- -oil
_
.011
a-8
- .021
- .027
- .019
.
.000
- .010
_
.010
9-6
- .025
- .ca6
- .019
-
.001
- .017
_
.005
lOS
- .013
- .026
- .005
-
.003
- .007
-
,016
Average
- .026
.017
- ,00lt
- .016
Measurements shoun represent decrease in out-t(^out
distance of Joint bore.
In the ten months' period following retightening of the bolts, the loss in bolt tension
was about the same as in the preceding test period of only five months. In this period,
the change in out-to-out distance averaged about 0.01 in. and was about twice as great
at the two center bolts as at the remaining bolts. Again, there was little difference in
out-to-out change with the different types of springs. Also, in this latter period there
was not so marked a difference in the loss of bolt tension with the various types of
springs. The Hi Power springs had a higher initial tension than the Triflex and also
had a higher tension at the close of the test period. The performance of the Triflex
was somewhat better in maintaining more uniform tension at individual bolts.
Continuation of Measurements
The bolts were retightened on October 15, 1940, and the measurements will be
continued. It is also planned to make some laboratory tests on the overall reactance
properties of the various types of springs to include the reactance effects of the bolt.
With this information it will be possible to determine to what extent inward move-
ment of the joint bars as a result of fishing surface wear, explains the measured loss
in bolt tension under traffic.
Track
623
Pennsylvania Railroad
This test installation on the Pennsylvania Railroad is located on Track 1 of the
three-track main hne near Birmingham, Pa. This track carries the major portion of
the eastbound passenger and freight traffic and the traffic density is quite high, from
50,000,000 to 70,000,000 gross tons per year. The rail is lS2-lb. Permsylvania section,
with 6-hole toeless controlled bearing joint bars, IJ^-in. bolts, and spring washers. The
bolts were especially selected for the test to insure that the nut could be freely turned
by hand over the entire threaded portion of the bolt. The rail was laid new in the
early part of August, 1939.
Uniformity of Bolt Tension Obtained in Tightening
Last year's report included a chart (Vol. 41, page 589) showing the range in bolt
tension obtained in tightening the bolts with a Raco power wrench. On June 21, 1940,
the bolts were loosened and retightened with a Raco power wrench with the improved
type ''kick-off". Of the 103 test bolts, 24 were tightened by hand because of lack of
clearance for the machine chuck with the special type of joint tie plate used. In Fig. 5,
the range of bolt tension obtained in tightening these bolts with the power wrench is
shown. The bolts tightened by hand are, of course, not included. It will be noted from
FIG. 5
PENNSYLVANIA R. R. BOLT TEST INSTALLATION
VARIATION IN BOLT TENSION
OBTAINED IN TIGHTENING WITH IMPROVED
RACO POWER WRENCH ON JUNE 21, 1940
152* RAIL - 6 HOLE TOELESS JT. BARS- l^ H. T BOLTS.
WITH SPRING WASHERS
e h
II ■
II
1 1
I I I I I I I I I
<\i (\l r4 ct
BOLT TENSION - LBS.
624
Track
FIG. 6
PENNSYLVANIA R. R. BOLT TEST INSTALLATION
VARIATION IN BOLT TENSION
OBTAINED IN TIGHTENING WITH HAND WRENCHES
ON NOV. 14, 1940
IS2* RAIL ~ e HOLE TOELESS JOINT BARS ~ iV^' H. T. BOLTS
WITH SPRING WASHERS
N
)RTH
RAIL
36-
- HAHO Tl<
WRE NCH
IHTEN
ED
1
1,
1
1
llll
1 1
S
OUTH
RAIL
48'
- HAI
WR
10 TIC
INCH
HTEN
:d
■
1
1
1
n
1
I
1 II
1
^ vj L- ■_ <g
^ « -- o 5,- «f t o 1^ SI !;; 8 s
BOLT TENSION - LBS.
comparison with the chart in last year's report that an improvement has been affected
in uniformity. However, there is still a wide range in the applied tension, even with
the free turning nuts. Tests conducted with this machine by the Pennsylvania Railroad
in the laboratory at Altoona indicated that the torque delivered by this machine, and
also with a Nordberg power wrench, at the time of kick-off was much more uniform
than the range of bolt tension obtained in these tests. It seems therefore that the varia-
tion in thread friction during tightening, even with free turning nuts, is sufficient to
produce considerable variation in the bolt tension obtained.
On November 14, 1940, these test bolts were retightened with hand wrenches. One
track man tightened the bolts on the north rail with a 36-in. wrench, and another man
tightened the bolts in the south rail with a 48-in. wrench. The men were instructed to
tighten these bolts just as they would do in regular maintenance work. The range in
Track
625
& 888888§8§888888§8
88888888888888888
t 88888888888888888
rX r^\0 r^-^(^^ c7(0 (> CO W "^ £^7 JO-^ ^
"^a §8888888888 88888
S 4> r^t^t-^_:ja?ojo7^0 <-• r-t o cd cu oj t^^
• »
It 8888 88 88888888
S a?iAK^J a?^o ON r- to u> ^ c~- rvN t~-
«< rH <-• >->
O
I 88888888888^8888
88888888888888888
tH3o<HO\vOt^<oir\Ocvjc-r-K\Oi-i kn_j
4> '< N K\ J ITIVO t- OD ON O rH Ol KJ^ UJ^ rj
S, 88888888888888§88 |
d CVJ CU <D to o3kn -O ITNi-l O CD rH^O J UN ^
e cjoo <^t~<o o^r^r^-0 r^ ciNt-^5 t-^o i^o m
88888888888888888 8
O a\ f- ir\ O r- ITv O K\ UN CVI -H iH J r^ -H W rH <»
O aJsO oTcDnO rt-4-O KNj^CU UN<\J CJ KNCU UN
p 88888888888888888 8
^ a? ONt^K^C^p (>cJ(^a?<Nr2!::i02:27^ S
' fl 88888888888 88888 §
V 8-a r-S KN_:JO KN^-irfNrH OS I -3 OHNUNKN O
1^ 88888 88888888888 8
8 rt K\3 0-5'<N'-< ONrH rH r^ ONO-a r<UNC^UN tO
flO CNOUNUNOJ OJOJKNOCyf-'^^OCT S
o
I 8888888888888888. g
a <M UNXNKNJkn5<M J3CVJ rH rt CO M^(> I o
t^ J UN UN ir> rt KN UN UN J OJ CJ CT> W -3 On «
04 H eg i-l CM •-< iH r^ »-4 eg rH rH rt r-l KN rj
88888888888888888 8
sO UNCO u^G^-3 lAoTcj lf^u^_^ o oj H^u^K^ 5
Is
9 ^
u o
5 '^CMKN^UN>Ot-.«>OsOj55jKN^UJ^tJ
626 Track
bolt tension obtained is shown in Fig. 6. The amount of variation was somewhat
greater than was obtained with the power wrench (Fig. 5), but not markedly so. The
average bolt tension obtained was approximately Vs greater with the hand tightening.
The average bolt tension obtained on the south rail using the 48-in. wrench was 12
percent greater than on the north rail using the 36-in. wrench. The 48-in. wrench should
have afforded 33 percent more torque, but it was observed that the track man did not
grasp the wrench at its end and thus did not fully avail himself of the increased length.
Loss of Bolt Tension Under Traffic
In the presentation of the test results, measurements of individual bolts have not
been given generally because of the space required. However, for this test installation
the number of bolts used permits showing the individual measurements. In Table 10,
the bolt tension appUed June 21, 1940, is shown, and also the tension remaining on
November 14, 1940. During this service period of approximately five months the average
bolt tension decreased from 18,600 lb. to 9,000 lb. The table shows the bolt tension loss
at the different bolt positions.
Bolt Average Tension
Position Loss Lb.
1 8,000
2 8,200
3 13,400
4 11,000
5 8,600
6 8,200
In this test, the bolt tension loss was approximately 50 percent greater at the two
center bolt positions than at the remaining bolt positions.
In comparing this test with the other test installations, the large amount of traffic
carried during the test period should be kept in mind.
Continuation of Test
The bolts were retightened on November 14, 1940, and the applied bolt tension
measured. Measurements were also made of the out-to-out distance between joint bars
so that information would be available on the rate of joint bar wear in the future.
Report on Assignment 10
Lubrication of Rail on Curves
Collaborating with Committee 16 — Economics of Railway
Location and Operation
S. Hales (chairman, subcommittee), L. L. Adams, W. H. Bettis, L. H. Bond, A. F.
Huber, F. J. Jerome, E. E. Martin, K. R. McLennan, S. H. Poore, C. R. Strattman,
M. J. T. Zeeman.
The two preceding reports on this subject are in the Proceedings noted below:
Vol. 39, pages 419 to 421—
This report listed four methods of lubrication and a method of determining
the economy of rail lubricators was described.
Track 627
Vol. 40, pages 575 to 581—
This second report presented information concerning the cost of mechanical
lubricators installed in track, together with information on the effective distance
over which the lubricant is carried on various curves.
Charts were presented showing the rate of wear on rail for various degrees
of curves before and after installation of lubricators.
Information was furnished on the savings effected on one railroad due to
increased rail life as a result of mechanical lubricators on locomotives applying
lubricant direct to the rail.
Two methods of determining the economy of lubricators were shown.
A report by Committee 16 of a test on the Denver & Salt Lake Railway in 1939,
(see Vol. 41, pages 151 to 154) shows the operating advantage of rail lubrication.
Since the two preceding reports, the committee has obtained some information on
the saving in engine tire wear and the following is reported as of value in determining
additional savings due to lubrication.
These samples are all on the same railroad but on different divisions:
Division
ABC
Total mileage 83.05 145.50 254.4
Total curve mileage oiled 14.12 44.91 97.47
Total central angle oiled 2793° 7801° 16471°
Number of oilers 13 41 67
Number of Tires changed per year
Before oihng 124 288 252
After oiling 109 28 48
Difference 15 260 204
Division
ABC
Annual saving on engine tires $ 450 $7,800 $6,120
Annual cost of lubrication 1,820 5,720 9,400
Annual saving per lubricator 34.50 190 91 .50
In the case of Division B, the lubricators are justified on the saving in tire changes
alone and in each case the savings listed above are in addition to the savings due to
increased life of rail.
One railroad also reports as follows:
Our best illustration of the use of rail and flange lubricators is on one of our
mountain divisions a distance of 82 miles, of which about 48J^ percent is curve
track, many of the curves running over 10 deg. There are 38 lubricator installa-
tions on this line, which averages 2.15 miles of track per lubricator. The installa-
tion cost about .?375 each, installed. The annual cost for the complete lubrication,
including grease, maintenance, cleaning and repairing, as well as handUng and
filling the lubricators, interest and depreciation, amounts to approximately $5,363.
The estimated saving on the installation is .$8,000 in rail and other track hardware
renewals and $2,900 in engine tire expense, or a net annual saving of approximately
$5,500.
In the territories where these lubricators are used the life of front tires before
the lubricators were applied was 2J/^ months for freight engines and 2 months
628 Track
for passenger engines. Since application of the lubricators the hfe of front tires
has been increased to 4>2 months for freight engines and 3J^ months for passenger
engines.
The information shown indicates considerable saving in tire wear and is of value in
determining the additional savings.
The committee has made considerable effort to determine ratios between degree of
curve, central angle, increased life of rail, etc., but information from various sources
shows that each location is a separate problem and such ratios are indeterminable.
This report together with others which have been made furnishes all the informa-
tion necessary to determine the economy of lubricators and, while additional informa-
tion would be helpful, it is felt that the conclusions presented in the committee's second
report are thoroughly established.
These conclusions are as follows:
The life of rail on curves can be extended by lubrication of the rail.
Lubrication of rail on curves can be accomplished by the following methods (in
order of preference).
(a) Mechanical lubricators installed in track
(b) Mechanical flange lubricators on locomotives
(c) Mechanical lubricators on locomotives applying lubricant direct to rail
(d) Manual lubrication of rail.
In addition to increasing the life of rail on curves, lubrication accomplishes the
following:
(a) Decreased cost of engine tires
(b) Longer service life of ties because of decreased gaging
(c) Decreased train resistance permitting either increased tonnage, better time or
less coal consumption.
The economic justification for lubrication depends upon the estimated annual saving
resulting, as compared with the total estimated annual cost of lubrication.
The kind of lubricant most satisfactory in mechanical track lubricators is a grease
or oil of heavy consistency.
Your committee recommends that these conclusions be adopted and published in
the Manual.
Report on Assignment 11
Prevention of Damage Due to Brine Drippings on
Tracks and Structures
Collaborating with Mechanical Division
G. M. Magee (chairman, subcommittee), W. G. Arn*, C. W. Baldridge, H. R, Clarke,
F. W. Hillman, C. T. Jackson, J. de N. Macomb, K. R. McLennan, W. A. Murray,
G. L. Sitton, C. R. Strattman, J. G. Wishart.
At the last meeting of the Joint Committee, representing the Engineering Division
(AREA) and the Mechanical Division, held in the early part of 1940; it was decided
that two additional series of tests should be conducted. In one series, refrigerator cars
* Mr. Arn is chairman of the Joint Committee on Prevention of Damage Due to Brine Drippings,
composed of representatives of the Engineering and Mechanical divisions.
Track 629
in regular service runs were to be iced and treated with salt containing inhibitor. The
brine drippings from these cars were to be collected at intervals and analyzed to deter-
mine whether the sodium-dichromate dissolved at substantially the same rate as salt and
offered protection throughout the test run. The other series of tests were to be track
tests in which two rails in track would be sprayed daily, one rail with brine containing
inhibitor, and the other with brine only. The following report is an account of two
tests made on the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway to determine the concentration
of sodium-dichromate in the brine drippings from refrigerator cars.
Tests were made as follows:
1. To determine whether adding the inhibitor to the salt had any effect on
the temperature of the brine.
2. To collect brine drippings at intervals from an empty car iced and salted
with salt containing inhibitor and left standing at the icing dock.
3. To collect samples of brine drippings at intervals in a regular service run
from a refrigerator car iced and salted -with salt containing inhibitor.
Effect on the Temperature of Brine of Adding
Sodium-Dichromate Inhibitor to Salt
Purpose of the Tests. — It had been assumed that due to the characteristics of sodium-
dichromate and soda ash and the relatively small amount used, this inhibitor would
have no effect on the refrigerating qualities of the ice and salt mixture used in refrigerator
cars. It was decided to investigate this by test, before starting the refrigerator car tests.
Procedure of Test. — ^The test was made at the Hobart ice plant of the Santa Fe at
Los Angeles on June 29, 1940. Two identical metal buckets were selected, and 24 lb. of
crushed ice was placed in each bucket. In bucket No. 2, 6 lb. of salt was placed over
the ice. In bucket No. 1, 6 lb. of salt containing inhibitor was placed over the ice. In
each bucket the salt was mixed into the ice by stirring. The proportion of inhibitor
added to the salt was the same as used in the road tests later described. (220 lb. salt —
3 lb. sodium dichromate — 2 lb. soda ash.) The temperature was determined by placing
a thermometer in the brine mixture in each bucket.
Log of Test: June 29, 1940
1:51 p. m.: 24 lb. crushed ice (3 in. maximum size) placed in each of two buckets.
1:53 p. m.: 6 lb. salt added to bucket No. 2; 6 lb. of salt and inhibitor added to
bucket No. 1.
2:25 p. m.: Bucket No. 2, salt only, 6 deg. F. Bucket No. 1, salt and inhibitor, 7 deg. F.
(Taken after stirring; thermometer placed in brine).
2:37 p. m.: Bucket No. 2, salt only, 10 deg. F. Bucket No. 1, salt and inhibitor,
10 deg. F.
3:10 p. m.: Bucket No. 2, salt only, 13 deg. F. Bucket No. 1, salt and inhibitor,
13.5 deg. F.
3:40 p. m.: Bucket No. 2, salt only, 14.5 deg. F. Bucket No. 1, salt and inhibitor,
15 deg. F.
4:00 p. m.: Bucket No. 2, salt only, 17 deg. F. Bucket No. 1, salt and inhibitor,
17 deg. F.
Conclusions. — The foregoing tests show that there is very little, if any, effect on
the refrigerating qualities of the salt and ice mixture due to the addition of the sodium-
dichromate 3 1 1 soda ash inhibitor.
630 Track
Test to Determine Inhibitor Concentration in
Brine Dripping from a Standing Refrigerator Car
Purpose of Test. — To ice and salt one end of a bunker of a standard refrigerator
car, the desired proportions of inhibitor being added to the salt before icing the car.
To collect samples of the brine drippings periodically and check the inhibitor content.
Description of Test Car. — A standard refrigerator car, SFRD 4249, was used, having
the following inside dimensions: Length, 33 ft. ^ in.; width 8 ft. 2^ in.; height,
7 ft. 3 in.; volume, 1,975 cu. ft.
Table #1
D
i n.G.W. R
R. Laboratory
Anoly
.is Of A.A.R. Corrosion Tests
Solutions.
Car i;o. S.F.R.D. Li2ii9
Grains
per Liter o
C Solution
Date
Time
pH
Salt
Soda Ash
Sodium Dichromate
6-27
10:00 AH.
7.2
2.3
BlarJc
rJlank
10iU5 AM.
8.2
60.0
.6279
.6190
11:00 AK.
e.u
96.0
2-.5117
2.6208
12:00 Koon
8.6
ISC.O
7.25fl
7.3710
2:00 PH.
e.5
22ii.O
ii.i*653
U.U772
l4:00 PM.
e.u
2;;6.0
U.i.653
a.5318
0:00 PM.
e.u
262.0
3. 6280
3.7128
6-27/28
12:00 Iloon
8.fi
280.0
2.7908
2.9I+8U
6-28
U:00 AI1.
8.3
260.0
2.9303
3.22U+
QiOO Al-i.
7.9
250.0
1.9536
2.I8U0
I:it5 P"'
7.U
268.0
1«2557
1.3102;
5 1 00 PM.
7.3
262.0
.6372
.9282
6:00 PM.
7.7
2U0.O
.8372
.6565
6-26/29
12i00 Koon
7.5
250.0
•6977
.6006
6-29
UtOO AM.
7.3
23U.O
.6977
.U914
10:00 AM.
7.6
186.0
.Uie6
.2181;
2jO0 PM.
7.6
156.0
.3I469
.2181;
h:U5 PK'
7.8
176.0
.i(8SU
.1638
Procedure of Test.—T\iQ test was made at the Santa Fe Hobart ice plant at Los
Angeles, beginning June 7, 1940. It was desired to have 3.2 grams of sodium dichromate
per liter of salt solution with sufficient soda ash added to bring the pH value to
approximately 8, which amounts of dichromate and soda ash were indicated in the
laboratory tests last year as being most desirable. A saturated salt solution was prepared
from regular car icing salt, and the water used in making the ice. This solution had
a pH value of 8 as determined by visual color pH indicator. The desired amount of
sodium-dichromate was then added to this solution and it was found that the pH value
was lowered considerably. Soda ash was then added and the amount required to bring
the pH value back to 8 was determined. The ratio of salt to sodium-dichromate by
weight in this mixture was calculated to be 60 to 1. The ratio of salt to soda ash by
weight was calculated to be 70 to 1.
The salt was then mixed with inhibitor in these proportions. The regular car icing
salt used was a rock salt and came packed in SS-lb. quantities in burlap sacks. Four
sacks of salt (220-lb.) were placed in a mixing box and 3 lb. 11 oz. sodium-dichromate
and 3 lb. 1 oz. soda ash added and mixed. The mixture was then resacked and the
mixing process continued until the required amount of salt had been prepared.
Log or Tests. — (June 27, 1940)
9:30 a. m.: Started icing car. Three 300-lb. cakes of ice were broken in large chunks
and placed in one end of bunker, and 3,300 lb. of crushed ice was added
to this which filled the bunker 2/i full.
Track
631
10:00 a. m.: 550 lb. of salt containing inhibitor was spread over the top of the ice
and poled down.
10:45 a. m.: 1,200 lb. of crushed ice added.
10:50 a. m.: 440 lb. of salt with inhibitor added.
11:00 a. m.: Remainder of bunker filled with crushed ice, approximately 6,400 lb.
total used.
11:10 a. m.: 660 lb. of salt with inhibitor added. Total salt used, 1,650 lb. Ratio salt
to ice, 25.8 percent.
June 28, 1940
9:10 a. m.: Poled ice down in bunker — bunker approximately J^ full.
June 29, 1940
3:10 a. m.: Ice poled down in bunker — bunker about 1/5 full.
Results of Tests. — Table 1 shows the analysis of the brine drippings from this test.
This analysis was made by the Denver & Rio Grande Western laboratory.
The desired concentration of sodium-dichromate in the brine drippings is 3.2 grams
per liter. It will be noted for the first few hours after icing the car, the sodium-
dichromate concentration was considerably over this figure. At the end of 24 hours the
ice was about half melted, and the sodium-dichromate concentration was somewhat less
than 3.2 grams per liter. From that time on the concentration of sodium-dichromate
in the brine drip decreased quite rapidly. The pH value of the brine drip was reasonably
close to 8 throughout the test.
Inhibitor Content in Brine Drippings on Road Test
Purpose of Tests. — To give a refrigerator car standard icing with 25 percent salt
containing sodium-dichromate and soda ash inhibitor. To collect samples of brine
Log of Test Run - Car 5012
Loo»tioii
Date
Tina
Icing
Star tad
Time
Icing
Completed
A End
lea Salt 4
Adde<J Inhibitor
Lbs. Added-Lba.
B
Ice
Added
Lbs.
End
Salt 4
Inhibitor
Added-Lbs.
Hobart loe Plant
6.28i440
2.15
ni
5iU5 ™
7900
1980
1200
-
(»)
" - ..
"
5.30
ra
6i22 FU
6700
1980
(a)
" - •'
6-29-Uo
3i25
PM
5.55 PU
1300
355
1600
Uoo
Dook, Wilmington, Cal,
. 6-30-Uo
9iOO
FU
(b)
Hobart Io« Plant
7-l-Uo
6i4o
All
7.00 AM
2100
523
1500
365
-
10(30
AM
1500
380
350
87
(0)
Heedloa. Cal.
7-2-UO
10i25
AU
10.55 AM
1200
330
1200
275
Winalow, Arix.
7-5-Uo
lii05
AM
U.30 AM
500
125
650
167
Belan. N. 11.
5i05
PU
5.30 ™
275
95
750
175
CloTi*. N. U.
7-U-Uo
UiU5
AM
5.08 AM
700
175
600
150
Argantim, Eaaa.
7-5-Uo
2i05
PM
2.16 PU
J 00
75
275
69
(a) Ratio of salt to ioa - 25.1 percent
(b) Car loaded with 32,530 lbs. fish livers in UO lb. tina
(0) Car placed in train at Los Angeles at 11.30 AU.
632
Track
FIQ. I
ANALYS/S OF BRINE DRIPPIN(^5 FROM REFRiqERATOR CAR 5FRD SOI 2
^400
I
\^300
200
100
\
G
2
10
^
TW
0)
I
Oesir-GcJ pH x^cisIljg -g
'b 8 8 e e OS 8 S8 8 8 d
, °
,9
^ 8 S gg
•
g 8 '• 8 8 «>
8 88 8
80 • 8 J
8 8
0
0
8 8
0
•
0
•
^
0
• 1
iS 8°
0
%
0
0
^
Cte.
y/r-ecTCt
tnc&nfrc
~fiori^ •
B
0
> 0
•
•• 0
8
1
1 . 1
•
1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
8 •
1 1 1
0 •
1 1 1
V
111.
400
300
zoo
too
o
3
4
2
o
10
JUNE Za JUNE 29 JUNE 30 JUCT I
JULYS JULY 3 JULY 4 JULYS
■> O
L-egend: • A end of ccin
drippings during a regular road trip with car loaded, and to analyze the brine drippings
for inhibitor content.
Description oj Test Car. — Refrigerator car SFRD SOI 2 was used for this test. The
capacity of this car was 92,100 lb., and the inside dimensions were length, 40 ft. 1^ in.;
width, 8 ft. ZYz in.; height, 6 ft. 1^^ in.; 2,300 cu. ft.
Procedure of Test. — ^The car was pre-iced at the Santa Fe Railway Hobart ice plant
at Los Angeles on June 28, 1940. Color checks on the brine drippings on the test of car
4249 had indicated that the pH concentration was higher than desired. Also, the salt
concentration was higher than originally supposed. Consequently, the amounts of
sodium-dichromate and soda ash were decreased for this test, and the following propor-
tions were used in the mixture: 220 lb. rock salt; 3 lb. sodium-dichromate; 2 lb. soda
ash. The solution was mixed with the inhibitor and resacked in the same manner as
described in the test on Car No. 4249. The log of the test is given in tabular form.
Results of Tests. — The analyses of the brine drippings from this test as determined
by the D. & R. G. W. laboratory are shown graphically in Fig. 1.
It will be noted that again in this test, for a very short period after icing, the
dichromate concentration runs high. Throughout the test run a considerable variation
Track 633
was found in the dichromate concentration, but the general average was not far below
the desired concentration of 3.2 grams per liter.
The pH value was somewhat lower than the 8 desired, indicating that the proportion
of soda ash should be somewhat increased over the proportion used in this test.
Further Work. — It is proposed to conduct a test similar to the above on a brine
tank type refrigerator car. The series of tests on track previously mentioned is in
progress. Negotiations are also being conducted with salt manufacturers to determine
the most practical manner of applying the inhibitor.
The National Perishable Freight committee has made a canvas of principal lines
engaged in furnishing refrigerator service for perishable traffic to determine the amount
of salt used in this service. The committee advises that in the period July 1, 1939, to
June 30, 1940, 37,500 tons of salt were used.
To protect this quantity of salt with inhibitor would cost approximately $85,000
per year for materials only, estimated as follows:
Sodium-dichromate (1/75 x 37,500 tons) 500 tons @ $140 = $70,000
Soda ash (75 percent of 500 tons) 375 tons @ $40= 15,000
Total $85,000
Report on Assignment 12
Specifications for Laying Rails Designed to Set Up the
Requirements For Good Workmanship
I. H. Schram (chairman, subcommittee), Lem Adams, A. L. Bartlett, W. H. Bettis,
W. H. B. Bevan, F. J. Bishop, L. H. Bond, Armstrong Chinn, H. R. Clarke, L. W.
Deslauriers, H. F. Fifield, H. H. Harman, N. M. Hench, F. W. Hillman, E. T. How-
son, C. T. Jackson, F. J. Jerome, A. A. Johnson, J. H. Kelly, E. E. Martin, F. H.
Masters, J. A. Reed, J. F. Shaffer, G. L. Sitton, G. M. Strachan, J. G. Wishart.
Last year your committee presented as information, a tentative draft of Specifications
for Laying Rail (Proceedings for 1940, Vol. 41, pages 599 to 601, inclusive), and re-
quested comments and criticisms thereon. These specifications with minor revisions are
now submitted with the recommendation that they be adopted and published in the
Manual.
SPECIFICATIONS FOR LAYING RAIL
The location shall be as designated by chief maintenance officer of the railroad.
The several classes of rail shall be laid as follows:
Standard Length
Class of Rail Feet Color or Design Use
1st quality — 39 Uncolored Any track — preferably tangent.
low carbon:
1st quality — 39 Blue end Any track — preferably curves.
high carbon:
1st quality — Yellow end Tangent track — not to be used
"A" Rails: where inspection is difficult.
1st quality — Green end Any track (see second paragraph
short lengths: under unloading)
634 Track
Standard Length
Class of Rail Feet Color or Design Use
2nd quality — 39 or under White end Any tangent track or curves not to
exceed 3 deg., preferably in tracks
used largely for freight or where
speed does not exceed SO mph. Not
to be used where inspection is diffi-
X Rails: 39 or under Brown end cult. Freight tracks, turnout side of
side tracks or where designated by
chief maintenance officer.
UNLOADING
Rail shall be unloaded from the car with an approved derrick or crane and placed
with the head up without dropping, with sufficient support under the base and with the
brand facing toward the center of the track.
Rails shall be unloaded opposite the locations in which they are to be placed in the
track, with suitable gaps being allowed for short lengths. Rails shall be so placed that
the joints in each line of rail shall be not more than 30 inches from the centers of the
opposite rails and preferably not more than 18 inches. Locations of joints can be best
determined with a steel tape.
Proper lengths of rail for road crossings, station platforms, bridges and other
special locations shall be unloaded in a safe and convenient location, where they will
not constitute an obstruction.
To minimize the cutting of new full-length rails, short rails shall also be distributed
in proper places to provide for proper spacing at insulated joints and for connections
to switches.
No rail less than 25 feet long shall be used in main tracks with the exception that
shorter rails not less than 14 feet long may be used for temporary closures and for
connections within turnouts.
Joints, turnouts and fastenings shall be unloaded and distributed concurrently with
the rail, except that small material shall be left in the containers until the time of laying
the rail.
PREPARATION OF TRACK
Track shall be in good surface prior to the laying of new rail, and where curve
realinement work will require heavy throws, such work shall be done before the new
rail is laid.
No portion of the track structure, the absence of which will impair its integrity,
may be removed prior to the relaying of the raO. Full flag protection or slow-order
protection, as may be necessary, shall be provided in cases where rail is being laid under
traffic.
LAYING
All rail ends and angle bars shall, immediately in advance of laying, be painted on
the contact surfaces with a lubricant equal to black lubricating oil.
Tie plates shall have a full and uniform bearing on ties and the bearings on each
tie shall be in the same plane. Adzing shall be done where necessary to fulfill these re-
quirements. All spike holes shall be plugged with treated tie plugs after the old spikes
and tie plates have been removed. Creosote oil, heated when necessary, shall be applied
to the ties after adzing.
Track 635
Where new rail is to be laid, the track shall be fully tie plated. Where possible,
plates shall be applied after preparation of tie plate beds and before the placing of the
new rail.
Where practical, rail shall be laid against the current of traffic on double-track lines
and against the predominant tonnage movement on single track.
Standard expansion shims shall be placed between the ends of adjacent rails to
insure the proper space allowance for expansion as indicated in the following table:
Temperattire of 160 Joints per Mile 135 Joints per Mile
rail, degrees F. 33-Foot Rails 39 -Foot Rails
0 to 25 fs inch J4 inch
26 to SO yi inch -h inch
51 to 75 y& inch Ys, inch
76 to 100 -h inch t^ inch
Over 100 None None
Where metal shims are used they shall be removed to within 12 rails of the laying.
Wooden or fiber shims need not be removed.
In tunnels where the temperature is above 70 degrees F., rails shall be laid close
without bumping; where the temperature is below 70 degrees F., an opening of ife inch
shall be allowed (for 39-foot rail) for each 20 degrees F. reduction in temperature.
A rail thermometer shall be used to ascertain the temperature of the rail and in
making the reading it shall be placed on the rail base on the side away from the sun.
Rails shall be placed one at a time except that in cases of busy traffic where trains
cannot be diverted to other tracks, stretches of rail not over 20 in number may be
bolted together at one side of the track and then lined into place, using care to maintain
the expansion allowance uniformly. Rails shall be laid without bumping or striking and
with the ends square.
Rails shall be laid or installed so that joints will not be placed in road crossings
within the limits of switch points or guard rails, or within 6 feet of the ends of open-
floor bridges. Where rails longer than standard are needed for such locations, they shall
be at least 60 feet long.
Rail joints shall be applied before the track is spiked, the joint bars to be lined
up with rail in vertical position and the bolts tightened by starting in the middle of the
joint and working towards the ends. Spring washers or other similar approved appliances
shall be used.
Spikes shall be driven vertically with the face of the shank in contact with the
base of the rail, and shall be so driven that it will not be necessary to straighten them
during driving. Spikes shall be so staggered that all the outside spikes shall be on the
same side of the ties and all the inside spikes on the opposite side.
The full quota of rail anchors shall be applied prior to the passage of a train over
the new rail.
In laying the second line of rail, gaging shall be done at least at every third tie.
When necessary to make a temporary connection for the passage of a train, the
union shall be made with a rail of the section being renewed. The closure rail shall
not be less than 14 feet long, and shall be connected to the new rail by a compromise
joint if the rails are of different sections. The connection rail shall have a full number
of bolts and spikes. At the completion of a day's work a short section of new rail not
less than 18 feet long shall be used in making the closure and shall be connected to the
old rail with a compromise joint.
636 Track
COMPLETION OF WORK
All rail laid down on any given day shall be fully spiked and bolted at the dose
of the day's work. Bolt holes made in the field shall be drilled and not burned with a
torch.
After rail has been laid the tops of adjacent rail ends shall be ground to a level
surface.
Rail ends shall be cross slotted and beveled at mill or as soon after laying as required.
Markings indicating the classification of released rail shall be placed on it promptly,
and such rail and its fixtures loaded promptly.
It is desirable that other renewals of track material shall follow raD laying as
promptly as possible.
All ties on which the new rail does not have a full bearing shall be tamped and the
spikes re-driven; proper slow orders shall be maintained until this is done. If weather
conditions do not permit this work to be carried out, any loose ties may be temporarily
shimmed.
Where necessary, bolts shall be given a second tightening. After the ballasting and
resurfacing of the track have been completed the bolts shall be tested and, if required,
brought to a pre-determined tension.
Report on Assignment 13
Spirals for High Speed Operation
Collaborating with Committee 16 — Economics of Railway
Location and Operation
C. W. Baldridge (chairman, subcommittee), A. L. Bartlett, L. H. Bond, Armstrong
Chinn, H. R. Clarke, L. W. Deslauriers, H. F. Fifield, H. H. Harman, F. W. Hill-
man, E. T. Howson, C. T. Jackson, J. H. Kelly, K. R. McLennan, J. B. Mvers,
G. A. Peabody, G. L. Sitton, J. G. Wishart.
The committee recommends that the matter now in the Manual, page S-26, begin-
ning with the sub-heading "Staking Spirals by Offsets" and ending on page S-27 with
the line above the sub-heading "Staking Spirals by Deflections" be withdrawn from the
Manual and that the following matter be adopted for inclusion in the Manual and
inserted following the matter which is now on page S-28
Staking Spirals by Offsets
Calculating the Curve
When the degree of the circular curve is known and the length of spiral has been
decided upon, the angle A and the angle to each "end of chord" point are found in the
same manner as for staking the spiral by deflections. The offset for each "end of chord"
point then may be found by formulas (5), (6) and (7) given on page S-2S. Formula
(5) will determine the length of Chord C, which is used in formulas (6) and (7).
Formula (6) will give the length of X, which is the distance to be measured along
the tangent TS. toward P. I. and formula (7) gives the lengths of offsets to be measured
at right angles to the tangent at the distance X for the respective "chord and point."
The points so located form the center line of the spiral.
Track 637
To avoid long calculations and tedious field work, all offsets should be staked from
the tangent — TS. to PJ.
Another method for staking spirals by offsets which is particularly convenient
where it is desired to locate any point in the spiral which must be accurately staked at
other than the end of chord points, is as follows:
Alternate Method
The spiral may be staked by offsets, one half being offset from the tangent and the
other half from the circular curve, by making the offsets vary directly as the cube of the
distance from the TS. for one half and from the S.C. for the other half.
The length of the spiral and the offset between the tangent and the circular curve
are determined by the following formulas:
88
L=j^ES (1)
o=T^=°°^^^^« ^^ (^ + ^) ^'^
in which
E = elevation in inches
S = speed in miles per hour
D =z degree of curve
L nz length of spiral in feet
0 = tangent offset in feet
In these formulas the values of E and S must be in accordance with the formula in
the Manual, page S-42. The length provides for a run-off of 1^4 inch per second and the
tangent offset is independent of the degree of curve, provided the relations of L, E, and
5 are observed.
The following table gives these offsets.
OS set Elev. OS set Elev. Offset
(Inches)
(Feet) (Inches) (Feet) (Inches) (Feet)
1/2 0.013 2% 0.660 5 3.034
3A 0.032 3 0.819 5^4 3.449
1 0.061 3y4 1.001 S^ 3.900
114 0.101 3^ 1.208 5^ 4.388
11/2 0.1S4 3^ 1.440 6 4.914
154 0.221 4 1.699 61/4 5.481
2 0.303 4^ 1.986 6^ 6.088
214 0.403 4J4 2.304 6^4 6.738
21/4 0.521 4^ 2.652 7 7.432
Intermediate points on the spiral may be set conveniently by dividing each half
length into five equal chords and setting off at the chord points right-angle or normal
offsets, as the case may be, equal respectively to: 0.004, 0.032, 0.108, 0.256, and 0.500 of
the main offset.
Points on the spiral between the chord points may be set by using the equation
of the curve:
y = -J^^ (3)
34380L
in which x and y are the coordinates from the TS. as origin. The ordinates so deter-
mined are used as right-angle offsets for the half of the curve laid off from the tangent
and as normal offsets for the half laid off from the circular curve.
638 Track
The simple relations among degree of curvature, speed, elevation, length of spiral,
and spiral offset set forth in equations (1) and (2) afford a ready means for selecting
the spiral and adjusting the speed and elevation to the particular conditions at the site.
This facility of selection exists regardless of whether the actual staking of the curve be
done by deflections or by offsets.
The committee recommends that the matter as outlined for inclusion in the Manual
be adopted and that the subject be discontinued.
Report of Committee 4 — Rail
W. H. Penfield, C. J. Geyer Robert Faries*,
Chairman, F. M. Graham Vice-Chairman,
J. B. Akers G. W. Harris Philip Petri
J. E. Armstrong E. M. Hastings G. A. Phillips
W. J. Backes B. Herman B. H. Prater
W. C. Barnes F. S. Hewes A. N. Reece
L. H. Bond W. H. Hillis J. C. Ryan
N. J. Boughton Maro Johnson L. H. Scheifele
C. B. Bronson W. H. Kirkbride R. T. Scholes
W. J. Burton C. S. Kirkpatrick F. S. Schwinn
H. a. Cassil B. R. Kulp G. R. Smiley
E. E. Chapman G. M. Magee A. N. Talbot
H. R. Clarke R. W. Marye J. C. Wallace
E. J. Cullen Ray McBrian Barton Wheelwright
W. A. Duff C. E. Morgan W. P. Wiltsee
J. M. Farrin J. V. Neubert** R. P. Winton
P. O. Ferris E. E. Oviatt Louis Yager
F. W. Gardener J. C. Patterson Committee
* Died September 8, 1940.
** Died June 4, 1940.
To the American Railway Engineering Association:
Your committee reports on the following subjects:
1. Revision of Manual.
Progress report. Revised forms for recording rail failures recommended for adoption
to replace corresponding material now in Manual page 641
2. (a) Further research, including details of mill practice and manufacture as they
affect rail quality and rail failures, giving special attention to transverse fissure failures
and other defects in the head, web and base, collaborating with Rail Manufacturers'
Technical Committee.
Progress report, presenting Seventh Progress Report of the Rails Investigation with
resume of accomplishments to date and outline of work for 1941 page 681
(b) Specifications for thermal treatment of rail, such as controlled cooled,
Brunorized, etc.
Progress report. Included in above Seventh Progress Report of the Rails
Investigation page 681
3. Compilation of statistics.
(a) All rail failures, making special study of transverse fissure failures.
Progress report, presented as information pages 645 and 6.'>0
(b) Compilation of statistics for determining the performance of controlled cooled
and Brunorized rail in service with respect to rail failures with view toward evaluating
the higher price paid for treated than for untreated rails.
Progress report, presented as information page 656
4. Cause and prevention of rail battering and methods of reconditioning rail ends.
Progress report, presented as information page 658
5. Economic value of different sizes of rail.
Progress report, presented as information page 650
Bulletin 423, February, 1941.
639
640 Rail
6. Continuous welding of rail, collaborating with Committee S — ^Track and Special
Committee on Stresses in Railroad Track.
Progress report, presented as information page 660
7. Service tests of various types of joint bars.
Progress report, presented as information ." page 662
8. Investigate joint bar failures and give consideration to revision of design and
specifications.
Progress report, presented as information page 666
Supplementary monograph by W. B. Leaf, presented as information .... page 672
9. Corrugated rail, causes and remedy. Effect upon riding qualities of tracks and
upon the costs of track and equipment maintenance.
No report.
The Committee on Rail,
W. H. Penfield, Chairman.
iSugtisit Jf . JilacKsi
August F. Blaess, retired chief engineer of the Illinois Central System, died at his
home in Gulfport, Miss., on February 19, 1940.
By reason of his attainments and his earnest and unselfish service in connection with
the activities of Comittee 4 — Rail, he enjoyed the highest personal respect and esteem
of its members.
The members of the committee take this opportunity to record the loss suffered
in the death of August F. Blaess.
The Committee on Rail
3iSiObert jFatios
Robert Faries, assistant chief engineer-maintenance, Pennsylvania Railroad System,
died at Philadelphia on September 8, 1940.
He served for a period of eight years as a member of Committee 4 — Rail, and was
vice-chairman at the time of his death.
By ability and untiring effort, he achieved an outstanding position in the railway
engineering field. Through his unassuming leadership and wide knowledge of the subject
he greatly advanced the work of the committee. His sterUng quaUties as a man and
kindly character endeared him to all his associates.
The members of Committee 4 — Rail have suffered a great loss through the death of
Robert Faries.
The Committee on Rail
3rof)n ^. i^cubcrt
John V. Neubert, chief engineer maintenance of way of the New York Central
System, died at New York on June 4, 1940.
Mr. Neubert served for a period of 12 years, from 1928 until the time of his death,
as a member of Committee 4 — Rail, during which period he was chairman of the
committee for the four years from 1936 to 1940.
By his outstanding abiUty, his unselfish and unstinting service, and his leadership,
he markedly advanced the work of the committee. His qualities of character and
personality endeared him to each member.
The members of Committee 4 — Rail, unanimously record the feeling of irreparable
loss occasioned by the death of John V. Neubert.
The Committee on Rail
Rail 641
Report on Assignment 1
Revision of Manual
C. B. Bronson (chairman, subcommittee), J. E. Armstrong, W. C. Barnes, N. J.
Boughton, W. J. Burton, E. E. Chapman, W. A. Duff, J. M. Farrin, F. M. Graham,
G. W. Harris, E. M. Hastings, B. Herman, Maro Johnson, B. R. Kulp, E. E. Oviatt,
W. H. Penfield, A. N. Reece, L. H. Scheifele, G. R. Smiley, Barton Wheelwright,
Louis Yager.
Form 402-C. Yearly Summary of Rail Failures
Your committee has found it desirable to revise Form 402-C. Yearly Summary of
Rail Failures, in order to separate the compound from the transverse fissures, and to
eliminate the columns showing carbon content and rail failure rate at the end of the
form. These two columns are not used in the compilation of the data issued yearly.
A number of corrections have also been made in the Instructions for Filling in Rail
Failure Form 402-C, the principal purpose of which is to bring it up to date and in line
with present practice.
The revised Form 402-C, Rev., 1941 and the instructions shown as 402-C (a), Rev.,
1941, are recommended for adoption and printing in the Manual as substitutions for
those shown on pages 4-47 and 4—48 in the Manual.
Form 402-E. Statement of Transverse Fissure Rail Failures
Your committee has also found it desirable to revise Form 402-E. Statement of
Transverse Fissure Failures, because the reports as now sent in are so voluminous that
a large amount of work is required from the railroads and the engineer of tests. The
form, as revised, provides all of the essential data for tabulation of the annual reports,
and eliminates the reporting by individual heat numbers which do not enter into the
statistics, and are not required for this purpose. A trial has been made of the revised
form herewith presented and it has proved satisfactory. Minor revisions have also been
made in the Instructions for Filling in Transverse Fissure Rail Failure Form 402-E in
conformity with it.
The revised Form 402-E, Rev., 1941 and the instructions, shown as 402-E (a), Rev.,
1941, are recommended for adoption and printing in the Manual as substitutions for
those shown on Pages 4-49 and 4—50 in the Manual.
Form 402-C (a)
Issued 1931
Revised 1935, 1941
ASSOCIATION OF AMERICAN RAILROADS
Enginxering Division
Instructions for Filling in Rail Failure Form 402-C, Rev. 1941
1. Statistics are desired for all new rail weighing 80 lb. per yd. and over, laid in all main tracks.
Continue records 10 years unless rail has been removed from main tracks where originally laid.
Omit information for rollings of less than SOO tons.
2. Do not include in this report rails broken or injured by wrecks, broken wheels or similar causes,
wheel burned, battered or chipped-end rails and those replaced on account of wear.
3. Fill in the information for rollings in which there were no failures as well as those in which there
were failures.
4. Report all rail failures, listing separately in the proper columns under general heading "Number of
Failures" those which broke in service and those removed from track as a result of the use of
detector cars.
5. Express the tonnage of rails and the mile-years in whole numbers, the mileage in whole numbers
and hundredths.
6. Under "Kind of Steel" indicate Open-Hearth by "OH", Intermediate Manganese by "IM" or "MM",
Brunorized by "BR", Controlled Cooled by "CC", and if end hardened, add "H". For other
642 Rail
special steels and processes, assign suitable abbreviations and if not obvious, indicate meanings by
footnotes.
7. It is important that the report indicate clearly the mill at which the rails were rolled. A list of
mills which have rolled rails during recent years is given here together with the corresponding
designations which should be entered under "Mill."
Name oj Company Name of Mill Location Designation
Algoma Steel Co Algoma Sault Ste. Marie, Ont., Can. . . Alg.
Bethlehem Steel Co Lackawanna Lackawanna, N. Y Lack.
Bethlehem Steel Co Maryland Sparrows Point, Md Md.
Bethlehem Steel Co Steelton Steelton, Pa Stltn.
Carnegie-Illinois Steel Co Edgar Thomson . . . Braddock, Pa Cam.
Carnegie-Illinois Steel Co Gary Gary, Ind Gary
Colorado Fuel & Iron Co Minnequa Pueblo, Colo Colo.
Dominion Iron & Steel Co Dominion Sydney, Nova Scotia Dom.
Inland Steel Co Inland Indiana Harbor, Ind Inld.
Tennessee Coal, Iron & R. R. Co Ensley Ensley, Ala Tenn.
8. In the first three columns which call for two entries for each item, enter "Mill," "Year Rolled"
and "Section" on the first line (opposite "This Year") and "Kind of Steel," "Year Laid" and
"Lb. per Yd." on second line (opposite "Total").
9. Include horizontal split heads (horizontal fissures) under "Other Head" failures.
10. To convert tons into track miles, the number of tons may be divided by the figures given below,
which show the tons (2,240 lb.) of rail per mile of single track for different weights per yard
of rail.
80 lb. RA-A 125.71 tons 112 lb. RE 176.79 tons
90 lb. RA-A 141.43 " 127 lb. NYC 200.04
100 lb. RA-A 157.77 " 130 lb. RE 203.65
100 lb. RA-B 157.93 " 131 lb. RE 205.54
100 lb. RE 159.50 " 136 lb. LV 214.03
105 lb. NYC 165.00 " 152 lb. PRR 238.23
110 lb. RE 172.86 "
11. Each line for the different year's rollings should be completely filled in without the use of
ditto marks.
12. Report only the failures for the year ending December 31 opposite the lines "This Year" and all
failures from date laid to December 31 opposite the lines "Total."
13. In the column "Mile-Years" there should be entered opposite the line "This Year" the actual
quantity in miles of rail in service for the individual year. Opposite "Total" the quantity should
be the summation of the miles in service for each year from date of rolling. These amounts con-
stitute the divisors for reducing the corresponding number of failures to a 100 mile-year basis,
instead of the quantity in miles originally laid, which was used as the divisor up to the year 1922.
14. For Purposes of Reporting Service of Rails: Rail laid in any month in the year that the report is
made is considered to have zero years age, hence zero mile-years of service. Rail laid in any month
in the year preceding the year of the report shall be considered as having one year's service.
Follow a corresponding rule for rail laid in preceding years.
For Example:
Assume 30 miles of rail rolled in calendar year 1937 of which
10 miles are laid in calendar year 1937 and
20 miles are laid in calendar year 1938.
None of this rail removed from track prior to 1940.
The reports for succeeding years would show service of these rails as follows:
Date oj Report
Dec. 31, 1937
Dec. 31, 1938
Dec. 31, 1939
Equiv.
Year Rolled
Year JLaid
Track Mi.
Mi. Yrs.
Period
1937
1937
10
0
0
This Year
Total to Date
1937
1937
10
10
10
This Year
Total to Date
1937
1938
20
0
0
This Year
Total to Date
1937
1937
10
10
20
This Year
Total to Date
1937
1938
20
20
20
This Year
Total to Date
IS. In case of doubt as to the interpretation of Form 402-C or of any of these instructions, write to the
Engineer of Tests, Rail Committee, Association of American Railroads, 59 East Van Buren Street.
Chicago, 111.
Rail
643
^ ASSOCIAT/ON OF AMER/CAN RAILROADS r\°^e^'^
yJ ENGINEERING DIVISION vj
RAIL FAILURES FOR YFAR ENDING DECEMBER 31. 19.... RAILROAD. SHEET NO... OF...
1 5
-J
l|3
8^1
1
1
NUMBER OF FAILURES
TRAN. FISS-
COMP FISS
OTHERHEAD
BROKEN
tySB
BASE
TOTAL 1
SERV
DET.
SERy
DET
SERV
DET
SERV
DET
SERV
DET
SERV
DET
SERV
DET
THISVK
TOTAL
THISm.
TTXTAL
THISYK
TOTAL
THisya
TOTAL
THism
TOTAL
THisyn
TOTAL
THISrK
TOTAL
THISYft
TOTAL
THISylt
TOTAL
T?IISyK
TOTAL
THisyn
TOTAL
misnt
TOTAL
W FILL/NO OUT THIS fO»M, FOLUOty WSTfiUCT/O/VS ON FORM ■tX-Cb) REV 1941 1
THIS FORM tVM£N FILLED OUT SHOULD BE HETVHHEO TO THE ASSOCI-i TION OF AMERICAN RAILROiUS, » E V/W BUftEfJ ST, CHICAOO. ILL \
o
o
ASSOCIATIOI^I OF AMERICAN RAILROADS
ENGINEERING DIVISION
c"^-iRlS5^RTH STATEMENT OF TRANSVERSE FISSURE RAIL FAILURES ^^l^'
MM - MEDIUM nUMG*NESE _ _ ftny l!t»l
CC -CONTROLLLDCOOLEO FROM. 19 TO ...19 RAILiVAY. SHEET NO... OF...
BR - BRUNORIZEO
RAIL
TAIU/HEi
RAIL
FAILURES
RAIL
FAILURE^
KIND
OF
STEEL
LB
PER
YD
SfCT-
lON
MILL
YEAR
miFc
1
1
KIND
OF
STEEL
LB
P£R
YD
5ECT
lON
MILL
YEAH
ROIUD
^
^
%
^
\
KIND
OF
STEEL
LB.
PER
YD
SECT-
ION
MILL
YEAR
^
1
i
MOIV MANY MAIN TRACK MILES ARE IN THE TERR/TORf IN WHICH YOC/ REPORT FISSURE FAILURES P
IS THIS THE SAME TERRITORY AS THAT IN WHICH YOU REPORT GENERAL. RAIL FAILURES ON FORM 401-C /»
ffEPORT TRAAISI^ERSE FISSURE RAIL. FAILURES ONLY FOLLOW INSTRUCTIONS ON FORM 40JE-(a) REV 1941
THIS STATEMENT SHOULD BE RETURNED TV THE ASSOCIATION OF AMERICAN RA/LROAOS. S9E VAN BUREN ST. CHICAOO. .
644 Rail
Form 402-E (a)
Issued 1931
Revised 1941
ASSOCIATION OF AMERICAN RAILROADS
Engineering Division
Instructions for Filling in Transverse Fissure Rail Failure
Form 402-E, Rev. 1941
1. Report is desired on all transverse fissure rail failures in rail weighing 80 lb. per yard and over,
laid in all main track. Comjwund fissures and horizontal fissures (horizontal split-heads) are NOT
to be reported.
2. The report year ends on December 31. Statement of transverse fissure rail failures will be made
quarterly, listing the rails that have failed during the quarters ending March 31, June 30,
September 30 and December 31.
3. Under "Rail" enter information from brand on rail except that under "Mill" the following mill
designations should be used to make identification positive.
Name of Company Name oj Mill Location Designation
Algoma Steel Co Algoma Sault Ste. Marie, Ont., Can. . . Alg.
Bethlehem Steel Co Lackawanna Lackawanna, N. Y Lack.
Bethlehem Steel Co Maryland Sparrows Point, Md Md.
Bethlehem Steel Co Steelton Steelton, Pa Stltn.
Bethlehem Steel Co Saucon South Bethlehem, Pa Sauc.
Bethlehem Steel Co Cambria Johnstown, Pa Camb.
Carnegie Steel Co Edgar Thomson . . . Braddock, Pa Cam.
Colorado Fuel & Iron Co Minnequa Pueblo, Colo Colo.
Dominion Iron & Steel Co Dominion Sydney, Nova Scotia Dom.
Illinois Steel Co Gary Gary, Ind Gary
Illinois Steel Co South Works South Chicago, 111 SoWk.
Inland Steel Co Inland Indiana Harbor, Ind Inld.
Lackawanna Iron & Steel Co Scranton Scranton, Pa Scrn.
Tennessee Coal, Iron & R. R. Co Ensley Ensley, Ala Tenn.
Germany Germ.
4. Report all transverse fissure rail failures whether detected by test cars or other testing devices or
disclosed by inspection or by actual breakage in service.
5. List the total service failures, occurring in any one year of rolling of any one mill, being from rail
identical in kind of steel, pounds per yard, and section, in column headed "Service". Likewise, list
the total detected failures, occurring in any one year of rolling of any one mill, being from rail
identical in kind of steel, pounds per yard, and section, in column headed "Detected".
6. Should any railroad furnishing this report not consent to its publication, notice to that effect should
be given on sheet 1, of the form.
7. Include in this report all transverse fissure rail failures with as much of the information as may be
available; not omitting to report any failures because part of the information is not available.
8. Double space all entries and make each complete without use of ditto marks.
9. Answers to questions appearing at bottom of Form 402 E need be answered on first sheet only of
each quarter's report.
10. In case of doubt as to the interpretation of Form 402 E, or any of these instructions, write to the
Engineer of Tests, Rail Committee, Association of American Railroads, 59 E. Van Buren St.,
Chicago, 111.
Rail
64S
Report on Assignment 3 (a)
Rail Failure Statistics
Part 1 — General Rail Failures
By W. C. Barnes, Engineer of Tests, Rail Committee
The rail failure statistics for the year ended December 31, 1939, appearing in this
report, have been compiled in accordance with the standard method of basing the failure
rates on mile-years of service in track.
The reported tonnages and track miles of rollings for 1934 and succeeding years,
included in these statistics, are as follows:
Year Rolled Tons Track Miles
1934 640,299 3,456
1935 364,103 1,998
1936 733,221 3,994
1937 821,684 4,489
1938 372,035 2,069
Total 2,931,342 16,006
This compares with totals of 2,717>949 tons, or 14,743 track miles, of rail reported last
year for the 1933 to 1937 rolhngs.
TABLE I - AVERAGE FAILURES FCR 100 TRACK lOLES - AIL mUS
(Both servloo and detected failures are Included)
Table 1 shows the average number of failures per 100 track miles of rail in service
which accumulated during the one to five years' service in the rail reported from rollings
of 1934 to 1937, inclusive, from all mills, together with similar rates of older rollings
reproduced from previous reports. Both service and detected failures in all kinds of
steel are included in this table.
646
Rail
The 1934 rollings, whose period of observation is now concluded, show an average
rate of 35.8 failures per 100 track miles for the five year period. This rate is approxi-
mately one-half that of the 1933 rollings and is the lowest rate recorded to date.
U
2
3!0
SOU
ISO
ZOO
ISO
lOO
«0
\.
\
\
s
\
\
s
\
/
■^
\
/
s
^
\
/
\
\,
l«« I1IO 1912 I9H
1916 l<)l>
1920 H22
YEAR ROLLED
1924
Ills
mt
ItiO
I1H
1«4
Fig. 1. — Service and Detected Rail Failures in the United States and Canada
(S Years' Service).
Figure 1 shows diagrammatically the five year average from Table 1.
Table 2 presents the accumulated failures and failure rates of rail from each of the
mills for each of the roUings of 1934 to 1937, inclusive. Service plus detected failures
and failure rates are shown separately.
TABLE 2.- ACCUMULATED PAILUHES AND
FAILURE
RATES mOU
DATE ROLLED
ro DEC.
31. 1959.
BY MILLS,
COMPUTED BY
UTI.E YKAPS OF RAIL D) SERVICE. ORIGINAL TRACK UITXS ARE
mCLUDED FOR INFORMATION ONLY.
SERVICE
SERVICE & DETECTED
SERVICE
SERVICE 4 USTECTED
yoar
Orig'l
Pr.lOO
Pr.lOO
Pr.lOO
Orig'l
Pr.lOO
Pr.lOO
Pr.lOO
Rolled
Trk.Mlo.
Total
Trk.ins.
Pr. YT.
Total
Trk.Mle
Pr. Yr.
Trk.ms.
Trk.MlB.
Total
Trk.Mls.
Pr. Yr.
Total
Trk.Mle.
Pr. Yr.
Trk.Ula.
ALGOUA
nnMTNTfM
193U
92.25
1*1
e.76
56
11.96
5^.60
_
_
..
_
_
1955
llj.li*
7
1.55
8
1.77
-
_
_
_
_
1^
119J*9
19
5J*1
20
5.70
1*1.11
0
0.00
0
0.00
1937
121.23
13
5.31
11*
5.21
J^.3U
0
0.00
0
0.00
1938
95.62
0
0.00
1
l'.Ql*
h2.(h
0
0.00
0
0.00
CARNEGIE
ENSLEY
195U
539.76
151*
6.59
177
7.58
' ' ,37.85
593.31
122
1*.22
205
7.15
35.70
1935
256.97
23
2.21*
llO
3.90
1*72.67
59
3.21*
85
1*.67
1936
I4U5.50
?
2.1*8
1*6
3.55
U.87
602.08
56
?.21
88
1937
572.26
1*.U7
1*9
690.65
33
2J[*0
35
2.51*
1958
167.07
h
2.38
1*
2.38
1*80.91*
17
3.73
17
3.73
GARY
INIAND
1931*
737.67
1*36
12.62
508
IU.7I
73.50
262.22
25
2.15
31
2.d*
15.25
1^5
i*93.i8
157
8.08
1*25
21.85
129Ji*i*
11
2.32
11
2.32
1936
1196.1*9
171*
5.38
387
11.96
1*11.7U
26
£.£5
33
1957
1157.01
68
3.98
92
l*.l6
383.57
ia*.28
16
2.26
18
2.5*
1938
U89.87
15
3.23
16
3.U*
1
0.61
1
0.61
IJiOKAWAmiA
MARYT.ANT)
193U
327.61
55
3.1*2
6s
3.85
19.30
161,.12
28
3.71
37
lt.91
2l*.6
1935
106.75
16
3.77
20
1*.71
I8.3I*
0
0.00
0
0.00
1956
193.83
19
5»35
21*
lt.23
37.80
0
0.00
0
0.00
1937
312.27
9
1.50
11
1.83
106.95
2
1.19
2
1.19
1^8
13l<.67
0
0.00
0
0.00
87.95
2
2.27
2
2.27
MTWNEOm?
I93I4
361.91
27
1.73
31
1.99
10.00
376.76
17
1.13
18
1.19
5.96
1955
271.96
£6
2.39
31*
3.11*
135.63
9
1.67
10
1.86
1936
607.«6
31
1.95
31
1.95
338.57
7
0.7I*
10
1.06
1957
728.31
h
0.30
1*
0.30
37l*.10
15
2.23
16
2.38
19?8
59tl*2
2
3.39
2
3.39
31*6.16
1
0.32
1
0.32
ALL MILLS fExcl.AT,C
.* DOM.
AI.I.
ini.ISflnol
ALG.4 DOM.)
l9iU
3363.36
8^
5.66
1069
7.00
35.03
31*55.61
905
5.76
1125
7.16
35.8
1935
188^.92
301
1*.08
625
8.1*7
1998.06
3O8
3.91*
633
8.09
32.5
1S96
3853.87
1325.12
31*5
3.21*
619
5.82
399l*J*7
1*1*88,69
361*
3.29
r.
5.75
18.1
1937
1936
212
2.61*
227
2.83
2.3I*
£25
2.70
2.89
5.8
1930.56
1)2
2.29
{}?
2068.82
nllf
2.11
Wt
2-2^
2.2
i\>ii'l,Bi
Ybl*
-^583
16(3(5^65
Ittt
26^
Figure 2 shows diagrammatically the failure rates per 100 track miles of the 1934
and earher rollings for five years' service, from Table 2, for combined service and
detected failures.
Rail
647
ALCenA
I
/
\
/
\
/
^~>-
V
^
S,
/
\
/
\
'
'V
X
N
~-
^
CAKMCaiC (CARNCOieilL\MOIS)
^
^
N
^
^
■^
s
-^
■^
\
—
---
—
sonrNiOM
\
.
—
cusLtr - (TCKHCine.)
/
--
\
,'
^
S
/
\
/
\
"^
—
-^
'--
>
-~-
y
\
g ;oo
a^ARY- fCARNCG/C- ILLINOIS) (NClUDtS SO.WORKS TO 1919 INCL.
N
X
y
"-
— -
■^
■~"
-~
/'
_.
INLAND
'
—
.
rMRri.AMI> - f^ (BETHLEHEM)
T
~^
~
\
/
\
/
S,
^
s,
/
\
s.
^
■^
_J
•v
^
s
/
s
—
—
-,
MINNCQUA- (COiOHAOO)
n
/
\
^
rr
^
_
^
^
---
^
"v
—
—
^
— 1
_
JTEtlTOM- (BfTMlEHEM) ^
/
-1
'
~
S
/
/
\
r--
^
V
-~
s
-~^
\
mo mi I9M IV6 m> mo wjj i9za i«« ma iiso im iija
YEAR ROLIEO
Fig. 2. — Record of Failures Per 100 Track Miles for Five Years' Service for
Rollings from 1908 to 1934 (Service and Detected Failures Included).
648
Rail
YCAK
HOLLCP
FAILURES. ALL TYPE5, PER 100 AVE. TRACK MILES PER YEAR
MRVICE JERVICE
OHLY
CARME^IE
((buMC«ie-ii.Liiio<s)
I9J4
I93ff
I93fi
1937
19 38
6.6
2.2
2.S
•♦.5
2.4
7.6
3.9
3.e
■4.9
2.4
EN5LEY
(TtMHCSilC)
1934
I93J-
1936
1937
I93S
■4.2
3.2
2.4
3.7
7.1
4.7
2.5-
3.7
QARY
^MCGIE-IUINOK}
1934
t93J
1936
1937
1938
I 2.6
8.r
5.4
4.0
3.2
14.7
2 I .&
12.0
4.2
3.4
INLAND
1934
193 5
1936
193 7
1938
2.1
2.3
2.2
2.3
0.6
2.6
2.3
2. a
2.5
d.6
LACKAWANNA
(blTMlCHEM)
1934
I 935'
t9J6
1937
1938
3.8
3.3
1.5
3.8
-4.7
MARTLAND
(BCTHlEHeM)
1934
I93J
1936
1937
1938
0.0
1.2
2.3
4.9
0.0
0.0
1.2
2.3
MINNEQUA
(COIOKAOO)
1934
I93J
1936
1937
1936
1.7
2.4
0.3
3.4
2.0
3.k
1.9
0.3
3.4
STEELTON
(BETHLEHCn)
1934
1935
1936
1937
l»38
I.I
1.7
0.7
2.2
0.3
2.4
0.3
All mills
1934
1935
1936
1937
1938
5.7
4. (
3.2
2.6
Z.3
1.0
6.5
S.&
2.8
2.3
LEGEND
^ SERVICE FAILURES
CZI DETECTED FAILURES
Fig. 3. — Failure Rates From Date Rolled to December 31, 1939, by Mills
(Service and Detected Failure Rates Shown Separately).
Figure 3 shows diagrammatically the Table 2 failure rates per 100 track miles per
year, separately for service and service plus detected failures, for each of the 1934 and
subsequent rollings, by mills, unweighted for traffic.
Figure 4 shows diagrammatically the comparative performance of the various mills
from data underlying Fig. 3, except that average traffic density factors have been intro-
duced in the final computations, using the method described on pages 369-370 of Vol.
32, AREA. Proceedings for 1931. No claim is made for the entire accuracy of this
Rail
649
MILL
yCAR
KOILCD
FAILURCS.AtL TYPES, PE(^ 100 AVE. TRACK MIIES PER YEAR PER UMIT OF TKAFF/C DENSITV
JtRVICE
ONir
SE(!ViC£
ANO
5 10 15 20 25
CARNE^\t
^MNctiE- ruwaii)
l<?«-1
l»JJ
I13S
1937
1938
1.7
0.5
0.6
1 .2
O.S
1.9
0.4
0.9
1 .3
O.S
m
m
■
ENJLCY
(^TtUHtSilt)
193^
I93J
I93£
1937
(936
3.1
3.2
2.4
i.a
2.9
5.3
4.7
3. a
1.9
2.9
:
■^^
GARY
&AKNC6ltlUIN0lt)
1934
I93J"
1936
/937
193a
S.S
3.6
2. a
2.0
1 .5
6.4
1 0.2
6 . (
2.2
1 .6
]
■■IMH
ZD
7
INLAND
1934
1935
I93«
1937
I93«
o.a
o.<?
1 .0
1 .0
0.2
1 .0
0.9
1 .1
I.I
0.2
mi
LACHAWANNK
(llTHllHtM)
1934
I9jy
1936
(937
I93A
1.5
1.5
1 .3
0.6
0.0
1.7
1.9
/ .7
0.8
0.0
B
MARriAND
(kjhlchcm)
1934
1935
1936
1937
1938
t.6
0.0
0.0
0.4
1 .6
Z.I
0.0
0.0
0.4
1.6
■ 1
1
(COIOKAOO)
1934
1935
/93«
1937
(93a
1 .2
1 .5
1 .5
0.2
2.9
1.4
2.0
1 .5
0.2
4.9
— 1
1
STEELTON
(BtTHtEHErl)
1934
1935
(936
193 7
1938
0.5
O.S
O.Z
0.6
0.2
0.5
0.5
0.4
o.a
0.2
■
■
D
ALL MILLS
1934
1935
1936
1937
193a
2.5
\ .6
1.5
1.2
/ .;
3.0
3.7
2.7
1 .3
1. 1
P"
LCaEND
^ 5ERVICCrAILURES
CD DETECTED FAILURE5
Fig. 4. — Failure Rates From Year Rolleti to December 31, 1939, by Mills, Altered by
Traffic Density Factors (Service and Detected Failure Rates Shown Separately).
method of rating, but it does give more consideration to the service to which the rails
from the various mills are subjected than does the method of rating on which Fig. 3
is based.
Table 3 shows the average weights of rail from the various mills and from all mills
which are included in these statistics.
650
Rail
Table 3
Average Weights of Rail Compiled from Tonnages Used in This Report
Mill 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938
Algoma 105.2 106.6 105.0 105.5 101.2
Dominion 100.0 100.0 100.0
Edgar Thomson (Cam.) 129.0 128.5 125.7 127.5 126.1
Ensley (Tenn.) 106.0 106.3 107.9 108.1 107.1
Gary (111.) 116.1 116.2 116.8 116.1 117.5
Inland 118.3 121.0 118.5 116.5 119.3
Lackawanna (Beth.) 120.6 118.9 117.6 117.0 117.6
Maryland (Beth.) 120.1 125.7 126.7 131.0 107.6
Minnequa (Colo.) 116.7 115.8 115.6 111.5 121.6
Steelton (Beth.) 124.3 123.1 125.0 123.5 116.7
ALL MILLS 118.0 116.1 116.7 116.5 114.4
Report on Assignment 3 (a)
Rail Failure Statistics
Part 2 — Transverse Fissure Failures
By W. C. Barnes, Engineer of Tests, Rail Committee
These statistics constitute a cumulative record of transverse fissure failures that
have been reported up to and including December 31, 1939. They include all transverse
fissured rails reported, whether located by actual breakage in service or detected before
actual breakage by inspection or test. The totals shown, however, do not represent all
such failures that have occurred for the reason that while the records of some roads
have been cumulative for over 20 years, those of other roads are of more recent origin.
Furthermore, a few roads do not report such failures to the Association.
Table 1 corresponds with Table 1 of the report of last year, and shows separately
the number of service and detected transverse fissured rail failures which have been
reported in all rollings, no matter how old, classified by roads and by years in which
the failures occurred. It includes data from roads which are consistently reporting
separately the service and detected failures. The total transverse fissure failures which
occurred on any one road or on all roads during any given year can be obtained by
adding the corresponding figures for service failures and for detected failures appearing
in this table.
Table 1 differs from Table 1 of the report of last year in that the service failures
which occurred prior to 1929, formerly listed under heading "Prior", have been omitted
as being of little interest. Detection methods were first used to any extent in 1929.
Additional explanations will be found in foot notes to the table.
The total fissure rail failures reported in 1939 compared with those in 1938 are:
Service
1939 5,765
1938 5,588
Increase in 1939 177
Detected Total
13,823 19,588
12,425 18,013
1,398
1,575
3
1.037
866
"i".297'
3.898
8.289
858
146
529
8,204
2,412
1,801
1,658
1,961
1,058
680
3,151
2
40'
576
2,987
804
5
258
2,591
995
5
272
1.493
6,828
517
'"""316"
10
4.443
2.324
10.660
""264'
•0
Q
CD-H icD.-hO»-^ iO>eD iO»0 «0 O 0<M CO i i i OO CO i-t ' CM CM O . -"^ O •-" t-- i ,-i , t>. i^ iO i Ci
CS-^ iO«COOS iOOOO«OOOCOO»0-^0> t 1 n-«0«0 .^CO^ i-^-^CMCI .^ it^CDCJ it>.
1 »-< 1 II. . . ! 1 t-HC^ I
CO
oo_
CO
1
■^^ IiOI^OsO 1 t^ CO -^ OO CD w»». (M r^ CKI ! I ioOJ loOOW IlOtOt^^ I<M I 1^ M (N I I
a>*c I'^ocoi-H 1 1^ <N OS 00 CO CD to oi lo 1 ' icoco ii^c^os t-^^mcn no icocdco i i
y-tC^ 1 00(M_^H I OS(M(MCO'^<M lO iinOi-ii ■^ i (NOO i tCDOlOii
10
t^o ir^c^T—os iio»-Ht-r~'^Tt"cDCi^- ■ i^ tr^t-^ icsc^'— < i-^c-ir^r*- ico >Oi ico icd
•tr GO lOiOO-^ . CO O; ^ kC -»*' *0 CD CO Tf< 1 i(N It— CO 1 ■^ (M O lOOOliOCO i lO i C^ ■ OJ i 00
C^« iC^CDiC.-* 1 aOCCCCCC*'i-H -^i. .10.-HI CO.-Hi C^I-^.iCO.Olt
CO
2
OiOi .^OOiaS !ciC^iOt-(MOi loO-^J' I I locOl^ It-(MO i IccOOO !-^ If- Ir- I I
tC »0 i-^CCOSOl 1 C^ C3 lO Qi CO C^ i OO '-' ■ ' i -^ 00 t— i ^H ff.) CO i . 1-* OS Wtl ■ -^ i CO i CO i ■
i-HKMCOOS . CCCO^^tMi CC'it^-^ i CO I.^CO . it-iM*_i.
s
K5
s
.-■ 1 ( .OOOS-^ .lOiM^OI— C^l-^iOTj^-^ I 1 1 ii~f^ lUS^-lCJ 1 iTjicoi-- 't— CClC 11-1 1 1
<M 1 . ,.— icno .--ccOicrcD'^cO'-Hcao i i i i-^t- i-^osco i i<Nr^io I'-o in ico i i
i-H 1 1 . CO 00 ^ ' C^Ji-KM C-l 1-1 -H CS r 1 1 1 CO • »-• i ■ CO O ' -^T ' CO i ■
0
DO
(r>.
TJ'
t— 1 .r-oO'*cD . CO '^ ^^ o> -* CO I'^oo 1 1 cooo5oo^HOTt«o iTj«05oa> i i lO lO ■ co
t- 1 11-iOCOCO 1 '•f GO ■*** 1— I— l>- i-^O 1 . 1-1 •><»«<-« Oi ■^»-HO it^T~l-iPCO t 1 lOO icO lO
. . COOOi-" 1 lO CO 1-1 CN 1-1 ii-<i-i 1 1 ^H ^H^H 1 -^ II .40 'CO I^H
CO
M
S
eo03 lior-c^oo Iifooococo liococo I I I Ioo»-t 1 Icoi-i I 1^^,-r Ico \-^ Ii-i 1 I
^HCO .-^j.^Ht— ^H it^t— ,-no^H i(— t— 1 1 1 iiOCO t r»00 1 iOO»OI>- iCO it-- .CS| i i
iC^-^ .0-. «i-i . Will. CO ii<M»-liiOO I iCO«CO<'
CO
2
1 1 .oi(M-^j<r- r .cooo .CO 1 1 ir— i i • > »co 1 ic^co-*40 "COCO 1 it^cA ir>- i I
1 1 i^OOi-'O 1 .M—i lOi 1 1 tw^ 1 t 1 1 it^ 1 lOOO iO(M 1 1 TP tio 1 t
. 1 . i-«<M»-4 . ICOM • 1 . iCq j,-<-H l-^J* , , ^ ,„ , ,
00
Oi
1 1 1 1 1 1-1 ii-t OS t— O OS CO 1 -<*' .-^ 1 1 lOO pO 1 teOO>*-f i . co i-« ( 1 11-1 lb- 1 1
"5 i^iOco^-<r^ 1 .o 1 1 It* i(M 1 ioo»o 1 ir--^ i i i40 .co i i
CO I—" cOi-i 1 .C^ ^ 1 liO . 1 i(M 11-1 1 1
o>
ICO It— 1 lOtO icO-H 1 . It— »OCO 1 1 1 iiO<N iC^t-^t— lO lOOO ) i i i-« i i 1 i
ICO 11-1 1 iQOCO it-CO 1 1 ' (M C^I 1 1 1 ICD^H 1 OCO icq iCOr-l i i i CO 1 1 I I
. 1 ,. ICO Jll »^jjiii-. i« 1 IC^ iii^iiii
«5
"5
S
1 t 1 .CO 1 t lOOCKJCOcOO 't— ilO t 1 1 ii-lO-^ It— t— 1 lOO iC^ ICO 1 1 i*^ 1 t
1 . 1 ikO 1 1 < CSI (M .-1 -Tt< (M IC^ iC^ 1 1 1 lOW iC^.-t 1 1-^ I.-1 1 1 1 ICO 1 1
0
Oi
3
o
CJlOiOC^'-'CQt-fMO; CO'MO»-*kOCO-*J«CO'-*i-"OCOiOt-'*rOOSOOCOi-<COCOOOi-tOSCOt-COCOOCO
<^Oi— ■cOCCC0Cl»O*Ot— OOOOCOCOCOiOi— <W5COt— 'tft— lOOO-^rCSOcDi— iCOCOcCC^i— «t— COOSOSCO
OCO c^ c^ CO t- OO c^j t— 00 t— w 05 o:_ o »o^ CO co_co -^ CO oo/v WD CO OS '-9'_ -i*<_ or- OIC^I^
■^.-C C^ T-i*-.(N-^ M CO ^iO'-' ^C-IOO-H
to
lOt- .10<MM'0 0;»0»OI— lO^C^JCOCDO iCO^Oi-'OOOCOOCOi-'CO— ••OcOC^t'^CIC^OcOcOOSO
OO-Xl .C<IOOcOt-cOi-"<*<-^Trt— t-CO'^C-l . ■ft-OOOCCOCOCOCOC^IQO-'f Oi OSCMCOCOiO
1 est 1-1 »-t -H C^ iO 1 T-" -^ »-( Tf t-1 lOCSIO
U5
0
00
coco tOOfM-^J^OSOCOt— OOCOCOMCO»OiO icO^(NCO»OiOOSOi OS»OC^COCO'*-«tfCO*-*Tj<COCO'«*'CO
■^co nMooi-'iooi'Mooco-^ost-c^i-'i-' i »ot-courii-.occo*oc^^HF^ CO Oi»o<Neoeo
t CO*-" •-" 1-. C^ lO 1 »-• CO IN U3 •-« COCJOi 1-H
00
10
i
C^C^ ■'^•-<00»0C^C^Oi— iC0^»00sC0OC0i0c0000SOC0c0^-i00t-c00seQ00C0-<*<i-i»-iT}«c0CDO
o>o i»-"cocoo^cs^'^»ocvii-c^it-'^ (Nc*icot-coeo^coco»ot- 00 ooo-^cor-
^i'*J«*-t<-"CO rtCJ<M»0 CS| CO MCOt-( '*f»0'<!f
K
CO
a
COM Ics*o■^'^ooo^-oo•«*'^oor-co»-c^»^ I(^^cooslOO»-•t*^oo^■^^-c^^(^^^'^footococo co
-*tO .i-»(MC0C0i-ii-i(NC0l— COOiCO-^rcD iC^»OCO'*»'»OOOCOCSieOt— -^ CO <MCDt-iM^ CI
.eO^«-tC^ ^i-HtM** i<M CO i-HiOi-t COCO^_«-iO
»000 iQOcO 1-1 -* OO-^ O OS ^ r— cO-^ Oi -^ CO . 1 1-" I-" CO 00 OS 00 -^ ■* CO 00 -^ »— CO •«*« ^H O 1-1 CO O t-
CO-* .-i40C|iO»O^OCOI-OSI-I-.»-CO . iCOQOCOC^^wcOCOC^cO-^ CD ocoocooo
CO
0
»o
>
OS
OS
CDCO .■^00C0^-»OC0COOlO-cD»Or— C0»0 "Clt— OiOO»OOC-JO;-^COOSOt— O^ lOOCMCOCOCI
•"^CO tC^(M^^OOOOC^J^OSOSCOCOGC-»*'I- i COi-«ddC-jr-»OCOCOCDcO CD lOCOCOCOCO
tCOi-" CO F-i,-,^c^, (M c^ .^^^ .tMC^OS
0
*o
«
TfiOi-'l-t-eocO^-«OSOi-'»OOSCJOsOOiO f^d-^dt-TpoOcOOt—OcDiOiOi-iiOi-iOil— t-OO"*
CO.-1 »-«CT>O»0COC00000C*JC000t— (M-^Ji i COOOi-KNiOO-^fCOiOWnJi i-h CDOO»-iCs|OS
co-^ c^^^^-HOi ^ CO ^eoi-« (Mr-io
■CC
i
**«t-«COCOO'<rOOOOOiO^Ct^cD^ IcOCOI-OOC^-MOl'^-^f'OlOiOO^CO Icjoio-^'^
OOeO COCOOSt^-^C^CO-^OcOOOIXMGO 1 i-tClCO'^'^Ol'MiOC^lcO'^^-s iCSCDcOC^IOi
CO CO 1-1 ^ I-" i-« ^ 1-1 <N . C^ CM —"CO i-< iCOi^iO
i
i
■^OlC^MCOCS'MOSOOOSCOiOcD'.J-tO^O I^CD(M00C^CIOc04000w-^cO00O-^-^'-«C0»0^00
i-"C^ C-4OO-^i0i-.C000-«4<^c0I-'<*'^H i^H CMcDcOCOiOOCl'^'^t-CI O COOOOSM'^
»-i lOi-< CS 1-t 1-1 i-< CO > Cs| CO f-i-*!* t-i CO-^-f -^
CO
o
CM<-"t^iocMOOocooo^i-«cOi-"oocooiOi tco 'Oi»oi-'coc>joooco— ir-t-r- icoooi-'t-t^»o
■^CM C0t-C000t--^000<M^01»OGOCO i .COOOCOC*CM-^-^CO-^COi-t »o t tooo> »o
^H COi-i «-t 1-1 1-t w^T~i-<T t > C^ CO ^Ht— 1 '^O'^ c^
1
OJ
^-iiO'^-^05oocM»Oi-ioocM.-icoo;io»or- "OO iocoooO'<9'-^i-'co»oO'^coco^Hc^o»ooocMt—
0>(M COCDOOlOS-^iOCO^C-lCOCQt-Oi i .SiOCOi-icO^*Oci5o*0^»0 OOCO'-<»C
■^^ C4 ^.-.CM^iO 1 1 -ff -V -^»0 kOW^
1
c
Nj N N N N N N N N 1 N N N N i N N iiji N
! 1 2 I ! 1 I 1 1 1 Ipu ; 1 1 1 ; ; 1 1 ; ; 1 ; I'^m^' ; ; i ; ; i ;2s ; i ;
c^' \< ; >^a>^^ '•^Salrj'-^ ; 1 ; ; 1 ! 1 1 i^^t^Sj^ ' ■Sd-a' .'-13' «s. 'S 1
-<^BQpqmooot)c:>o(joQKo2H33H33sszzzzzza,(i,tf3rtw(nP^^
-3
<
S 5 g li
-S J g-.S
c 3 rt a»
3 C Q. S
»^ o a i-
^ U g d
-S7&S
meth
cove
ed to
tated
tion
Data
revis
reins
■Sg-S-3
q2qQ
652
Rail
Figure 1 presents graphically the fissure failures by year failed from Table 1. The
solid curve shows the service failures; the broken line shows the detected failures and
the dotted Une shows the service-plus-detected failures. It will be noted that, despite
the large number of fissured rails detected and removed from track before they could
fail in service, the number of service failures in 1Q39 is as great as it was in 1929 when
detection methods were first introduced.
22POO
19000
18,000
/
-.
/
/
1
1
1 (.000
15,000
140OO
13,000
1
1
1
1
1
Li
1
/'
/
/
/
1 1.000
■/
1
/
4'
1
^
/
i
8,ooo
/
/
//'
y
•
-^^
/'
0*1
6.00O
•
•
•
^
•i
,c«
f
\
^^
^
^--^
\
f
f
\
4000
^
. I
i
y
/
3000
2,000
fOOO
o
/
^■s^
1
^
^
/
*^ '
/■
Fig. 1.— Total Fissure Failures Reported Each Year (1930 Includes 11 Months Only).
Table 2 shows all transverse fissure rail failures, including both service and detected
failures, reported by all reporting roads, for the rollings of each year from 1929 to 1938
inclusive, from each mill, accumulated from the year rolled to December 31, 1939. These
data are unweighted for tonnage output of mills, density of traffic or for years in
service. This table is most useful in comparing the failures which were reported in the
rollings of various years from any one mill.
Rail
653
YEAR
ROLLED
riSSVftE FAILURE RATES PfR 100 AVE TRACK MILE5 PER YEAR
SCKVICC SCHVICt
CARNEGIC
(CARMlOie-ILUtKIS)
1430
I9» I
I43t
1933
l»34
I935
1937
I93S
J./
/.6
c.s
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
i.1
S.6
^.B
0.7
I.I
0.3
0.1
0.0
ENJLEY
(TINNOICC)
1930
(<»3 I
19 32
19 33
(934
193 J
I93C
/ 937
I 938
t.i
S.3
8.0
n.b
0.7
I .s
0.0
0.0
0.0
«.7
li.l
3 1 .1,
4a.»
J. 8
0.0
e.o
0.0
GARY
(C»HMtqiC-ILLINOI3)
1930
193 1
1932
1933
1934
I93S
1936
1937
I 9 38
J.O
3.2
O.J
J .0
0.9
O.i
;a.f
4.Z
O.J D
0.0
INLAND
I9J0
(93(
19 32
r93j
193-9
I93S
193 0
\13 7
1938
0.6
6.1
O.S
0.7
0.1
IB. I
J. 2
O.i
o.o
a.e
0.0
LACKAWANNA
(BCTXLZHtri)
1930
1931
1932
1933
(9 34
I93S
(93«
(937
1938
0.6
0.6
0.4
4.?
Z.S
0.8
'.o
nARYLAND
(SETMLtHEM)
(930
193 I
(932
(9 33
1934
P93S
193«
(937
(938
£9.i
JS.2
S6,«
2.8
I .8
o .o
niNNEQUA
(COLOI^ADO)
(930
I93(
1932
1933
1934
(935
(936
(937
(938
0.2
0.9
O.I
0.0
O.I
0.4
/ .0
1 .8
0.6
o .o
O.I
O.i
0.2 >
e.o
o.o
STtCLTON
(9JO
(93 (
1932
(933
(934
(933
(936
(937
'938
3-.«
/0.3
7.2
O.S
/ALL MILL5
(930
(9J1
(932
(9 33
(9 34
I93J
/93«
(937
(930
I 0.9
9.8
LEGEND
■i SE(7VICC FAILL/KES
CD DerccriDfMujms
0.4
O.I
Fig. 2. — Fissure Failure Rates From Date Rolled to December 31, 1030. by Mills
(Service and Detected Failures Shown Separately).
654
Rail
YEAR
FiaURE FAIIURE5 Pf» 100 AVI THACK hllES PER YEAR PER UNIT OF TRAFFIC DENSITY
MILL
ROLLED
iiRvicc:
siKvice
OHLY
OtTtcriB
10 IJ 20 25
I9J0
0.3
1.3
■Zl
If3l
OS
I.I
■D
If 32
0 a
1 1
■D
CARNEGIE
113»
O 4
0.4
D
(CMMlQItlUHUIs)
l»3J
1)36
H3T
1930
or
o. o
0.0
0.0
O.t
O. 1
0.0
O.O
'
EN5LEY
If30
14)1
193*
1933
l"»34
1.7
S -3
J. 6
&.0
OS
4.5
/ 2 .(
20.0
3 3.4
1 .6
1
1
H
I 1
■"■■■
(TINNMSEC)
l»35
If 3«
1*37
lf3S
1 .2
0 0
O.O
o.o
I .9
0.0
o.o
0.0
GARY
1731
1433
I9J4
H3S
I93<
21
1 s
0.4
O. 1
1.2
0.5
7.7
2.1
3.4
o.«
43
1 .8
ss —
1
3
^
■ — 1
19 37
O. 1
0.3
3
I<I36
0.0
a .0
14 30
l*3(
1432
0.3
o.z
1 .0
5.2
1 5
□
CT)
1433
O.l
0.6
D
INLAND
1434
I43J
I43<
(437
1430
0 o
o.o
o.o
o.o
o.o
0.1
0.0
o.o
00
o.o
1430
0.3
o.a
E
1431
o.a
1 .6
■3
1432
o.z
0.9
□
LACKAWANNA
(BcrNLfHrn)
1433
I4J4
1435^
1436
1437
I43S
1430
o.z
O 2
O 6
02
o.o
0.0
S 3
0.3
0.3
1 .0
O.S
o.o
o.o
22.2
b
D
D
p
1
MAflTLAND
1431
1432
1433
r4I-f
-».4
<7.4
0.0
o.o
Id. 8
2J.4
0.6
O.l
■
.J
3
:d
(trraicHErt)
I43J
1436
1437
I43fi
O 0
0.0
o.o
O.o
o.o
0.0
0 .o
o.o
I4IO
O. 1
O.B
□
>43(
0.6
1.2
■3
I4J2
0. 1
O.S
3
M(NNE(^UA
^COIORAOO)
1433
143-4
I43J
I43C
1437
I43«
0.0
O. 1
0.3
O- 1
O . 0
0. 0
0.0
0.2
0-4
0- i
0.0
O.O
i
I430
i.a
5.6
^
n
1431
1432
3 4
0.6
7.1
2.2
■ 1
STtUTOU
1433
1934
o.o
O. 1
0.1
(KTHUHCn)
I43J
1436
1437
1438
O. 1
O. 1
o.o
0.2
0.2
O.l
0.0
0.2
1
1430
1.9
4.6
MB ,
1431
1432
27
1 7
6. 1
4.y
Z3
^ _l
ICCENO
^ SERVICE fAILUHfi
ALL MILL5
1934
02
O.A
D
I43J
O.S
1 4
■_)
CZJPETECTED FAILURES
I4ia
O.Z
O.S
□
1437
0.0
OI
I43A
o.o
0.0
Fig. 3. — Fissure Failure Rates From Date Rolled to December 31, 1939, by Mills. Altered
by Traffic Density Factors (Service and Detected Failures Shown Separately).
Rai
1
6SS
TABLE NO. 2.
- ACCUMULATED TRANSVERSE FISSURE FAILURES
REPORTED TO DK. }1.
1939 BY YEAR ROLLED AND
BY MILL
(lACludea
Sorvloa and
Detected Pailures)
year
AlEom
Carneg
ie
C
olorado
Dominion
Gary
Inland
Itolled Prior 1939 Total
Prior
1939 Total
Prior
1959 Total
Prior 1939 Total
Prior 1939 Total Prior
1939 Total
1929
86 12
98
687
IJU
821
1U9
67
216
18
16
31*
1*98 11*5
a*5
169
39
208
30
3 17
20
302
56
358
U9
15
ei*
19
1*6
65
1906 1*12
2318
73
37
110
31
21 16
39
1U7
61
208
19
21*
U3
0
1
1
920 370
1290
222
68
310
3Z
39 17
56
75
29
lOl*
9
2
11
0
0
0
26 1*2
68
6
12
18
t
0 0
0
38
12
50
0
0
0
0
0
0
171* 31
205
9
2
11
30 19
U9
13
9
22
1
2
3
0
0
0
21* U6
70
2
U
6
55
0 0
0
6
5
11
U
5
9
0
0
0
99 178
277
1
3
It
36
0 0
0
5
1
U
1
1
2
0
0
0
16 220
236
0
1
1
37
0 0
0
1
0
1
1
0
1
0
0
0
2 8
10
0
0
0
38
0 0
0
0
2
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0 0
0
0
0
0
39
0 0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0 0
0
0
0
0
Totals 179 83
262
1272
309
I58I
233
116
31*9
37
63
100
3665 11*52
5117
U62
166
668
jaokaivaimA
Maryland
Steelton
Tennee
689
All
UlllB
Prior 1959 To
tal
Prior 1939 Total
Prior
1939 Total
Prior 1939 Total
Prior 1939 Total
1969
1128 3O8 11^36
6235
U71
6706
1501
72U
2225
1010
230
121*0
111*81 211*6 13627
30
56 29
85
957
217
1171*
773
lOli
877
383
112
1*95
1*521 lol*5 5566
31
93 U*
137
U83
123
606
6lli
9?
711
662
290
952
3161 1116 1(297
32
10 8
18
12U
19
li43
15
U
19
351
117
1*68
655 250 905
i^
3 0
3
28
1*
32
0
1
1
211*
60
271*
1,66 110 576
6 5
11
0
12
12
1
2
3
25
30
55
102 129 231
»
5 5
10
1
0
1
0
2
27
25
52
11*3 2
25 366
^
J* 2
6
1
2
3
1
2
3
3
0
3
29 229 258
37
0 0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1*
8 12
38
0 0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
1
1
0
1* 1*
39
0 0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0 0
Total
BI305 Itoi 1706
7829
8(48
8677
2905
937
36(42
2675
865
351*0
20562 5260 2581*2
Fissure rail failures reported since 1924, as occurring in the first year of service, are
as follows:
29 Failures in 1925 from 1925 Rollings, All Mills
50 " " 1926 " 1926 " " "
114 " " 1927 " 1927
58 " " 1928 " 1928
106 " " 1929 " 1929
33 " " 1930 " 1930 " " "
32 " " 1931 " 1931 " " "
3 " " 1932 " 1932
0 " " 1933 " 1933
0 " " 1934 " 1934
3 " " 1935 " 1935
3 " " 1936 " 1936
1 " " 1937 " 1937 " " "
0 " " 1938 " 1938
0 " " 1939 " 1939
Figure 2 is a mill rating chart which shows separately, for each mill, the service and
detected transverse fissure rail failure rates per 100 average track miles per year, from
date of rolling to December 31, 1939, unweighted for traffic, for each of the rollings of
1930 to 1938, inclusive.
Figure 3 shows graphically the average rates of failure, by mills, from Fig. 2,
modified by the application of average traffic density factors, the derivation of which is
explained on pages 369-70 of Vol. 32 of the AREA Proceedings for 1931. Owing to the
necessity of using factors obtained from average trafiic per mile of road, instead of
actual traffic over the particular rails in question, this chart can be considered only as
an approximation.
656 Rail
Report on Assignment 3 (b)
Controlled-Cooled and Brunorized Rail
Compilation of Statistics for Determining the Performance of Controlled
Cooled and Brunorized Rail in Service With Respect to Rail Failures,
with the View Toward Evaluating the Higher Price Paid
for Treated Than for Untreated Rails
By W. C. Barnes, Engineer of Tests, Rail Committee
Data are being accumulated to assist in determining the performance in service of
controUed-cooled and Brunorized rail rolled under contract.
Controlled-cooled rail was first rolled under contract by the various mills as follows:
Dominion — January, 1931; Algoma — December, 1933; Steelton — March, 1935; Inland —
April, 1935; Lackawanna — May, 1935; Carnegie — October, 1935; Colorado — January,
1936; Ensley— February, 1936; Gary— April, 1936.
Brunorized rail was first rolled under contract at Gary by the old process in October,
1936. This process was revised on April 27, 1938, to provide for holding the rails at a
temperature of 800-1,000 deg. F. for 2J/^ hours before charging them into the Brunorizing
furnace.
Table 1 lists the tonnages of all such contract rail, from all mills, purchased by roads
represented on the Rail committee as reported to June 30, 1940. It includes a total of
3,022,206 tons of controlled-cooled rail and 123,873 tons of Brunorized rail, making a
total of 3,146,079 tons. This represents an increase of 916,160 tons of controlled-cooled
rail and 30,244 tons of Brunorized rail over the tonnages reported purchased to
June 30, 1939.
Table 2 lists failures that have been reported to October 21, 1940, in the rail listed
in Table 1. These failures are classified in accordance with AREA standards. The few
transverse and compound fissure failures in controlled-cooled rails which are listed have
been verified, but in all cases investigation has shown that they developed from inclusions
and not from the shatter cracks which the controUed-cooling process is supposed to
prevent. It will be noted that a number of fissures have developed in Brunorized rails
which were rolled prior to the change made in that process in October, 1936. No fissures
have been reported in any Brunorized rail made under the revised process.
Table 1
Tonnage of Controlled-Cooled and Brunorized Contract Rail Purchased
TO June 30, 1940
Controlled
Road Cooled Brunorized Total
AT&SF 295,119 3,571 298,690
ACL 3,039 0 3,039
B&O 31,043 0 31,043
B&M 15,514 0 15,514
CPR 178,028 0 178,028
CNR 188,978 0 188,978
C&NW 68,972 19,572 88,544
C&O 176,558 0 176,558
CB&Q 96,556 18,823 115,379
CMStP&P 62,449 36,413 98,862
CRI&P 109,387 0 109,387
Rail
657
Controlled
Road Cooled
D&H 28,974
D&RGW 42,037
DL&W 38,332
ERIE 95,731
GN 54,764
IC 53,358
IRT Co 12,932
KCS 12,956
LV 6,835
L&N 93,682
MKT 0
MP 108,489
MeCent 6,297
NY Sys 196,043
NYC&StL 44,440
NYNH&H 46,037
N&W 66,360
NP 112,223
PM 27,520
PRR 225,238
READING 4,837
RF&P 8,925
SP 235,365
Sou Sys 96,786
UP 178,402
TOTAL TONS 3,022,206
Brunorized
Total
0
28,974
0
42,037
0
38,332
0
95,731
15,934
70,698
5,555
58,913
0
12,932
6,186
19,142
0
6,835
0
93,682
204
204
0
108,489
0
6,297
13,117
209,160
0
44,440
0
46,037
0
66,360
0
112,223
0
27,520
0
225,238
0
4,837
0
8,925
0
235,365
0
96,786
4,498
182,900
123,873 3,146,079
Table 2
Failure Data of Controlled-Cooled and Brunorized Rail — Summary
By Mills — All Rollings
Accumulated Failures to October 21, 1940
Controlled Cooled Rail
Trans. Comp'd Other
Mill Fiss. Fiss. Head Broken Web Base Total
Algoma 0 0 43 11 8 55 117
Carnegie 1* 0 4 6 8 3 22
Colorado 0 0 6 1 2 2 11
Dominion 0 0 42 4 17 10 73
Gary 0 0 13 14 7 16 SO
Inland 0 0 13 39 5 13 70
Lackawanna 0 0 5 2 2 1 10
Steelton 2* 1* 8 5 3 1 20
Tennessee 0 0 33 18 57 6 114
All Rollings, All Mills 3 1 167 100 109 107 487
Brunorized Rail
Gary (Old Process) 35 4 5 5 1 4 54
Gary (Revised Process) 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
• Developed from inclusions.
658 Rail
Report on Assignment 4
Cause and Prevention of Rail Battering and Methods of
Reconditioning Rail Ends
F. M. Graham (chairman, subcommittee), W. C. Barnes, L. H. Bond, N. J. Boughton,
C. B. Bronson, H. A. Cassil, E. E. Chapman, H. R. Clarke, E. J. CuUen, F. W.
Gardiner, C. J. Geyer, B. Herman, F. S. Hewes, W. H. Hillis, W. H. Kirkbride,
B. R. Kulp, G. M. Magee, R. W. Marye, Ray McBrian, C. E. Morgan, E. E. Oviatt,
J. C. Patterson, Philip Petri, J. C. Ryan, L. H. Schiefele, R. T. Scholes, F. S.
Schwinn, G. R. Smiley, A. N. Talbot, J. C. Wallace, Barton Wheelwright,
R. P. Winton.
Subcommittee 6 is continuing to cooperate with the Rails Investigation at the
University of IlHnois in studying the prevention of end batter of rails by suitable heat
treatment. The investigation is being continued to observe the field test of heat-treated
rail ends on the Chesapeake & Ohio Railway, north of Carey, Ohio, in the manner
outlined in Appendix F of the 1940 Report of Committee 4 — Rail.
The heat-treated rail ends show generally less batter than the comparative untreated
rail ends. The gross tonnage moving over the test territory since the test was started
and up to October, 1940, is about 60,000,000 tons.
Some of the heat-treated rail ends are showing slight evidence of cracks in a gen-
erally horizontal plane at the ends of the rails. These cracks are about 1/16 to % in.
below the top of the rail. None of them has broken out. The cause of these cracks
is unknown at present, but is being studied by the Rails Investigation. It is possible that
these cracks may in some manner be related to the cross grinding of these joints.
The subcommittee has initiated a study of the art of building up rail ends by
various methods of welding. A questionnaire on this subject has been submitted to
members of the Rail committee. The replies received have been summarized and tabulated
and indicate a very great diversity in methods employed, costs, etc. Various weights of
rail were involved, the annual gross tonnage over welded rail was not generally known,
and the costs were apparently not stated on the same basis. For this reason it seems
desirable to make a comparative field test, where methods as employed by various rail-
roads can be carefully observed, the actual costs of material and labor recorded, the
lengths and depths of added material measured, and the kinds of welding rods and other
data recorded as found necessary to compare the relative merits of the methods
employed.
Annual gross tonnage records will be kept, and it is believed that periodical
inspections will disclose valuable information.
Several railroads have offered to participate in this test by welding up joints in the
test track, using methods which have been found to be satisfactory in their own experi-
ence. However, some difficulty has been experienced in finding a suitable test site but
such a site now seems available, and it is expected to install the test about May 1, 1941.
It is hoped to accumulate information with respect to reconditioning rail ends by
cropping and grinding.
This is submitted as a progress report, and it is recommended that the subject
be continued.
Rail 659
Report on Assignment 5
Economic Value of Different Sizes of Rail
J. M. Farrin (chairman, sub-committee), J. E. Armstrong, W. J. Backes, W. C. Barnes.
C. B. Bronson, W. J. Burton, H. R. Clarke, W. A. Duff, P. O. Ferris, C. J. Geyer.
G. W. Harris, E. M. Hastings, B. Herman, W. H. Hillis. Maro Johnson. C. S. Kirk-
patrick, G. M. Magee, R. W. Marye, C. E. Morgan. W. H. Penfield. Philip Petri.
B. H. Prater, A. N. Reece, G. R. Smiley, A. N. Talbot, Barton Wheelwright. W. P.
Wiltsee, Louis Yager.
Ratios have been tentatively established, using both physical and mathematical
rail properties, to show how the different weights of rail compare when laid in the same
location under identical roadbed conditions, traffic density and maintenance standards
for the following items which make up the annual cost of owning and maintaining the
various rail sections:
1. Interest on investment
2. Depreciation in first location
3. Track laying and surfacing
4. Effect on life of ties
5. Effect on coal consumption
The ratios have been expressed in terms of the 152-lb. Pennsylvania Railroad sec-
tion (which is taken as unity because it is the heaviest rail in use) and plotted in graph
form. By means of this graph, if costs are known for the above items for any size of
rail, the approximate cost for any other size of rail desired can be determined by
proportion.
During the past year efforts have been directed toward checking the accuracy of
these ratios by comparison with actual performance, as is illustrated in the tabulation
of data for the Kansas City Southern.
Test Sections on the Kansas City Southern Railway for Item No. 3 —
Track Laying and Surfacing
Labor Cost per Mile
19 3S 1939
Size of Traffic Kansas Kansas
Rail Million City City
lb. per Age Track tons per Southern Farrin Southern Farrin
yd. Years Miles year Report Ratio Report Ratio
85 16y2 39.88 4.750 $65 $65 $56 $56
100 9J4 27.52 4.306 44 50 40 43
127 754 •^8-21 4.750 34 37 42 32
In addition, a questionnaire was sent to all members of the committee requesting
information as to their experience in tonnage life in the first location of the various
sizes of rail, together with man-hours of section labor expended in track laying and
surfacing. Eighteen replies were received, and the information thus obtained was plotted
and found to produce curves approximately parallel with those shown in the proposed
plan, thus indicating that ratios plotted in the proposed plan are approximately in
agreement.
The ratios were also compared with the annual costs of 100-lb. versus 131-lb. rail
presented by the late Robert Faries, assistant chief engineer-maintenance. Pennsylvania
660 Rail
Railroad, in his testimony before Congressional committee studying maintenance of way
labor under the Fair Labor Standards' Act of 1938, the comparison being as follows
for track carrying 16,500,000 tons of traffic per year:
Faries Farrin Plan
Item 100-lb. 131-lb. 100-lb. 131-lb.
Interest 5% $514 $717 $514 $652
Depreciation 561 427 561 438
Track laying and surfacing 750 601 750 548
Ties 382 325 382 325
This report is presented as information with the recommendation that the subject
be continued. •
Report on Assignment 6
Continuous Welding of Rail
Collaborating with Committee 5 — Track and Special Committee on
Stresses in Railroad Track
J. C. Patterson (chairman, subcommittee), J. B. Akers, W. C. Barnes, W. J. Burton,
E. J. Cullen, J. M. Farrin, P. O. Ferris, C. J. Geyer, G. W. Harris, E. M. Hastings,
G. M. Magee, C. E. Morgan, E. E. Oviatt, G. A. Phillips, W. H. Penfiield, B. H.
Prater, A. N. Reece, R. T. Scholes, G. R. Smiley, J. C. Wallace, R. W. Marye,
W. P. Wiltsee, Louis Yager.
The laboratory investigation of the continuous welding of rail is covered by the
first and second progress reports on this assignment, published in the AREA Proceedings,
Vol. 40, pages 687-713, and Vol. 41, pages 737-755, respectively. The activities of the
committee at present are devoted to the development of service records to supplement
the findings of the laboratory tests.
In collaboration with Professor H. F. Moore and the Track committee, a question-
naire was developed to secure service records. The answers to this questionnaire have
been summarized as shown on the folded inserts, which cover the data on the original
installations, a detail of the failures and a summary, the information being classified
according to the various processes of welding, the process designation being the same
as specified in the first and second progress reports.
As will be observed, a considerable number of installations of welded rail have had
little service Hfe to date, which fact precludes the formulation of conclusions at this
period of the service investigation.
Mr. G. R. Smiley, chief engineer, Louisville & Nashville, makes the following
comment on Process "B":
Since our first attempt in welding through Vasper tunnel we have changed
the process of welding and, as you will note, our experience to date, particularly
on the Hayden and Parkwood tunnel jobs, has been very satisfactory. I think the
manner in which the welders are proceeding with their work is a considerable
improvement over our first experience on the Vasper Tunnel job.
Mr. P. O. Ferris, chief engineer, Delaware & Hudson, states:
In submitting these statements on the failures which we have experienced,
I should like to bring out several points in connection with these failures which
6M
ation. These
lave, during
rom a more
:h was used
ses, namely:
.perature.
letter which
r, 21T, and
I, 1934, and
esign of the
irate control
believe, to
loted on the
) welding in
is type and
not develop
hese failures
id placed in
ed in track,
classification
hose in the
is from the
iced by the
is the "K"
veld failures
the welding,
type which
'anizcd iron
ic rail ends,
•anized iron
ng between
his type of
J>t ^ilon ««ld
9 KAXt^'^H e«tttlr.-40>u l*i>pth
.■etr.tt
f !• t!*?ftc c<w-«««5 cr twc-
«j or«r •»1J»1 r»tIT
T Str«i*t-^-r>« or Vcth
S Jial* . ^ cr di-^. «1 * r«f-
•nrcr tr iir«ctJon of
tr«ITlo)
10 LcT^rt!-. of rail before
•el41:«
U >*V^I of ml
It Total ;olcta xUed ^oth
9i4es of tpack(9egrv»*el
tr tjT« of leldl
IS ^e of »ei4
1937
Two-way
14 Type cf trsck
U S-Jt cf »eld In plsce
16 Vcft lose b; rmlXraa>l,
cootr&ctCT or toA
17 £ere :*r? arrlied after
ws'iUTe 1^ aiaitlon to
t^ eelijns?
IS '^Tl^'- s-eel ftlloeed
19 *ijroilr3Se s.rr:!Bl
Xoren^ Ir. gross ;cr.?-
7««9., frt. locoe.
tkst. ears
2C Carries pas-, cr frt.
triffle or rot:
■Ir. at=cajii€nc tos^.
J2 Trt* of rail a-='or. If
seed, snA j:x.r&er per
rail ler.^
2i !i KIT jrOTlsloo nale fa
expKislm at either end
of tec-loo?
»
iOTf creep
tcs leec obserred doe to
traffic or t^ij-tratire
cs -s^e elcce ras 1 was
lellT
Z5, litat s<2&s«Qaer.t wcrk hae
"oeer. &«ees»*Ji7 i» to
:;ree5«j'e or ex,'.fcrielon?
Sf. Vtxixrx wr.ee 1 lOEil
27 it»'y-9;.>:erle teej . *.en
n.11 laid & faaterisd
28 Tc^«ratar« of rail #ien
laid arfi faetet^ed
2f la tanr.e: -.t open
as ties to ;s'r^
e- T«ck ballast,
e"ilO'' single sh
tie plate.
17.29
Eailroad
2,700,000
Both
o°-eo"'
steal - 12
24 oak ties to 39' S* oak ties to .'9*
rail, e" reck >ial- rail, 8" rock bal-
last, P''xlO" ^1. last, 8"xl0" sjl.
ahldr. tie plate. shldr. tie plute.
ilO.13
Eailroed
2,700,000
3oth
00-80°
■Jcston - 12
j;7.29
Hellroad
2,700,000
Both
OO-SO"
Stead - 12
32,1£0 lU.
net weather
70<> to no"
INSTALUTIOKS of COMTIIiUOUS WELDED HAIt.
olflo Ril Missouri faoir
lyatt. Ark.
to 39' 24 ties
rock bal- rail, 8"
xlO" sgl. tallest,
ie plate.
^7.29
Railroad
2,700,000
Both
0°-80°
Stead - 12
^7.29
Bailroad
2,700,000
Both
OO-80°
Stead - 12
Tuimel Tunr.el
Drcit northern BB
Z Ml. east of
Malaea, «a*.
1122 ft.
Bene
"e=. 1, 1939
T^OMflay
Bom
7°30'
Level
32
Oxtreld MW Bod.
ait ire weld nor-
Tiallzed by ccn-
trolled ooollng
after conpletlon
of weld.
Oo'ntression fist-
enin,^, hook bolt]
e'VlC", 8"xl2" ti<
plates-wedge ties
ba U .~-st . Tie
pla tes are double
Central of
Geort'la hailrcad
24 Ml. oast of
Blrmin^ain, Ala.
Central of
Georgia Itailroad
24 ki. oust of
Birminrfiara, Ala.
Central of
GeOTj^ia Itailroad
21 a. O'^st of
Binaingham, al^.
1283 ft.
Aug. 1930
90#-100J. i.H.
argle bars, 7^'
IC" sgl. shld;
tie plates, rai
dcuble-spiked,
7"x9"xa' Oreo-
so ted pi
IS" slag ball
ties
90f-100;i, S.H.
aiVile bars with
base sheared off,
applied as straps
7j"xll" So-l. shldr
tie plates, nU
double- spiked,
7"i9"x6' creo-
soted ties, 19"
slas ballast.
J6.76
13,2C0,000
30th
1-J«.a»g.l6''-107°* 6°-76°
Sailroed
ilaaroad
SailrOBd
!S, 90# S. H.
an^le bars.
30 K.P.H.
Straps applied
30 t.P.H.
90S S. H. angle
bars.
30 l'..?.K.
4,600,000
4,600,000
4,600,000
Both
Both
Both
60-76°
60-76°
6^^760
Central of ".sntral of
Georgia Bailroad Geccjla P^ilroad
21 Mi. east of '•J'i'ioj, Oa.
April 1937
SOt-lOOf, S. H.
angle oars, 7fe^"x
10" ssl.siildr.
tie plates, rail
double-splkai,
7"x9"xe' oreo-
soted pine ties,
16" slag ballast.
base she-red off, sheared off, applied
applied as streps, as straps, 8"xll2"
7;."xll" sgl. shldr. 6-hole doable
plate
double-spiked.
7"i9"x8" creo-
shldr. tie plates,
rai 1 doQDle-splked
anl tie plate spiked
to ties, 7"i9"ie'
12" slag ballast.
Str^s applied Straps applied
30 !c.?.E. 60 k.>.H.
4,500,000
Both
6°-7E°
i'air-8
10,740,000
Both
220-U60
.^one
Hone
hone
Hone
Kcne
kai.i.Snd 2.1"
I.e--d 2.35-
Hone
36,000 lbs.
None
32,600 lbs.
;ione
32,600 lbs.
32,600 lbs.
Hone
32,600 lbs.
Hone
32,600 lbs.
38°
60°
40°
60°
40°
K.Bail 780 s.Hail 8.«
Kot knoim
46°
'runnel
40°
Tunnel
45°
Tmuiol
40°
'i\mnel
K.*il 78° -.hail 60°
Open
Note: welded by
slnirle welders
and not nonnalized
or slow cooled.
note: welded by
sinj-le welders
atil not nonnallted
OTtei (♦: - f»ir a=dhora;
12 per oanel for 270 ft.
at each" end. IFsir .nch<rs,
12 per panel, ha»e r-.<M been
applied thrivfhcut the
enti w laiirth of »»il «*
661
ation. These
tiave, during
rom a more
ch was used
ses, namely:
iperature.
letter which
r, 2 IT, and
;, 1934, and
esign of the
irate control
believe, to
loted on the
) welding in
is type and
not develop
hese failures
id placed in
ed in track,
classification
'hose in the
is from the
aced by the
. is the "K"
veld failures
the welding,
type which
/anizcd iron
le rail ends,
/anized iron
ing between
:his type of
?roe»sg 5 - ^i** fusion B'eld
I Sftllral
Southern Rai Iway
t l«e«tion of *eld»d 9frction
^eiandrla, Va.
::.F. S.4 to 10.4
S fiutDua eaiHniOus l«nffth
wlJcd .Ithout lnter»«nlii«
Joints
4126 ft.
« t»tii lor.-th of aijoinlnj
•«ldfrl sections
6346 ft.
£ :tete liiat>:ied
iept. 1538
6 I» traffio oae-«ij or t«o-
•»i- ever welled isil
i^e-«ai-
T Stt»istt^ir»« or both
Strai^t
S razls.s a««r«e of curratiire
None
S Sr&l« (Jp or dora «itli ref-
erence to ii rectlOD of
traf rie 1
0.26;. up
IC UKra of r-.il lefore
•elilsi
?3'
H »«ie-*'t of rail
lOOj
12 Total ;olnts .elJed both
ai -es of traclc Ue£i«£ated
tT t}^!« of weld.
162
11 >fre if »el4
Oi^'-acetylene
1* ?jie of tr^.ci
FuU tie pi :;ted.
12" stole ballast
Pie plates are
double shoulder.
IS Cost of .ell In place
»9.11
15 Sea l<»;e bv railrosd.
CKtracttr cr both
aailrool
17 lere bare ajjlied after
•eUits In alditlai to
the lelUng?
Tea
le K&xlsjn e^ead allosd
20 i:.?.H.
xtrsj^e Is gross tens
z: ^lATTleB pass, or ft.
traffic or rotfc
21 A^>rox< &rzia^ sax. k
win. A^OBpherlc tazz
kZ Tjpe of fcr.crar, if
used, sx^ zrs=.heT per
rail iKt^^h
2S l! aty prOTlslTi cade
er^&z^ioa e-t elt:.er eid
cf eectiODf
24 that, if an/^ creefAge
h«.£ D«eE. obserred doe to
traffic or temperature
cxMT^e since rail w^b
laid?
2£ V^.at BaxM^oent vcaric has
beee: rjecesaary ine to
cree;A.?'e cr expansion?
££ Kazl/=us «ne«l load
27 *teo«;fm^o tea;. ^t£c.
rail laid i. faster^ed
28 Titoperatsre of r^ 1 vhen
25 In tJi^-*l or o;.er.
for
6,000,000
Frelrht
qO _ ggO
Fair - 30
31,000 lbs.
Louisville ^ :jush
Jasper, Tenn.
ille
H
H
1638 ft.
^iay 26, 1936
Two-way
lOM' on 6° Jurre
INJiTAUmcmii CF Ca.TiraOUS 'iiSUED h..lL
1014 ft.
82
Ozy-i
etyle:
Second land toeless bars,
24" long} full tie plated;
copper slag ballast 12"
deep) 7"x9yz8*6" creosoted
tie
$9.63
Hay 6, l?3a
One-way
CuTTe
8°02'
Up
Toelccs hars;
7"x9"ie'6" haidwood ties;
Rock lallast.
8,000,000
Both
-10° -♦BO'
Fair - 8
26,260 lbs.
SS°
February 1939
- 0.4,-
39"
lG1.49i
117
Cxy-acetyleTie
7"xS"xa"6" ere
IJf slac ball a
Tie plated.
;9.6c
liii 11 road
Yes - S.H. SOi
70 ,,.-r.H.
6,721,110
Both
10° - 100°
60 li.r.H.
7,147,430
30th
10° - 100°
stead - 6
iprll lu, 1539
One-iwiy
Straight
One-way
Curn
5°
« 0.62ii
Down
39-
101 .49#
39 •
lOOj 12
64
Oxy-^i;ct.,lene - Butt
7"i9"xa'6" creosoted
12" 8 la;; ballast;
Tie plated.
• eld
oak tics;
38
Qxy -acetylene
7"i9"i8'6" oreosoted
ties;
12" else baUast;
Tie plated.
»9.50
J8.30
Railroad
Eailroad
8,COO,0C0
Both
-10°- •90°
Fair - 8
2S,26C lbs.
661^
ation. These
have, during
rom a more
ch was used
ses, namely:
iperature.
letter which
r, 2 IT, and
;, 1934, and
esign of the
irate control
believe, to
loted on the
) welding in
is type and
not develop
hese failures
id placed in
ed in track,
classification
'hose in the
is from the
aced by the
. is the "K"
veld failures
the welding.
type which
/anized iron
le rail ends,
.'anized iron
ing between
;his type of
INSTALLATIONS OF COITIliUOOE TCLDED RAIL
rrcc«» C - Tbenat *eld (Old Typa )
1 SmllrMl
t Uv«:lcn of w«lJe4 section
? KlLXi'wi''. cct:tln:iout loiy-th
5«SBener A Lake
Erie Biilr*d
Blwr »»11*, P».
Srie Kallroxd
OtiBvillo, N.V.
Nortliorn Faol fio
Bfti Iway Company
Near Boseman, Mont.
Korthem laclflo
Hallway Company
ifear Helena, Mont.
Delaware &
Hudson Railroad
Albany, H. 1.
Uelaware A
Hudson Railroad
Keohanlosvllle, ll.t.
Delaware A
Hudson Hailiood
Sdienectady, ;j,Y.
Delaware &
Hudson Railroad
Windsor, M.T.
Delaware &
Hudson BlailrOBd
Comstock. a. I.
Jelaware &
Endior. BaUroad
Conoea, s, '{,
••lied without lnt«rt«nli>5
2994 ft. E.B.
2517 ft, S.B.
:elDH
6280 ft.
5616 ft.
3783 ft.
4017 ft.
2661 ft. W.B.
2619 ft. N.B.
e.aas ft.
3089 ft. S.B.
4054 ft. S.B.
591 ft. 5.B.
lone I.E.
1C04 ft. S.i.
J'i.-.e 16i5
4 Tot»l Imsth at »djolnlns
3740 ft. S.B.
••1>1 sections
None
None
None
None
None
None
4,804 ft.
2814 ft. K.B.
3958 ft. K.B.
S ::Kte ln>:all«d
Oot. 4 NOT. 1956
Juno 1936
July 8, 1936
au«. 3, 1936
Aue. 1 Sept.l9?3
Hay 1934
June L. Sep. 1936
1936
liaj a June 193S
(Is tr»fflo on»-»»jr or two-
••f owr molded rail
Cne-wBi'
Cne-way
Two-way
Two-way
Oncjway
One-way
One-way
CJenerally two-r&j-;
territory is tio-
Orie-way
C«e-TOy
T Strilfiit-Curif cf toth
Both-lSCCft. straight
5°
Straight
Stral^t
Straight
Both
Straight
Both
track widl CTC.
Both
btiaijht
Straight
S KfcilrJ! decree of cupTsfore
7°30'
4°
30
S 2r»de (op or doan with ref-
•rer.c* tc direction of
1/E - .65Jt
Up o.ie)b
tpsf fie i
1. 2 - lerel
Do«n O.Zli
1.2^ or O.Sit
z.of.
1.0^
0.5*
0.7%
0.3je li.3.
0,10!^ do«n N.B.
O.SSjt !t.3. wj
10 Lenjth of r^ll before
•eldli^
S9'
66-
39'
39-
39'
39-
39-
66"
39'
35'
U Teifht of rail
13l# ffi
131i ES
131 j RE
1311! RE
130# HE
13 ]# HE
131^ HE
131j HE
1314 RB
1311 '^
11 Tctil ;-!nt» »eli ed both
•lies of tnok (segr&feted
70 Electric Flast
bj- ^JT* cf eold)
269
168
19.1
206
318
2E4
551 Themiit
281
408
74
13 Tjpa of veU
Hiend t fressare
Thermit Pressure
Themit Pressure
Thermit Pressure
Thermit Pressure
Themit Pressure
Theirait Presaire
Thennit Press\ire
Thenrdt Pressure
rr.eolt rre.-S'jre
1« Ibrp* of track
-K) - Treated red
Treated oak ties
Hardwood ties.
Hardwood ties,
Hid. e.-rlne clips.
L^.L spring clips,
UuL qp ring clipsj
l^&I, 5) ling clips.
UAI, spring clips,
ittL spring clips.
oak ties 7"xS"ie'b".
7"l9"l8'6", 19-7/6"
8" ballast
8" ballast
iai"x8" louble
13i-"l8" double
13t"ie" double
13j-"ie" double
13e"i8" double
13j"lS- 1 cubic
22" centers, cinder
ceiiter3jlO"-l^"stone
shldr.tle plates.
ehldr. tie plates,
shidr. tie plates,
shldr. tie plates.
shldr. tie plates.
shldr. tie plates.
sab-teUart, 12"
ballast; wrot Iron
lagged to tie with
lagged to tie .ith
lagged to tie with
Uajed to tie with
lagijed to tie with
lag:jed to tie with
Cr. stone nullist:
s?l.Bhfllr. tie
two screw spikes;
twc screw spikes;
two screw ^ikes;
two screw spikes;
two screw spikes;
tso screw splkea;
6-J/4"il4-21/J2"
plates 75"ll2J"i 3
red oak treated ties
, red oak treated ties
, red oak treateG ties
, red OLi treated tie:
3, red oak treated tie;
», red oak treated ties.
tie plates - 4
wrot iron spikes
14" stone ballast
14" stone baUast
14" stone ball sat
14" stone baUast
14" stone ballast
14" stone teUast
sere* £^ic«s per
Idoulle-splked in-
under tHes.
under ties.
under ties.
under ties.
unner ties.
unsar -les. Track
plate.
side 1; 2 malleable
cOTered with crushed
1£ CoFt of veil In place
16 *3it done ty r*ilrcad,
sontrs^tw or toth
17 »^e ^3tr; appllal after
«Uln« Ic aiiitloc to
fee welling?
1£ liftxlnr «;«ed allowed
IS A^^roxleate &nm»l
tonne^e Ic gross toiis-
pasa., frc. losoe.
em a^a
£C C^rlei paai, or frt.
traffic or both
£1 ifprcx. sr.^.:^! max. li.
Kin. fttorsfterlc tanf -
£2 ?7P€ of rs.il ax.c:^.e^, If
need, a^t rur.ter per
re:: le^frtt
ZZ '9 fc^ ;iCTlslon »ele for
ezrsieioe: at either end
of section?
24 %At, If iz/, creepage
hat fceet obserred iie to
treiflc or te^era^re
A^rve slnoe rtkll «&e
1«^17
2€ the* t-i^eei^ierrt eork hae
t*cr. DeeeeeAiy lae to
cr«e;*r» » ei^erJl'-ii?
K Mezl=-a *r«el loed
27 AtcoT-ertc t«c;> when
nil lell & faetcrcd
25 T«e;«btjr* ef rail »^jen
lUd ar.l faetercd
ope
Not glTa
Bailroal, under -on-
traotor's ffuperrlsic
$ll'.94
Railroad, under
n tractor's supjr
■ Con-
;20.4Z
Railroad, under
contractor's aupvn.
$20.42
Railroad, under
Oontr'o. supyn.
$19.63
Railroad, under Con-
tractor's supvn.
J19.12
Railroad, under Con-
tractor's supvn.
118.11
Ha lira 1, under Con-
tracttr's supvn.
J16.91
flail road, under Con-
tractor's supvn.
ho
Pass.SEKPH-FrtSaiPH
1^0
40 U.f .H.
No
25 lo.I.H.
No
26 i:.P.H.
No
2t M.P.H.
NO
36 L.P.H.
llo
;,'o restriction
No
2C KPHIaoot. sub-soil 1
9,000,000
16,600,000
7,000,000
7,000, 'JCO
4,160,000 N.S.
4,266,000 S.B.
3,000,000 U.B.
2,aCX>,000 S.B.
3,000,00c
10,73i',664 ;|.B.
6,288,241 SBI2 tks J
Both
-20" to ♦110°
Freight
iortals -e'^t<
Center 2S''to
Falr-20 per 66'
eicept lat A lai
rails *ich havi
j'98''
raU,
it 10
! 53
Both
•20° to 40°
Fair - 32
Both
•2C° to 40°
Fair - 32
Both
Range 126°
j:iL Spring Clips
Both
Range 126°
MAL spring clips
Freight only
Baige 126^
Mii spring clips
Freight
-20° to ♦96°
IIAL spring clips
J13.68
Hailioad
Both
-26° to 97°
1-7/16"
60° - 80°
Tunnel
Note: (•) this con-
dition no di fferent
tiian before veldlnff
20 lIFEIlocal on.
ItL spring clips Hil spring clipa
1-5/16"
None
None
None
Trad goes ait
ot line in hot
weather due to
poor sub-soil. •
Hone
It one
None
37,000 lbs.
Nona
32,000 lbs.
None
34,425 lbs.
None
54,426 .
lbs.
None
34,425 lbs.
None
52,000 lbs.
Sone
54,425 lbs.
40°
76°
70°
78°
70° - 90°
70° - 9C°
70°
60°
Tunnel
No recorl
Open
iio record
Opei.
Open
ord
«0° - ISO"
Open
70° - 130°
Open
70° - 120°
Open
661
ation. These
have, during
rom a more
ch was used
ses, namely:
iperature.
letter which
r, 2 IT, and
1, 1934, and
esign of the
irate control
believe, to
loted on the
) welding in
is type and
not develop
hese failures
id placed in
ed in track,
classification
'hose in the
is from the
aced by the
. is the "K"
veld failures
the welding.
type which
/anized iron
le rail ends,
/anized iron
ing between
ihis type of
IMSTAIXATIOHS OF CCKTmUOUS 'ICIAED BAIL
Fr«»»» C^ - aiermlt Weld (Type K)
1 KllMMd
t Uoatloc of ««ldpd section
S Kixlwr coDtLn-^ous length
««1&«A vitbCMt lnt«rT«Rln«
joints
4 TctBl len^tfa of adjoining
•«:ied ••ctioDi
i ^t* iriitaUed
£ It trafflo one-»»j or t»o-
•»y ore- »«li».l raii
T Strilcht-CttrT» or teth
G lUjElfj^ ce^ee of CKrv»tar«
9 ^nd« (P? or dofn with r«f-
«T«iee to dlraotioc zt
traffic )
10 Leasts of nil before
valdiag
U »el^.t of rail
1£ Tetil .clrti weLled coth
■idea ef track le^rv^ted
13 ?7pe of weld
U type of track
Ccct of »«ld. In pl60«
Tort irne ^ red iroad,
caitr&otor cr ^cth
' *»r« bars applied after
weldir^ Ic ftiditloa to tbe
»elii::r
^■T^r""! B;eed alloead
lz;roil=^c aimal
tc=.=afe Is grtne tcns-
pasi*. frt. locea.
; Carries jaae. or frt.
traffic or ^otfa
l^frta. ajgg-.al caz. &
«lr-. a^q>^erle te:^ .
■ Tyje of r»ll ^ricr.or. If
^^ed, axl mcber par
rail Iv:^^
1 Ii ftE7 priTi'lor ^ie
for azpaneioc at either end
cf eectlonT
t T^^t, If ar7, er««^a.^
iiAe :«e:i cbaer ad *Qe to
traffic cr t^^eratore
ci^zif^ Blr.ca rsll was
is.i.'.'t
': ^at ej:ae^«^rn vcrk haa
b««i: r.eccfaary dac to
cre«;«.?e or ezva'^ioc?
: Maxlfa *.ea: load
? At»oBth«Tlc t««: . *en
rtU laid * f^ten*!
i ?^^rat(iT« of rail #i*ii
lai: aad fa«*.«ned
t In t-3BLr«l or op«D.
St liorthem R
t of Sciford,
.8.
kont.
Dennr k Skit Lake
l£offat Tunnel
By.
The Bsltlinore i Oh
llllw Valley, InJ
5,667.6 rt.
54,066 rt.
1366 ft.
1957
Uone
July 1938
iJone
July 1939
T«»-way
3oth
Two-way
Both - 600' 6 16'
6°15'
CuTTe
Two-way
Curve
S030'
.0.7!{ B.B.
0*9^ deaoenlln^
0.3^ ascending
0.32^ aeoendinff
39 •
UOl EI
66'
112# EE
3S'
11Z< ES
'3iaralt Pressure Type K
UAL ?^stenln^,
Creoeoted tloa,
12" washed gr^vtl balla
let 2
Thermit Preeaare Tyj* K
8"xll" cioible ahldr. tie plate
Creosoted red oak ties,
12" porfyry granite anl
volcanic cinder ballast
tie .87
?15.U
Eallroad and Co
r. tractor
Contractor
Ho
li H.F.B.
Bo
50 U.l-.H.
6,042,000
IJot glien
Both
Both
30° - 100°
^'flne
-46° - 'Se"
Fair - 10 per 66'
6 against ezpans]
4 contraction.
PrC" 1/16" to 1-1/4"
68
TSiennit Presaire Type K
Jouble sMdr. AR£A tie plates
with 2 hold-do»m spikes, two
rail ollpl CU6; treated ties:
24" gravel ballast.
Uot glren
Bailrvad
10,00C,000
Both
30° - eo°
None
The Baltinore i Ohio B.B.
Ft, Bitner Tunnel, Tunnelto
1 rail 2146 ft.
1 rail J137 ft.
0.45^ descending
0.45i ascending
loe
Thermit pressure Tyre E
Double shldr,. A££l tie plates
with 2 hold-down spikes, two
rail clips CU6; treated ties;
24" gravel ballast.
Kot given
Ballrosd
10,000,000
Both
30° - 60°
76° - 80°
70°
In tunnel
Schenectady, i;. Y.
1669
Themit Pressire lype K
lUcL ^rinc clipe; 13t"x8"
double a>ildr. tie plates
lagged with two screw spikes
to hardwood tics; 14" of stcn
baUast under ties.
$14.40
Both
30 UPHIdue to class
9.172,800
Frel^t
-20° - -96°
U&L spring dips
Deloare er.d
Hudson HailrOfld
Uechjrlcsvllla, D. I.
2519 ft. I.B.
i^one *- ff.B.
2617 - S.B.
Sept. 1939 f
0.3]b up t.B.
39'
13 If «£
»63
Thennlt Preaeire '^yj» X
M&L spring clips; 13}"i8"
doucle sfjdr. tie plates
lagged wi ^ two screw spikes
to hardwjd ties; 14" of stoa
ballast '
Iio
3,000,000 S.B.
2,800,000 S.B.
Both
-2° - .gs'
Uid. spring clips
70°
■ 90°
No reconl
Open
Notel «) - Joints Inetallel in 1S59
replaced thoee installed in 1^54.
These 19i9 joints are or the *}!» K,
l^lch is of improved desired.
Believed to overoane difficilty
experienced wih desi^ uasd In 1S34.
661
ation. These
have, during
'rom a more
ch was used
.ses, namely:
iperature.
letter which
r, 2 IT, and
i, 1934, and
esign of the
irate control
believe, to
loted on the
) welding in
lis type and
not develop
hese failures
id placed in
ed in track,
classification
'hose in the
is from the
aced by the
is the "K"
veld failures
the welding.
type which
/anized iron
le rail ends.
/anized iron
ing between
this type of
rreo»n c . Iltctrlo l>r«.mr» Wtld
mSTALliJICMa OF COMflMdouS VLLDKD l^,!l
t i*c»tlcr, cr wU*! .<«ct Ion
«*U»1 «ll>ait lntrr««Mnc
.<«lnt>
• I» traffic one-«.^ or tac-
y S»r«l^t-Our»»l cr ^oUi
« IUiUjk j>«^< of c jTCt J.
• «r»d« I15 or dc»n *th rff-
«T»nc« t« diractloi: of
tnffl*:
10 Uofth of rail bofor*
11 *>l«<lt of r»ll
II fctel Jclntt •elded scth
**• of track liogrogsted
«IT tjp« of wld)
IS rjf, of „u
14 fjf of traA
It Cert ef w«U Ir jlioe
U »crt dec. ij raUroid,
ctttrtctcr cr tct.
IT Sore ^re appllod after
••Idlr^ In aiditloi to
tio wtliizgl
l£ MaTlwr sre*d aUcvod
19 ^prcxlmsta «i"tf 1
^mamet In gntt toni-
PW>., frt. locoi.
kol oars
M CarrlOE pass, cr frt.
traffic or ^o«i
11 A;?rcx. atiiial -a. 4
■I::. at=o-^erlo tarp.
il Tjpe tf rail anchor. If
rail Imjfit
25 Is a^ jrCTislcr. aade fcr
•xpenrton at tlthar eal
:f sertloc?
** ^«tf Ifary, ore«p*^
^A« te^n otBerrad dio to
traffla or tavparatoro
otL&a^ Binc« rail «&«
UiAl
tt Ifctt lauaaqaant work has
Seen mc.e.aij 4» to
era«pa#t cr rrp«RslonT
U KailKA ¥>-.«•: loul
2T Itac^crlo top. >ben
rd : laid i faster.«d
ie 'sperat-jre of r* 1 *er..
Ul: a.nd faite.'Xd
*f In tair.al or Dp*
e&u ft.
Kono
■Jp C.»^
Doml 0.H5C
131(
28i FlMhwelded
6 Thersilt
Ilectrlo Flash Weld i
Hierrlt Type K .old
T*-ll2t- tl« platesi
treated ties 7'i9"ie'6"
12** atone tellAst.
J13.40
Both
10,S6C,000
Frel^t
to &0° In tunnel
?atr - 18
Von*
36,000 lbs.
iviawara i
Hudson Sail road
Sotaneotadj, :i.
Both
0.7*
39'
13U
UiJ* spring clips,
13^"xe" double
sbldr. tia plates,
la^ed to tie with
red oak treated tie
14" stone ballast
under tl ea.
$9.00
Contractor
9,000,000
Freight only
Bangs la"
UM. spring clip
ecord
Delaara A
Hudson Railroad
Schmeotady, N. Y.
0.68% comp. up
Ele
trie Flaah »eld
ii&l spring clips,
l.^"xe" double
shldr. tie plates,
laaged to tie ilth
two screw spikes;
red oak treated tie
14" stone tallast
under ties.
{13.32
EUilroad and
Contractor
SO K.F.H.Idue to
class of englns J
9,178,900
3oth
-Z0° tO«96°
MAL spring clip
Jcl aware &
Hudnon Ballroad
Fort Henry, U. Y.
6666 ft.
34697 Ft.
June-July 1937
Two-way
Single Track
Both
1987 Ilec. Flash »eld
Thermit Type K
CI0S1
elds
Iher
mlt Pressure Type K
MAL spring clips,
15E"ie" double
Bhldr. tie plates,
lagged to tie with
two screw silkee:
red cvak treated ^les,
14" iron ore stone
scre^enintis under ties.
Elec.Flasl^ (12.59
Both
Ho
66 MPH So. of lort
Henry
36 MPH No. cf Port
2,817,200 K.B.
2,536,300 3.B.
Open
JThese flash welds were mtjle by
the General Electric Co. Haila
were welded In stretches of 3
rails, after #ilch they were
laid in tra(* and joined with
Thermit Weld.
See notes
<1 t »2
32,000 lbs.
Ope
Note ijl; it locations
aulated Joints oilst a piece of
einffle rail was installed what
rail was laid. This rail has b
chained In winter,
longer ral 1 and in
stltutlng shorten rall( howeter,
now 6-hole Joint bora haTe been
Installed and this 0 Hanging is
in-
tituling
Delaware t
Hucfson Kallroad
Watcrvllet, n. y.
4333 ft. «,B.
12289 ft. ;i.a.
16622 ft. J>.B.
1937
30
• 0.7£!t up
39'
131(
1622 Elec. Flash Weld
53 niermlt Type K
Closure welds are ae
mlt Pressure Type K
Kil ^rln? clips
13j"ie" double
shldr. tie plates,
lagged to tie with
red oak treated ties,
14"
under ties.
^U.33
alls
3,667,000 M.3.
3,068,000 S.B.
Both
-20° to .96°
M&L Qonstructlon
Delaware &
Hudscn Railroad
Bainbrkli'e, u. Y
3273 ft. ii.B.
Clo
elds I
The
mlt Presaire Type K
MAX eprlng clips,
13t"i8" double
shldr. tie plates,
lagged to tie with
two screw spikes;
|2| One stretch appr
oT ral 1 lal d at 67°F
ately
. at 67"F kicked
of lino on nat not day. This rail was
loosened when temp, was around 90 F and
alloaed to expand, then reclli.ped. No
subsequent difficulty has been exper-
ienced. Lee alec report to Sub-Comm. iZ
"Fastenings for Oontlnuouf Welding of
Hall," page 668, Vol. 40, AREA Bulletin.
11,969,739
Both
-20° to .96°
KAl con3tructl<
No r
Op 01
Note jilt Closure welds done
at night wl th tanperature
around 30° to 7u° F. Hall
kicked out at sme of these
locations in next hot weattxr
spring of 1938 and required
roll to bo cut and sncarter
length inserted. No sub-
sequent difficulty exper-
ienced. 6ee also report tf
Sub-Comr,. #2 on "Fastenings
for Continuous Welding of
Rail," page 668, Vol. 40 of
AREA bulletin.
3169 ft.
22617 ft.
1937
Two-way
Single Track
Both
4°
1.32^ S.B. up
65 Thermit ^ype K
Cloaire joints are E
Pressure Type K
M.lcL ^rlng clips,
13g"xe" double
sf.ldr. tie plates,
lagired tc tie -vith
red oak treated tl es
14" cinder baliaat
under ties*
Flslh fll.32
Both
Delaware u
Hudson h^ II road
Platteburgh, i. Y.
14C1 ft.
9460 ft. S.B.
10681 ft. S.B.
Vay 1939
11,660,409
Both
-20° to .96°
U&L construction
0.3]^ up .
39'
131#
mJ. ^ ring clips,
13J"i3" double
shldr. tie plates,
lagged to tie wi th
t™o screw spikes;
red oak treated ties,
14" iron ore stone
screenings under ties
$11. a
Both
5,353,500
Both
-3CP to .94°
Ud:L (Dnstruction
32.000 lbs.
60° to 78°
Note ,1; Closure welds done
at night with temperature
around 30°to 70° ». Sail
kicked out at sme of tie se
locations in next hot weather
spring of 1S38 aiil required
rai 1 to be cut and shorter
length inserted. No sub-
sequent dli'ficulv eiper^
ienced. See hIso report of
Sub-.Cjnm. iz on "Fistenlrgs
for Oontinuoua *cliilng of
Rail," page 656, Vol. 40 of
iiREA bulletin.
661_
tation. These
have, during
From a more
ch was used
ises, namely:
iperature.
letter which
T, 2 IT, and
5, 1934, and
esign of the
irate control
believe, to
loted on the
3 welding in
lis type and
not develop
.hese failures
nd placed in
ed in track,
classification
Those in the
is from the
aced by the
t is the "K"
rt^eld failures
the welding.
; type which
vanized iron
ne rail ends,
vanized iron
ing between
this type of
II^STivLUT lOtJS OF COMTII.TJOUS .VELUED RnIL
1 Railroad
£ Location of w«lded section
3 Uaxlmum Mntlnuous length
welded without Intflrrenln^
joints
4 Total ler^th of aljolnlnc
velded ?ectlonB
b Dato Instal led
6 Ib traffic one-*aj or two-
waj OTer aelirl rail?
7 Stralght-t>arT« or both
e Uaxlnw decree of coTTature
9 Grade (Up or dow. lA th ref-
erence to direction of
traf fl o )
10 Ler^h of rrt 1 before
welding
11 Weight of rail
12 Tota; ^olnts relded both siJe
of track leeffregated by type
of weld )
13 Type of veld
14 Tjrpa of track
15 CoBt of weld In pl&oa
16 Wozk done by railroad,
ecntraotor or both
17 Vere bars applied after
welding In aldltlon to
the welding?
18 Uajlnum speed alloned
19 Approrlrate arjiual
tonna,:^ in grose tens-
pass*, frt. locoii.
and cars
20 Carries pass, or frt
traffic or both
21 A, prox . amma 1 meuc . it.
nlr. . atcospherio tanp*
E2 Type of rail anchor, If
used, and n>ijnber per
rail lerjrth
tZ Ib arv provision made for
ezpansion'ai either end
c-f section?
24 What, if my, oreepa^o
has beer, obeerred due to
traffio or temperature
change since rail was
Ul-IT
25 What subsequent work has
beai necessary due to
creepsgc or expar.tilon?
26 Maximum wheel load.
27 AtmOi5.herlo tenp. * len
rail laid t fastened
28 Tenpa-ature of mil when
laid anl fasteml
29 In tunrwl or op«n
Chicago Great Western Eallrtad
Oneida, Iowa. 1£P £13. _ 213.99
Two-wHy
Both
- 486» long
Jesoendlng - E,B.
39'
1121 B£
2&7 machine weld
8 field weld
Oxweld-Autcmatic Pxesstire
GEO fastening,
Sawed prelored an
It creosote ties
8" new washed gra.
24" old gravel.
$9.87
Railroad
8,000,000
Both
None, use GEO coTBtruction
None - Aaiitlonal rail anchors wt
placed on rails for 5 leng^s at
each end of i
elded section.
131
Ozweld •Automatic Fresai re
Process
e"ill" double BhoulJer tie plates,
spiked two spikes per plate,
7"i9"x8'6'' treated ties.
9" gravel ballast unler ties,
3" ballast over ties, upon
which l9 placed a sarfacing
of 1-1/2" of limestone chats.
Cii.ie
Bolh
15 «.P.H. - City Ordinance
7,000,000
30th
-10° to ♦105'*
1526 Stead .
bunciied at ends of welded stretche
661
lation. These
have, during
from a more
ch was used
ises, namely:
iperature.
letter which
T, 2 IT, and
5, 1934, and
lesign of the
jrate control
believe, to
noted on the
0 welding in
lis type and
not develop
these failures
nd placed in
ed in track,
classification
Those in the
is from the
aced by the
t is the "K"
weld failures
the welding.
5 type which
vanized iron
he rail ends,
vanized iron
ling between
this type of
PAlLUaS RE^OaTKD
Cectral of
of fail
ur^ pre
Location
Installed
Ij re-
ported
E4 kl. east of
£1 U. east of
Blri'lnghKt, Ala.
Sept. 1930
Aug. 1930
10
coirriMuous. wauED aji.
Fail-
ures In weld
this Jate of Location of or aw&y
report Fat lire Failure from «el'
Data not available for these failur
Type of Failure
ronnas^
to date
of fallu
How Repaired
LoJjrtUe 4
ji&ATiUe L.h.
Alexar-ria, Va. Sept.l9S8
"asper, Temi. i.iy 1936
13-26-39
2- 3-40
2-27-40
9 Vertical
9 Angular
6 Vertical
No data reported
No separa-
tion joints
protected
by splices .
Firct failareB reiiaired hy
removing len^h of rail
Including weld ar.d replacine
this length by wel^ng in
new piece Trlth position weld,
in track later, erds of rail
containing welded metal v;ere
cut If, closures mtde by
driving rail aad splices
applied and joints jonded.
CtlSTlUe, «.■(.
Selene, !;ont.
il»r V»ll«ry,
July 1936
Aut-. 1936
11- 2-38 Tangent
11- 5-38
2-a;-39 "
3-19-SS "
3-20-39 "
4-22-39
7-28-39 "
10-19-39
11-28-39 "
1-18-40 "
1-26.^0 "
2- 1-40 "
2- 8-40 "
2-20-40 "
4-14-40 "
8-28-40 "
&-23-40 Taajent
2- 4-59 "
4- 6-40
eh
37,041,663
l/l6"
39' rail InstaUed, welded
37,061,907
1/8"
rail drilled aid angle
40,760,000
1/e"
hars applied.
42,000,000
3/16"
42,041,666
1/16"
43,260,000
6/32"
46,760,000
3/16"
60, 751., 000
3/32"
62,000,000
1/16"
63,870,000
1/16"
64,203,000
3/16"
64,600,000
1/8"
65,238,000
1/8"
65,320,000
1/16"
68,830,000
i/;8"
63,260,000
3/16"
t hretUi
31,000,000
Friction of
1" Temporary b;- tnijle cars.
18,000,000
" "
1" hepai red by welding in sh
24,000,000
ti tf
1" section of nil Ithaniiiti
1 break
29,900,000
0-
Temporary 15' piece of rai
55,300,000
I,"
out In, with ant le bars. .
661
lation. These
have, during
from a more
ch was used
ises, namely:
iperature.
letter which
T, 2 IT, and
5, 1934, and
lesign of the
jrate control
believe, to
rioted on the
D welding in
lis type and
not develop
■.hese failures
rid placed in
ed in track,
classification
Those in the
is from the
aced by the
t is the "K"
iveld failures
the welding,
; type which
vanized iron
he rail ends,
vanized iron
ing between
this type of
yAILUtCS RSrOBTED
COnTIKUUUS a^LDU) RAIL
Dote
ly
r.I
tills
Date of
LocHtlon of
In »ell
or away
Tonn^e
to late
Separation
of rails
at failure
Installal
£2.
rtaa
repoi- 1
Failure
Failure
frci well
Tj-pe of Failure
of fi lure
How Kepi
iirel
iapt.lSS
0
IITII
10-27-32
TQn,Tent
■*cl(l Zone
Full fracture start-
3,(.00, 000
Ho recoru
Portion of ras
1 containing failed
ing from oract In
joint cut out
and ;,lece of rai 1
{2T11
heal of rail.
inserted »ith
angle bars, sigle
12-20-33
In .Veil l:etBl
Full fracture appar-
4,000,000
1-11/16"
bars subseiue;
itly reKOved aid
ently starting frcm
joints welded
by Theiwlt in track.
defect In Thermit
base coll J.
(3T)1
2- e-34
Im rail
" Sone
Straight square break
In^^.iolnt.
5,0CO,00C
2-1/8"
"
14T)1
2- 6-34
"
'
6,000,000
1-1/4"
..
|5T)1
2- 6-31
"
II II II
II " 11
6,0C0,000
1-3/8"
„
(ST)1
12-11-34
Tan^-ent
II II II
Square br?c k across
6,000,000
1-1/4"
"
ktffat T^-^nel
r**t 3crtt«m Si Btttfon, Korit
17T)1
uerji
0 (8T)1
llOTH
2- 6-35 ilch rail
?- 1-38 Tangent
12- 1-38 i:i:s'i rail
10-28-36 Panrcnt
12- 4-36 Low rail
11-Z4-36 Hl^Th n»il
7-2S-37 Low rail
11-11-37 Hlt;h rail
apparent iciect.
Pull fractare throng. 24,lO0,
weld, c.'.tu5ed uy poor
weld.
FUl fracture tnront'h 30,00C,
«eld» starting in head
of rail, cauae - In-
Bufflcieirt head weld.
tins 6,000,000
Vul}
in washed aread
head above Eierralt
Head weld on ZH per
cent only.
Vertical crack through 10,000,
head of niil and ulom^
eate of Therrlt collar
in v.«b aiid base.
Fracture through joif.t 15,000,
In ".ead and thrt)u^
the web collar in weh,
and lB.3e, account
little or no head welt
Fracture throu^ head
and Th'-rmlt collar on
web and base from
crack in head at
joint. Caused by in-
sufficietit head >
1-1/8"
0-1/8"
0-3/4"
4,500,000 2-;Vfl"
000 Ho record
000 0-5/8"
,000,000 0-3/4"
(tittle Kirs applied ■
Portion of ra 1 ccntiiining
failed joint reiaoved and
piece of rai 1 inserted witti
Portion of rail containing
failed joint removed and
piece of rail inserted with
angle bars. Bars subsequently
re-noved and joints woii ed by
Thermit in track.
(16Tll
(26TI1
2-17-se
10- 4-39
U.W T
i:igh
ail
rail
: : :
Full fracture
throu^ weld, caused
hy defective iveld.
25,CO0,fXJ0
38,000,000
0-3/4"
1-1/2"
ingle bare applied to joint
1
I
6
1938
1939
1940
Ton^r
nt
In vield
Transverse fisaire
Not reported
0"
0"
0"
By applying an.jle bars
I
1-12-40
Tan,-'e
.it
3" from wold
Vertical broak
8,006,600
6/8"
Bepidred by welding in 14'6"
rail, oxy -acetylene butt
weld method.
661
lation. These
have, during
from a more
ch was used
jses, namely:
iperature.
letter which
T, 2 IT, and
3, 1934, and
lesign of the
jrate control
believe, to
noted on the
0 welding in
lis type and
not develop
these failures
nd placed in
•ed in track,
classification
Those in the
is from the
laced by the
t is the "K"
weld failures
the welding,
s type which
Ivanized iron
he rail ends.
Ivanized iron
ling between
this type of
yAOUSES RKPORTSD
COIJTIliUOUS W£luKD iUll
Location of
(Caitlnufrd)
5udsan B. B.
Port heno-, June i 0 (12P)1
L. Y. July X937
10-26-37 Taneent
12-18-37 Hlrh rail
2-21-36 ■Mrf'. rtdl
l^r.l93e Tajv^ent
3-10-38 Hi€h rail
3-18-28 TtiT^sent
10-21-37 High rail
12- 1-38 Low ri'il
12-28-38 Low rail
eld Type of Falla
Fall frttcture throng S.OlO^COO
weld starting from
creok in head at joint
account insufficient
head weld.
Fracture through her.d 4,000,000
and Tlitrndt collar on
web and >:t Be frcn crack
in het:d at joint, caused
by insufflcluit head welil .
Full fracture throu;^ 6,000,000
weld at joint-fiMparently
imperfect acII in rhen^it
9,000,000 2-3/4 ••
web col la
Square break 1/2"
center of v«ld in head of
rail ani separatlor jf
Thtrmlt collar frcn web
and base of rail. Caused
by Tij:nlt collsr not
fusing with rail.
Full fracture throu^ 16,000,000 1-1/4"
joint starting from
eraok In head due to
insufficient ha.i weld.
of Tead 1,000,000
of rail before weldltij.
Full fractire thrcugh
weld starting from base.
ThlB broker, htxze was
within ilierrolt collor
and q parerttly existed
before joint was »elded.
rortion of rail containing failed joint
r».oved and piece of roil in£,erted wltti
angle b'ija. Bars aubaeyuentl^' removed
and joints welded by Themlt in track.
fort ion of rsi 1 containli^ fei led
joint reTiOved and piece of rail
inserted with angle bars-
i-ortion of rail ccntainiag fulled
joint rejnored and piece of rail
inserted *ith angle bars. Bars
3Ubse'Hi:".tly removed and joints
welled b/ Tb^^nalt in trade.
Portion of r.il ccntainlng failed
joint removed and piece of ra-il
Ins-rted with angle bars.
6- 3-37 High ral 1
10- e-37 Tangent
zinc in
eld.
Zinc in well caused by
use of galvanised iron
shims during weldir^ fo:
purpose of aliening raii
ends. Heat of welding
caused zln
to vaporiB
the
shim
tind penetrate
This cauae of
rainated by dis
Portion of rail containing failed
joint rmoved and piece of rai 1
insertel with angle bars. Ait^le
bars subsequently removed and
joints welded by Thermit in track.
661
lation. These
have, during
from a more
ch was used
sses, namely:
iperature.
letter which
T, 2 IT, and
J, 1934, and
lesign of the
arate control
believe, to
noted on the
0 welding in
lis type and
not develop
these failures
nd placed in
•ed in track,
classification
Those in the
is from the
iaced by the
t is the "K"
weld failures
the welding.
s type which
vanized iron
he rail ends,
vanized iron
ling between
this type of
FAIUaS BgQBia
coNTiirai-Ub «ELJEij a»iL
10-21-37 High rail
1-19-S8 Loir rail
In weld
or awaor
from weld Type of Failure
Tonnage
to date
of failure
3,000,000
Separation
of rails
at failure
In rail 8" Straight break st»rt-
frora »eld iag from burned spot
at top and at cdje of uottOT of
S" at bottom base. Darin? welling.
13/16"
red
t«a
elUn
aohln
ccntuct and rail base,
causing a burned ^ot
on the rail base.
Tflb cause for failure
eliminated i^y proper
welding procedure to
assure no arcing.
flpcd rail - pipe ax-
tending Into welded
6,000,000 6-1/2"
tortion of rail containing fa led
joint removed and piece of rsi 1
Inserted li th anrle bars, il^le
bars subsequently removed and
joints welled by Thermit In track.
portion of rsi 1 contalrdng failed
joLit remw ed and piece of rail
inserted *1 Hi angle bars.
5- 5-35 Tenrent
5-11-39
10-20-39 "
1- 5-40
21,918 3/8"
197,260 3/8"
3,747,944 3/8"
6,436,614 3/8"
Bepi red by field welds
661
lation. These
have, during
from a more
ch was used
sses, namely:
iperature.
letter which
T, 2 IT, and
3, 1934, and
lesign of the
urate control
[ believe, to
noted on the
0 welding in
lis type and
not develop
these failures
nd placed in
■ed in track,
classification
Those in the
is from the
laced by the
t is the "K"
weld failures
the welding.
s type which
vanized iron
he rail ends,
vanized iron
ling between
this type of
■i^-il^T) IliilL
GUiJvV .'0 .)
.JS
Len-th
of
teUai
l.ail
H. S.
Kct
(i..P.)
S61C
U.F.I
2«0S
(i-.P.I
z^i\
!..!>. 1
Mf
U.r.)
105;
(Cor aa. )
2467
(C.of li«. 1
12B3
(Cor Oa. 1
2565
IC.of Ji.)
IK'S
(C.of in.)
21 s;
(S. K.)
1122
a. i ;..)
I6se
(L. a ... J
1014
|L. t !..)
2i24
IL. .X .;.)
1092
IL. „ K. )
747
Iel-.«a Joint
112» lu,
i;i< hE
lOOi; hL
ltl.49,
101.49.
100 j M
..he .;! Load
S2,110 Ibi.
32,1^0 lbs.
52,11,0 lbs.
oC.lliO lbs.
i2,150 lbs.
32,500 lbs.
3 2, bOO lbs.
2,700,000 ia
2,700,000 "
2,700,000 "
2,7OO,O0C "
2,7<<0,000 "
4,500,C0C "
4,50ij,000 "
C2,600 lb5. 10, 740, COO
36,000 lbs. 1^,200,000
..ot reported 15,0i,O,0OC
26,250 ibj. 0,OCi-,000
2 ,250 lbs. 6,721,110
26,250 lbs. 7,147,4."0
26,250 lbs. 8,000,000
Jate
In Tunr.el
InstiiUta
nr Opa-. ^
FiUures
1937
Puniiel
'.one
1936
1938
1936
•1
•t
1939
•1
Sept.lS.'O
"
22 F
aUj. 19: G
10
72
npr. 1937
■•
lione
;«ay 1936
iiay 1536
yeb. 1939
Feh. 1939
«pr. 193 9
Rea-oved Apr. 1937
31,000 Ibn
6,000,000
Urle)
5616
(i.r.l
3703
U.i.)
4017
(B.6J,.S. )
52S0
(0. i i. )
2994
(D. U J..)
2519
(.J. & H.I
11787
(D. i i.)
3089
O. i.B.)
4054
(J. iH. 1
551
-el- itinlt (Ii-p« .:) (D. iii) 24056
13. ^c 0. I 1365
(3. a 0. I 2145
131,
I&.
131c
Hi
VM
iC
130!
hi:
13 1;
ic
i3i;
RE
113! K
llJrf iC
112 J -G
36,000 lbs. 16,600,000
37,000 Ibt. 7,0t0,000
37,000 lbs. 7,000,000
37,900 lbs.
2t,,300 l3h.
40,000 lbs.
40,000 lbs.
36,900 lbs.
33,650 Ibl
9,000,000
12,104,000
3,0)0,000
9,000,000
6,2eb,241
3,714,700
33,650 lbs. 3,567,000
16,600 lbs
32,010 lbs
32,000 lbs
Wot flcportetl
10,000,000
10,000,000
40
26
June l'.3i
Jaly 1936
26
AO;. 1936
;-36
Oct. 1936
20
rtUe^^ept 193S
35
llty 1934
Jstr
.Junet^eit 19oi
2'J
1936
76
i.'^a Jane 19^6
20
June 1936
60
Julj- 1936
45
Julj 1939
45
July 1939
:.offat lun-icl
35,000 lb-<. o,042,u00
Id.
(. K.)
7018
I*>.
a i..|
2519
13.
L a.)
6666
\T>.
« I!. )
3168
IZt.
i. u.)
4333
13.
& H.I
3273
131, M.
\Zli itE
131i «~
131J HE
35,900 lbs.
•34,260 Ibo.
3S,660 lbs.
35,900 Iba.
33,950 lbs.
36,900 lbs.
9,172,800
3, OCX), 000
5,253,500
11,860,409
3,667,000
16,969,738
193 7
1937
195 7
ID. Il H. 1
11787
ID. U li.l
5961
IK. & i:.|
6666
(i). '. H. 1
4333
(U. iH.|
3275
13. ii H.I
3168
13. <. K. 1
1401
- Caj ?re£«ure
(C.O.J.)
2640
■><U lOxnl^l
IC.& I.U. 1
9S3
1142
1069
7277
131i BE
i3if w;
ijii i'-E
1311 ^
131* BE
131J f-E
131J i-E
131{ "E
36,000 lbs. 10,^60,000
40
Oct. 193 9
40,000 lbs.
36,900 lbs.
3;, 660 lbs.
33,550 lbs.
36,900 lbs.
35,300 lbs.
33,o60 lbs.
9,OlX),000
9,172,800
6,353,600
3,667,000
16,969,738
11,860,409
6,363,500
Beatr, June-Sept 1935
30 1937
65-36 Juno-July 193V
66 19 37
60 1937
60 1937
6i V.s^ 1939
La, 1939 Open
Jjlj 1939 "
Rail 661
appear to us to have an important bearing on an analysis of the situation. These
are as follows:
Thermit Weld Failures:
The thermit welds which we have in our various installations have, during
the period of years in which we have been welding, been developed from a more
or less experimental type to the type known as the "K" weld, which was used
in the 1937 and subsequent installations.
The failures which we have experienced fall in, roughly, four classes, namely:
1. Improper design and lack of accurate control or pre-heat temperature.
The failures which are on the reports being submitted with this letter which
fall in this category are failures numbers IT to IIT, 14T, 16T, 18T, 21T, and
2ST. These failures have all been in the installations made in 1933, 1934, and
1935 and their cause has been eliminated by improvement in the design of the
weld and improvement in the welding technique, principally by accurate control
of the pre-heat temperature.
2. Man-failure due to improper welding technique.
Failure number 22T is of this type, the failure being due, I believe, to
excessive pre-heating at the time of welding.
3. Failure due to defects in the rail prior to welding.
Failures numbers 12T and 20T are of this type, and it is to be noted on the
report forms that the failure was due to a crack in the rail prior to welding in
each case, this crack not being visible at the time of the welding.
4. Failures due to use of improper type of thermit.
Failures numbers 13T, 1ST, 17T, 19T, 23T and 24T are of this type and
were caused by the erroneous use of a type of thermit which did not develop
sufficient heat to effect a full head weld on the rail. The reports on these failures
are being furnished due to the fact that these joints were welded and placed in
track before the discovery of this condition and the failures occurred in track.
Of the above types of failures, those occurring in the number 1 classification
have been eliminated by improved design and welding technique. Those in the
fourth classification are automatically eliminated, since their cause is from the
erroneous shipment of the wrong type of material, which was replaced by the
manufacturer.
It is to be noted, therefore, that in the last design of weld, that is the "K"
type, there are only three failures, two of which are not actually weld failures
but imperfections in the rail, and the remaining one, man-failure in the welding,
which is a very small percentage of the total number of welds of this type which
we have in track.
Flash Welds:
The flash weld failures fall in three groups:
1. Those caused by the presence of zinc in the weld.
These are failures IF and 2F and resulted from the use of galvanized iron
shims, used at the time of the welding for the purpose of alining the rail ends.
When the presence of this zinc was discovered, the use of these galvanized iron
shims was discontinued, eliminating this source of failure.
2. Failure caused by burned spot on edge of base of rail.
This burned spot resulted from arcing during the time of welding between
the rail and the contact in the welding machine, and the cause of this type of
662 Rail
failure was eliminated by the introduction of proper welding technique to
eliminate the arcing.
^. Failure due to imperfection in the rail prior to welding.
Failure number 4F is of this type, and, as is noted, resulted from a pipe in
the rail end which extended into the welded zone.
It is to be noted, therefore, in connection with the flash welded joint failures
that all the causes of failure have been eliminated, with the exception, of course,
of the last one, and the possibility of this type of failure is reduced by the intro-
duction of careful inspection of the rail ends prior to welding and is one of the
magnitude of failures in the rails themselves.
In connection with Process "E", the manufacturer comments as follows:
The four failures which occurred on the Chicago Great Western are the only
ones that have ever occurred in any of the welds that we have made by this
process and, as you know, we have been welding almost continuously since we
started the operation in 1938.
In the making of welds by our process, particularly in our early development,
we obtained a considerable sag at the outer edge of the rail base and we found
in our laboratory investigation that this could be considerably reduced by reducing
the upset at the weld from a 3/^-m. shortening of the rail to J^-in. This worked
out very nicely where the rail ends were perfectly true as milled in the laboratory ;
however when our laboratory assistant used the %-in. upset on field operation
on the Chicago Great Western job where the rail ends could not be finished as
accurately as at the laboratory, the weld was not thoroughly made which resulted
in the failures as reported by the Chicago Great Western. We, of course, imme-
diately discontinued any attempt to make the weld with the J^-in. upset and
have never experienced any further difficulty from breakage. In other words, this
short upset could not be relied upon in all cases for a perfect weld but with
a %-in. upset there can positively not be a weld failure.
This report is submitted as information with the recommendation that the subject
be continued.
Report on Assignment 7
Service Tests of Various Types of Joint Bars
Ray McBrian (chairman, subcommittee), J. B. Akers, J. E. Armstrong, W. J. Backes,
W. C. Barnes, L. H. Bond, N. J. Boughton, C. B. Bronson, W. J. Burton, H. A.
Cassil, E. E. Chapman, H. R. Clarke, W. A. Duff, P. O. Ferris, F. W. Gardiner.
F. M. Graham, F. S. Hewes, W. H. Kirkbride, C. S. Kirkpatrick, B. R. Kulp, G. M.
Magee, R. W. Marye, C. E. Morgan, W. H. Penfield, J. C. Patterson, G. A. Phillips,
B. H. Prater, J. C. Ryan, R. T. Scholes, F. S. Schwinn, A. N. Talbot, J. C. Wallace,
Barton Wheelwright.
As previously reported, the service tests of various types of joint bars are being
conducted on 9 mile stretches of 112-lb. rail in westbound track of the Illinois division
of the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway west of Streator, 111., applied in June 1937,
and on 12 half-mile stretches of 131 -lb. rail in the eastbound track on the Fort Wayne
division of the Pennsylvania Railroad east of Valparaiso, Ind., applied in August 1937.
Rail 663
During 1940 the periodic observations on these rail joints have been continued by
members of the staff of the Committee on Stresses in Railroad Track. The principal
observational tests of these joints, made in 1940, include (a) Rail surface profile; (b)
joint camber measurements; (c) bolt tension; (d) rail gap; (e) out-to-out distance
of bars.
Rail Surface Profiles
The rail surface profile measurements (profile of running surface of rail for a
distance of 40 in. at the joint) give information on the changes in rail surface due to
wear, flow, batter and bending. The profile measurements were made on 329 joints on
the A. T. & S. F. and 360 joints on the P. R. R. Included in those profiles that were
measured first in 1940 are a number of joints in each mile stretch of the 112-lb. rail
with bolt tensions set at approximately 8,000 lb. instead of the usual effort of applying
about 15,000 lb. for this rail. As the measurements at rail surface are taken from points
on the lower flange of the rail for a reference base or bench, the changes occurring at
the top of rail from time to time can be definitely determined. At points 20 in. from the
rail ends the change or wear in the last two years on the 131-lb. rail has averaged about
0.010 in. At points J4 >"■ from rail ends the changes in profile on the 131-lb. rail for
the non-hardened ends for the same period averaged 0.017 in. at the leaving end and
0.021 in. at the receiving end; for the hardened ends the averages were 0.009 in. at the
leaving end and 0.011 in. at the receiving end. Similarly on the 112-lb. rail the averages
for the non-hardened ends were 0.017 in. at the leaving end and 0.019 in. at the re-
ceiving end; for the hardened ends the averages were 0.011 in. at the leaving end and
0.013 in. at the receiving end. It is seen that the change on the hardened ends is con-
siderably less than that on the non-hardened ends. Presumably the principal part of the
change at J/^ in. from the rail ends was due to batter.
Joint Camber
The term joint camber measurement is used here as the middle ordinate at a point
near the rail ends for a given length of longitudinal arc of the surface profile. A chord
of 3434 in. was used and the ordinates were measured at Yz in. from the rail ends.
If the arc of the profile is convex upward the measurement is called positive; if convex
downward, it is called negative indicating droop and batter. Because of variations in
the form of the bar along its length in its manufacture, the joint camber measurement
may vary considerably from joint to joint and from one stretch of joints to another.
It is to be expected that the joint camber measurement will change in amount as time
goes on, due to wear and other causes, but the term will continue to be useful, though
the point on the profile for measuring the middle ordinate in the future will have to be
taken farther from the rail end. As found in 1937, 60 joints in each of the 9 stretches
of 112-lb. rail, the camber measurement of two stretches on the north rail and one
stretch on the south rail was negative (convex downward). In 1940, 9 stretches on
the north rail (non end-hardened) and only one on the south rail indicated negative
camber measurement. The data show that most of this change is due to batter.
On the 131-lb. rail the joint camber measurement in 1937 in 2 of the 12 stretches
on the north rail (non end-hardened) was negative and 2 on the south rail. In 1940,
the number of stretches showing negative camber measurement was 8 on the north rail
and 2 on the south rail. Again, the increase in the number of stretches having negative
camber measurement was due largely to batter. The average values of the camber
measurement in 1937, 1938 and 1939 for the various stretches on two railroads, as
plotted up, may be found in Fig. 1 and Fig. 2, AREA Proceedings, Vol. 41, pages 660
664 Rail
and 661. The values of the camber measurement for 1940 on the north rails (non
hardened ends) have increased considerably from the 1939 measurements; those for the
south rail show little change.
Bolt Tension
The purpose of measuring the bolt tension is to find what tension exists and to
learn the effects of high, medium and low tension on the behavior of the various types
of joints. On both railroads the bolts were tightened by hand wrenching in 1937 soon
after the track was laid. A general tightening was given in February 1938 on the 11 2 -lb.
rail and again in March 1939; also a general tightening on the 131-lb. rail in May 1939
and October 1940. The re-tightening was done by hand except that of May 1939.
Measurement has been made of the tension applied to the bolts of a sufficient number
of joints in each test stretch to give an idea of the tension before and after the re-
tightenings; perhaps the number measured ranged up to IS percent of all the joints at
general tightenings and at other times. Prior to bolt tightening a little time was spent
in tightening, loosening and re-tightening the bolts in a few joints in order to acquaint
the section men with the amount of steady pull necessary to produce a given bolt
tension. A 24-in. wrench was used on the 112-lb. rail and a 42-in. wrench on the 131-lb.
rail. The attempt has been made to obtain a general average tension to range between
12,000 and 15,000 lb. at the time of tightening, though of course values considerably
higher and lower than these tensions have been found, some of them at the two extremes.
Some study has been made of the losses of bolt tension with time. Only two broken
bolts have been reported. It is beHeved that the moderate tension used is largely re-
sponsible for the small breakage, as on the companion track opposite the test joints on
one railroad the bolt tension has been kept high and many broken bolts have been
replaced. The average movement measured at the joints due to contraction and expan-
sion at temperatures of say 20 deg. and 110 deg. has ranged from 70 to 85 percent of
the unrestricted movement corresponding to the change in temperature, and little or
no grouping of tight or open joints has been apparent. It should be noted that these
gap measurements were not made at the two extremes of temperature. There is some
indication that the 36-in. bars restrict the temperature movement somewhat more than
do the 24-in. bars.
Rail Gap
The measurement of rail gap (a quick measurement made at high and low tem-
peratures) has furnished information on temperature movement at joints, which has
been used as the basis for obtaining the estimate of restraint given in the preceding
paragraph, and the lack of grouping of tight and open joints. On both the 112-lb. and
131-lb. rail of the test joints, the rail ends generally were found not to have been cut
squarely. When two ends abut at the base at high temperatures, the gap at the top of
the rail frequently was quite large, and for low temperatures extremely large top gaps
would occur.
Out-to-Out Measurements
The out-to-out measurement was made between a point on a flange of the outer
bar and a corresponding point on the inner bar. The measurement was taken for the
upper flange and also for the lower flange at the two ends and at the mid-length of the
bars. The purpose of the measurement is to learn of any changes in the position of the
bar with respect to the rail as affected by wear at fishing surfaces or other changes,
and also to show any change in the position of the top and bottom flanges that might
Rail 665
affect the verticality or cocking of the bar. The variations in the dimensions of the
flanges of the bar as between the design and the manufacture renders precise deter-
mination of the amount of cocking impracticable, but the value of the cocking measured
for a pair of bars may be considered to be correct within 0.02 in. As the two bars may
not have equal variation from verticality the magnitude for an individual bar cannot
be definitely obtained from the measurements made between points on the flanges of
the pair of bars. However, for most purposes an even division of the out-to-out distance
in obtaining a value of the cocking or departure from verticality will result in a useful
and generally fairly accurate measure of the cocking of one bar.
The change in out-to-out distance from 1937 to 1940 has been small. The move-
ment usually takes place rather uniformly along the length from end to end, though
occasionally one end differs from the other and there may be twisting in the bar. The
average decrease in out-to-out distance at mid-length of bars for 180 joints in 9
stretches of the 112-lb. rail was 0.05 in. for the top flange measurement and 0.03 in. for
the bottom flange measurement (averaging 0.025 and 0.015 in. pull-in for an individual
bar), and for 100 joints in 5 stretches of the 131-lb. rail it was 0.04 in. for the top
flange measurement and 0.02 in. for the bottom flange measurement (averaging 0.02
and 0.01 in. pull-in for an individual bar). Data for 7 stretches of 131-lb. rail contain
some uncertainties and are not included here. The above figures show that for the 14
stretches the change in out-to-out distance at the top flange averaged 0.01 in. more
than that at the bottom flange. It is apparent that the change in verticahty of a bar
(increase in cocking) has been small. The measurements indicate that moderate cocking
of the bars on these stretches is not uncommon. Considering that the departure from
verticality is the same in the two bars of a pair and using the averages for each stretch,
the average cocking of an individual bar for the 112-lb. rail is 0.06 in. and the range
is 0 to 0.12 in. Likewise for the 131-lb. rail the average is 0.04 in. and the range from
0.03 in. to 0.06 in.
Among other observations, longitudinal profiles of bar fishing surfaces (top and
bottom) were made on a number of bars removed from track to determine to what
extent wear had occurred. Generally so far this wear amounts to only a few thousandths
of an inch and this only for short distances near the rail ends. For these bars diagrams
were drawn giving information on the dimensions and location of the bearing areas
observed on the top and bottom fishing surfaces.
The measurements and observations made to date throw light on the action of the
joints in various ways, such as changes in the amount of cocking with time, effect of
camber of bar, place of wear in modern bars, rate of wear with traffic, and effect of
end hardening on batter. They give a basis for judgment when, with continued traffic,
wear may begin to increase more rapidly with some types and result in marked differences
in durability and effectiveness.
In round numbers the amount of gross traffic (including locomotives), as reported
by the railroads, averaged 10,000,000 tons per year on the 112-lb. rail or 30,000,000 tons
for the three years covered by this report, and averaged 12,000,000 tons per year on the
131-lb. rail or 36,000,000 tons for the three years of service.
On the question of comparison of types of bar it may be said that, except for one
design of bar, the amount of wear and other changes in the bars installed have not yet
been sufficient to determine definitely the relative values of the different types of
joint bars.
The report is presented as information with the recommendation that the subject
be continued.
666
Rail
Report on Assignment 8
Investigate Joint Bar Failures and Give Consideration to the
Revision of Design and Specifications
Ray McBrian (chairman, subcommittee), J. B. Akers, J. E. Armstrong, W. J. Backes,
W. C. Barnes, L. H. Bond, N. J. Boughton, C. B. Bronson, W. J. Burton, H. A.
Cassil, E. E. Chapman, H. R. Clarke, W. A. Duff, P. O. Ferris, F. W. Gardiner,
F. M. Graham, F. S. Hewes, W. H. Kirkbride, C. S. Kirkpatrick, B. R. Kulp, G. M.
Magee, R. W. Marye, C. E. Morgan, W. H. Penfield, J. C. Patterson, G. A. Phillips,
B. H. Prater, J. C. Ryan, R. T. Scholes, F. S. Schwinn, A. N. Talbot, J. C. Wallace,
Barton Wheelwright.
The committee interprets the assignment to investigate joint bar failures to include
the study of cracks which may or may not lead to ultimate breakage.
The previous report on this subject included information obtained by a question-
naire relative to the number of joint bar failures, theories as to cause, and suggested
measures to eliminate any cracking. Also mentioned was research and experimental work
being made by various roads. The committee also reported that, at present, based on
data currently received, it found no necessity for changes in design or in specifications,
but recommended that the subject be continued.
During the past year, through observations of tests in progress and examinations
of joint bar failures, the subcommittee has obtained data bearing on some of the
theories as to the causes of failure and suggested measures for relief from or the pre-
vention of failures. This investigation embraces actual service data, full size of fatigue
tests and laboratory studies.
Fig. 1. — Progressive Fatigue Cracks Starting at Sharp Corner of Spike Slot.
Rail 667
Fig. 2. — Progressive Fatigue Cracks at Upper Contact Surface of
Head-Contact Bar Originating at "A".
These types of cracking may or may not result in complete breakage of the bar
in track. That breakages do occur in track is well known, and typical examples are shown
in Figures 3 and 4.
The two most common types of cracking are illustrated in Figures 1 and 2, namely,
(1) fatigue cracks originating in the spike slot, and (2) fatigue cracks originating at the
upper contact surface of the bar.
The committee's previous report (Proceedings for 1940, Vol. 41, pages 633-637) gave
in detail the results of a canvass of the railroads as to the number of failures occurring.
While the seriousness of the problem may not be evident from the reported failures,
the future aspects of the problem deserve consideration. Some railroads are having bars
break in track; others, in their reforming operations, have found it necessary to scrap
a large number of bars which, except for cracking, might otherwise have been reclaimed.
The question as to whether the presence of a crack seriously reduces the stiffness of the
joint is one which cannot be answered on the basis of information available at the
present time.
To study possible means of eliminating the cracking of joint bars, tests in track
and tests in the laboratory are being conducted along the following lines:
1. Resistance to cracking by improving the physical properties
2. Photoelastic studies as to effect of design and bolt tension
3. Fatigue tests, using full size bars of various design in assembled joints
4. Observations as to the effect of saw swelHng of the rail end
1. Improving Physical Properties
Four lots of 100 pairs of bars each were installed in the track of the Chicago,
Burlington & Quincy, near Ft. Morgan, Colo., MP 460 to 461.8. The four lots are all
of the same rolled section, consisting of —
(a) Common chemistry, common heat treatment
(b) Common chemistry, common heat treatment plus flame hardened on top
bearing surface at the center
(c) Common chemistry, water quenched and drawn
(d) Different chemistry, heat treated (yield point minimum of 85,000 lb. per
sq. in. and tensile strength of 120,000 lb. per sq. in.)
668
Rail
Fig. 3. — ^Typical Broken Bars Resulting From Fatigue
Cracks in Spike Slots.
ip|piri;ig||p|||ipppi||i!^
*^!i>»»«»««i>»w»>iii1wiaii>iiia>iwii«iiMi»-^^
' -nfmf»»f«-~«i ' II nr 'a-nwiwwXify
Fig. 4. — ^Typical Broken Bars Resulting From Progressive
Fatigue Cracks Originating in Upper Contact Surface.
Rail
669
Fig. 5. — Illustration of Stress Concentration at a Square Corner.
Fig. 6. — Showing Stress Concentration at Outside of
Top Fishing Surface of Model of Bars Which Cracked and
Broke in Service as Shown by Figures 2 and 4.
I
The bars were placed in track in July 1939, observational measurements being
made semi-annually, but no conclusions have as yet been obtained.
2. Photoelastic Studies
Photoelastic studies, using bakelite models, to determine the effect of design and
bolt tension are being made in the laboratory of the Denver & Rio Grande Western*.
* For a more complete account of these photoelastic studies, see the monograph by W. B. Leaf
on page 682.
670
Rail
Fig. 7. — Showing Stress Concentration at Inside of Bottom
Fishing Surface of a Model of Bars Which Cracked and Broke
in Service as Shown by Figures 2 and 4.
Fig. 8. — Assembled Joint in the Fatigue Testing Machine.
Examples of these studies follow:
Figure S illustrates by means of photoelastic study of a bakelite model, the stress
concentration which occurs in the square corner of a spike slot, which may cause the
progressive fatigue failures to develop as is shown in Figures 1 and 3.
Similar photoelastic studies of bakelite models of toeless bars have shown that
cracking is associated with the cocking tendency of the section. As an example, Figures 6
Rail
671
and 7 show the stress concentration at the outside of the top fishing surface and the
inside of the bottom fishing surface, respectively, of a section which is known to have
given trouble in service. The stress concentrations in this case have been shown to be
due to the natural cocking tendency of the section. The stress concentration is greatest
at the upper fishing surface and furthermore occurs at the point where cracks in service
originate. This is shown by a comparison of Figures 6 and 2.
Photoelastic studies are being made of models of the various conventional sections.
No conclusions have as yet been reached.
3. Fatigue Testing
Fatigue tests of fully assembled rail joints are being conducted by the Colorado
Fuel & Iron Corporation, Pueblo, Colo., in cooperation with the Denver & Rio Grande
Western, by mounting the assembled joint on supports 36 in. apart and loading it at
the center with a concentrated load of 65,000 lb. at a rate of SO applications per minute.
All joints were made up with 20,000 lb. bolt tension. This method of testing was found
to produce cracks, identical with those encountered in service. Figure 8 shows the
assembled unit ready for test.
Typical sections being tested are shown in the table (all bars rolled to standard
AREA specifications unless otherwise shown).
Fatigue tests are also being conducted at the University of Ilhnois laboratory in the
rolling-load machine in connection with the work of the Special Committee on Stresses
in Railroad Track.
The tests have not been completed and no conclusions are offered.
Rail
Bar
Weight
Length
Sec.
Pounds
Inches
No.
Bar Tyfie
Modificatiorxs
110
24
T-91312
H.
C.
Long Toe
None
112
B-4
H.
F.-
— Center overfill
Easement — T. C.
;';
RE
H.
C.
None
Flame Hard.— T. C.
& Easement— T. C.
2" Easement — T. C— Hot Worked
I. M. Steel— As Rolled
' Oil Quenched
" " " " " and tempered
"
B-3
"
None
I
B^4
H.
H.
F.
C.
— C. B.
H. C. Reformed to H. F.
2" Easement — T.C.
1"
%" Lower bolt holes
" " " " & Easement
Flame Hard.— T. C.
" " " & Easement
"
36
"
"
None
"
24
B-34-1
";
Flame Hard.— T. C.
Water Quench & Tempered
.70 C Oil Quench & Tempered
"
"
A-14
H.
F.
None
"
"
A-59
H.
C.
Long toe
•
131
36
B-8
RE
H
C.
',
"
"
A-13
H
F.
Long toe
•
"
"
A-39
H
C.
" "
'
"
"
B-17
H
C.
— C.B.
:
B-2
Notes
T. C.=Top center
H. C.^Head contact
H. F.=Head free
I. M.=Intermediatc Manganese
672 Rail
4. Effect of Saw Swelling
Observations in track and on fatigue tests are being made to determine the effect
of saw swelling.
In conclusion, the results of the investigations to date indicate the possibility of
changes in design and specifications, and this report is offered as information with the
recommendation that the subject be continued.
Photoelastic Investigation of Design of Joint Bars
A Monograph Supplementing the Report on Assignment 7
By W. B. Leaf
Research Technician, Denver & Rio Grande Western Railroad
The photoelastic method of investigation is a means of determining the elements of
design of any machine part or structure. It tells us nothing of the metallurgy or physical
properties of the part under consideration. Strictly speaking, all that the photoelastic
method tells us is the ratio between applied load and stress developed in the model
itself. However, if the model truly represents the prototype, and the model loading rep-
resents the prototype loading; and further if the model is to full scale, the ratio between
loading and developed stress at all points is the same in both model and prototype.
Only one further precaution must be observed. The model must not be strained beyond
the proportional limit, and it must be assumed that the prototype is similarly treated.
Description
The photoelastic method consists of observing a model made from any transparent
solid or semi-solid, in plane or circularly polarized light. When the model is loaded the
stress distribution is immediately seen as a series of color cycles through the model, if
white light is used. Or, if monochromatic light is used, the stress pattern is seen as a
succession of light and dark bands across the model.
Thus, if the model is merely a rectangular bar under a uniform bending moment
along a portion of its length, as in Fig. 1, and if the load be steadily increased, cycles of
color, or alternate dark and light bands, are constantly generated at the two outer edges
of the bar and each one of these moves inward towards the neutral axis. The neutral
axis remains uniformly dark, and as the bands move inward, they become closer spaced.
It will be seen that the number of bands between the neutral axis and the outer edge is
directly proportional to the applied bending moment. So the photoelastic constant of
the material may be determined. This constant is the stress value per band, or cycle,
directly in terms of compression or tension per square inch. Strictly speaking any one
band shows the area in which the shear value is constant. However, at a free boundary
of the model the stress pattern gives directly the compression or tension at that boundary.
There is no evidence in the pattern as to whether the stress is compression or tension.
This must be determined by a compensator or other means easily employed.
Application to Joint Bar Studies
There are a number of ramifications and refinements in the method which need
not be considered here. The subject at hand is a photoelastic investigation of the various
Rail
673
joint bar designs being studied in the test tracks on the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe
Railway and the Pennsylvania Railroad.
In Fig. 2 the head contact bars are drawn as wedges, with lines connecting the
ends of the fishing surfaces. It is seen at once that as wedges the designs leave something
to be desired.
Fig. 1. — Rectangular Bar Under Uniform Bending Moment
Through Center Portion.
B34 \\2
A.RIA.
o.tst
«. 14
^z^ \3\
P.RR F4
B 19
A.R.t.A
Fig. 2. — Various Head-Contact Joint Bars of Test Sections Drawn as Wedges to
Show Relative Instability Against Cocking. Fishing Surfaces Shown in Theoretical
Relative Positions.
674
Rail
Fig. 3. — ^Wedge of Conventional Shape Similar to Joint Bar.
Location of Fishing Surfaces Symmetrical. Fishing Surfaces of Equal
Length. No Cocking and no Stress Concentration.
Fig. 4.— Wedge Similar to Fig. 3. Top Fishing Surface Yz in.
in Length. Inner Contact Points Symmetrically Located. No Cocking,
But Slight Stress Concentration at Top.
Rail 675
Consider what might happen as these various wedges are forced between the fishing
surfaces of a rail or some similar shape with wide fishing surfaces. A symmetrical wedge
with long surfaces, as in Fig. 3, would move straight inward as far as the distortion
and elasticity of the metal would allow it to go. Distortion of the wedge would be
uniform at the top and bottom if the rail were rigid. However, a wedge with very
short surfaces might rotate slightly as it moves inward. This is especially true of such
a wedge as the A 39 131-lb. section, or the P.R.R. F4 as shown in Fig. 5, where the
top surface is somewhat to the left of the bottom one. If the wedge should rotate a
small unit about a point near E, the amount of metal which would have to be distorted
at the top is a function of the external secant of a small angle multiplied by the area
of the surface. If the wedge should rotate a small unit about a point near the inside
at the top of the wedge, the corresponding amount of metal to be distorted is a function
of the external secant of a much larger angle multiplied by a much larger area. The
various angles, their external secants and their product of multiplication by the area
for a unit length of wedge are listed in the table. The angles are arrived at by this means:
With a point E, which is O.OS in. inside the top or bottom contact surface as a
center, a circle of suitable radius is drawn to intersect the opposite contact surface at
its mid point. The angle then is that one between a tangent to the circle at its inter-
section with the contact surface, and the contact surface, in the plane of the diagram.
The dimension 0.05 in. is used because the center of the Hne bearing formed with a
cocked bar is at about this location.
Table of Properties
A ngles
Section top and bottom
B 34 112 12°25'
25°00'
AREA 112 13°30'
24°15'
A 39 131 11°35'
24°35'
P.R.R. F4 131 12°50'
21°4S'
B 19 131 12°.50'
22°30'
AREA 131 15°15'
23°40'
These figures control the initial tendency of the bar to cock.
Naturally, as soon as any cocking takes place, the further movement of the bar is
controlled by the new condition then in effect as to relative locations of the contact
surfaces and their widths.
After the wedge cocks inward at the top, contacts are made at points slightly inside
the theoretical ends of the fishing surfaces, as at D and E, or as shown in Fig. 6 for
the 112-lb. B 34 bar. The closely spaced stress "loops" show a stress concentration with
a tendency to form a line bearing.
The relative locations of these points for the different sections are indicated by the
figures for C-B in Fig. 2. If Z) is directly above E, the shape is relatively stable in the
cocked position, since the amounts of distortion at the top and bottom for additional
inward movement are equal. However if D is relatively distant to the right of E, as in
the AREA 131-lb. wedge, the cocked position is not the stable one, and the bar will tend
Ex. sec.
Widths times
of angles
es.sec.
0.024
0.012
0.103
0.116
0.028
0.015
0.097
0.109
0.021
0.012
0.100
0.100
0.026
0.011
0.077
0.062
0.026
0.011
0.082
0.080
0.036
0.018
0.092
0.128
676
Rail
Fig. 5.— P. R. R. Section F4 131-lb. Bar. Slight Cocking
Tendency and Stress Concentration.
Fig. 6. — B 34 112-lb. Bar, Showing High Compressive Stress at
Outside of Top and Inside of Bottom Fishing Surfaces. Bar Cocked
and Having Line Bearing.
Rail 677
to uncock itself. The two committee bars are the only shapes in which D is any
appreciable distance to the right of E. The 131 -lb. AREA bar is shown in Fig. 7.
As to 110-lb. Bars
One of the mysteries attending the cracking of 112-lb. head-contact bars was the
lack of trouble in the 110-lb. bars of supposedly similar section. The reason for this
lack of similar cracking in the 110-lb. bars becomes evident in the light of this analysis.
The dimension A for the 110-lb. long-toe section, as used by the D.&RXi.W. is 0.35 in.,
which is bad, but C-B is 0.18, which is favorable. In the toeless 110-lb. bar A is 0.29 in.,
again bad, but "C-B" is 0.20 in. Since the fishing height of 110-lb. rail is 13/32 in.
lower than that of the 112-lb. rail, angles become greater for less relative lateral distances,
and a small change in angle produces a relatively large change in external secant.
Wedges with controlled bearing at the top can only be less stable than the plain
ones, since less than the usual amount of metal must be distorted for top inward
movement, and since unit bearing pressures are higher, due to the restricted bearing area.
Other Factors Influence Wedge Action
Obviously there are a number of minor factors which influence the action of the
wedges. Friction between the surfaces, gouging, location of bolt holes, rigidity of bolt
head, etc., etc., are some of them. Friction becomes low over a period of time because
of vibration and the longitudinal movement between bar and rail. Gouging cannot be
great as there are no sharp edges on the wedges. Slight cocking is accompanied by a
change in the average point of thrust by the bolt head against the bar. But the bolts
are flexible, and to stabilize such a shape as A 39, the bolt hole would have to be
dropped 1)4 in., as indicated by the restraining influence ratio between top and bottom.
Thus the bolt has to be lowered to a point such that the products of lever arms and
restraints become about equal.
It is significant that the bolts of 112 and 131-lb. sections are the same distance
from the top fishing surface intersections. This is faulty design, since the 131-lb. bars
then have a relatively high bolt, with increased cocking tendencies.
High Bearing Pressures
The evils of cocked bars are in that the bearing areas are restricted and unit
compression is high. At the top of the bar, a wheel load imposes further compression,
the total quantity being tied up in a calculation involving Poissons ratio. The amount
of added compression from wheel load is a function of track stiffness, etc.
With a 20,000-lb. bolt tension, which is not unusual, the theoretical compression
at the top of a 112-lb. bar with j4-in. contact at the fishing surface is 13,850 lb. per
sq. in. If a Hne bearing is effected, with, say, /^-in. width, the figure becomes 55,400 lb.
per sq. in. which is beyond the yield point. Obviously, if the total unit compression is
beyond the yield point of the metal, plastic flow occurs during the downward move-
ment of the joint, and during upward movement a portion of the deformed metal is
then in tension. Hence a fatigue failure.
At the bottom of the bar, the positive moment tends to reduce the unit contact
compression, hence the overall stress is less, and failure occurs from the top down. The
progress of the crack is rapid shortly after its first appearance, but becomes less rapid
as the area of high stress from contact pressures is left behind.
Negative moments are not as great as positive ones, so the bottom of the bar is
not in as high overall stress as is the top. Failures from cocked 131-lb. bars are to be
678
Rail
Fig. 7.— AREA 131-lb. Bar, Showing Slight Cocking Tendency
and Slight Concentration of Compressive Stress.
Fig. 8.-
-131-lb. Head-Free Bar. Note the Absence of Any Stress
Concentration From Line Bearings.
ft
Rail 679
expected but not in as short a time as in the 112-lb. bars since the rail and joint are
much stiffer, and bending stresses are thus much reduced.
Only one head-free bar has been modeled, since this design is necessarily stable in
its position. If properly rolled and applied, no Une bearings will result. Fig. 8 shows
a 131-lb. head-free model.
It is my contention that certain types of joint bar failures are caused by the in-
stability of the shapes considered as wedges. A Une bearing rather than a full surface
contact increases contact stresses due to bolt tension and may exceed the endurance
limit of the material. Failures are hastened by high bolt tension and swelled rail ends.
A remedy may be found in redesigning the bars to make a more stable wedge by
lowering the bolt holes where possible and using reasonable bolt tensions.
Seventh Progress Report of the Joint Investigation
of Fissures in Railroad Rails
By H. F. Moore
Research Professor of Engineering Materials, University of Illinois,
in Charge of the Investigation
Summary
1. Fissures starting from the interior of the head of railroad rails first were recog-
nized as important about 1911. Much discussion has taken place as to whether they
were caused by minute flaws in rail steel (shatter cracks) or by the heavy wheel loads
on rails. The development of detector cars made possible the detection of many fissures
before rail fracture had occurred, but it did not touch the problem of prevention of fis-
sures. In 1031 a joint investigation was sponsored by the manufacturers of steel rails,
the Association of American Railroads and the Engineering Experiment Station of the
University of Illinois, (pages 682^86)
2. A "rolling-load" testing machine was designed and built which subjected a speci-
men of rail to repeated cycles of wheel load and bending moment. Before testing in this
machine an etch test to detect the presence of shatter cracks was made on the rail from
which the specimen was cut. A long series of rolling-load tests showed the following
results:
(a) In these rolling-load tests only shatter-cracked rails developed fissures, but not
all shatter-cracked rails developed fissures.
(b) It is the complex stresses directly under a wheel load which cause cracks to
develop into fissures. Bending moment tends to cause fissures to take a trans-
verse direction, and accelerates their spread.
(c) No greater wheel load was required to start a fissure in a heavy rail than in a
Ughter rail. The minimum wheel load which started a fissure in the rolling-load
tests was 40,000 lb.
(d) The wheel load necessary to start a fissure, the theoretical shearing stress in the
zone where shatter cracks are located, the fatigue strength of rail steel, and the
weakening effect of minute cracks (shown by fatigue tests of specimens) form
a coherent picture of the mechanism of fissure formation and spread, (pages
686-691)
3. Extensive tests on four railroads where there was heavy traffic were made to get
some statistical idea of the magnitude and frequency of high wheel loads under traffic.
The Deforest scratch extensometer was used to measure mean strain in rail bases under
passing trains. From these strains, wheel loads were computed. Records of strain under
some 500,000 wheel loads were obtained, and it was found that at any location the average
occurrence of wheel loads of 40,000 lb. or over was one in 1,000 wheel loads. At some
locations the frequency was as much as three times this; i.e. three in 1,000. (pages
692-696)
4. A large number of hot-bed cooled test rails have been placed in various locations
on the Baltimore & Ohio Railroad and on the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway.
The service record and the detector car tests made on these test rails have been carefully
followed in the course of this investigation. All fissures developing in service or found
by a detector car have occurred in shatter-cracked rails, (pages 696-701)
5. The solution of the problem of preventing shatter cracks in rails was attacked by
making tests of specimens from rails cooled in air and also controlled cooled. Tests
681
682 Investigation of Fissures in Railroad Rails
were made at various steel mills using rail specimens, each specimen being cooled in an
individual cooling box under carefully controlled and measured conditions. Variations in
rate of cooling, temperature at placing specimens in boxes, temperature of removal
from boxes and time in boxes were studied. In some tests hydrogen was introduced into
one molten ingot so that rails rolled from that ingot and cooled in air would be sure to
have many shatter cracks. It was found that rail specimens placed in a cooling con-
tainer at temperatures not less than 700 deg. F., and which required not less than 7 hours
to cool to 300 deg. F. in the coohng box developed no shatter cracks even in rail specimens
from hydrogen- treated ingots, (pages 702-718)
6. The Brunorizing (normalizing) process of thermal treatment of rails was also
studied, and the modified process as now practiced was found effective in preventing
shatter cracks, (pages 718, 719)
7. Extensive studies of metallographic structure and of the strength and toughness
of rail steel have been made. Some studies of chemical composition have been made, but
the slight variation of chemical composition in the test rails furnished did not appear
to be a major factor. Results of these studies are given in this report, (pages 719-743)
8. A large amount of study has been given to the problem of finding a non-
destructive test which could be used to detect shatter cracks in new rails. In common
with the work of previous investigators this effort has so far been unsuccessful. Shatter
cracks are so minute that changes, due to these shatter cracks, in properties or structure
of metal around them, are masked by other variations in the metal, (pages 743-747)
9. Experimental studies of a bend test for rails to supplement or to replace the drop
test have been made. Like previous investigators the members of the test party have
found the bend test distinctly superior to the drop test, (pages 747-750)
10. Unfinished work of the investigation relating to fissures includes formulation of
proposed standards for control cooling of rails and for bend tests for acceptance of rails,
(page 751)
11. The work of the investigation on end batter and end-hardened rails will be the
subject matter of a separate report.
Foreword
This Seventh Progress Report of the Rails Investigation is a summary of the work
on the causes and prevention of fissures which has been carried on since the beginning
of the investigation in 1931. A subsequent progress report will discuss the present status
of the tests for batter of end-hardened rails.
In this report are given a few results of tests of specimens cut from end-hardened
rails. These are included as a contribution to present-day knowledge of rail steel as a
structural material.
I Introduction
1. Historical. — In 1911 the interest of steel manufacturers and railroads was aroused
by a failure of a rail on the Lehigh Valley Railroad. An examination showed that this
failure was a fracture apparently starting on the inside of the head. Other fractures of
this type were reported until they became a serious problem to the railroad men and the
steel rail manufacturers. A great deal of discussion arose as to whether these fissures were
due to the increased wheel loads which rails had to withstand or whether they arose
from defects in the steel. Etch tests by Wickhorst^ and by Waring and Hofammann,*
showed a large number of small cracks in specimens cut from new rails. (See Fig. 1) The
question was at once raised whether these cracks were present in the original rails, or
' Wickhorst, M. H. — Internal Fissures in New Rails, AREA Proceedings, Vol. 16, p. 389 (1915).
^Waring, F. M. and Hofammann, K. E.— Deep Etching of Rails and Forgings, ASTM Proc., Vol. 19,
Part II, p. 183 (1919).
Investigation of Fissures in Railroad Rails 683
(a) No Shatter Cracks (b) Shatter Cracks
Fig. I. — Etch Tests on Specimens Cut From Two Rails.
were caused by the etching process itself. The records of the AREA showed a tendency
for these "transverse fissure" failures, as they were called, to develop in rail laid in loca-
tions subjected to especially heavy traffic, and also to be more frequent in the rails
rolled from certain mills than others. However rails rolled in different years by the same
company also showed a wide variation in the prevalence of transverse fissure failures.
The development of the detector car about 1928 by E. A. Sperry under the sponsor-
ship of the American Railway Association made it possible to detect the presence of many
of these internal fissures before they had spread so far as to cause actual fracture of the
rail. However, this did not meet the problem of the cause and prevention of such fissures;
and the removal of broken rails and rails in which fissures have been detected constitutes
a very considerable item of expense to the maintenance of way departments of railroads.
2. Organization of the Investigation of Fissures in Railroad Rails. — In
1931 there was formally started a joint investigation of the problem of internal fissures
in railroad rails. The investigation was organized under the auspices of the Rail Manu-
facturers' Technical Committee and the American Railway Association (now the Asso-
ciation of American Railroads), acting through the American Railway Engineering
Association. These two cooperators asked the Engineering Experiment Station of the
University of Illinois to undertake the direction of the investigation.
To keep in touch with the progress of the investigation, the Technical Committee
of Rail Manufacturers and the AREA Committee on Rail appointed an advisory com-
mittee and later appointed a small body from this advisory committee to serve as a
contact committee. The present members of the advisory committee are:
Association of American R.mlro.ads — Rail Committee:
W. H. Penfield, Chief Engineer, Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul & Pacific Railroad
(Chairman)
J. E. Armstrong, Chief Engineer, Canadian Pacific Railway
W. C. Barnes, Engineer of Tests, Rail Committee, AREA
C. B. Bronson, Inspecting Engineer, New York Central System
684 Investigation of Fissures in Railroad Rails
E. E. Chapman, Mechanical Assistant to Assistant to Vice-President, Atchison,
Topeka & Santa Fe Railway
H. R. Clarke, Engineer Maintenance of Way, Chicago, Burlington & Quincy Railroad
G. M. Magee, Research Engineer, Engineering Division, AAR
P. Petri, Chief Engineer Maintenance, Baltimore & Ohio Railroad
Louis Yager, Assistant Chief Engineer, Northern Pacific Railway
Rail Manufacturers' Technical Committee:
L. S. Marsh, Manager, Department of Inspection and Metallurgy, Inland Steel
Company (Chairman)
F. W. Bendell, Manager, Railroad Materials and Commercial Forgings Bureau,
Chicago District, Carnegie-Illinois Steel Corporation
O. U. Cook, Assistant Manager, Department of Metallurgy, Inspection and Research,
Tennessee Coal, Iron & Railroad Company
E. F. Kenney, Metallurgical Engineer, Bethlehem Steel Company
J. H. Reece, Chief Inspector, Colorado Fuel & Iron Company
F. A. Wickerham, Assistant to Chief Metallurgical Engineer, Carnegie-Illinois Steel
Corporation
The present membership of the contact committee is as follows:
L. S. Marsh, Chairman, C. B. Bronson E. F. Kenney
W. C. Barnes E. E. Chapman G. M. Magee
F. W. Bendell O. U. Cook
During the progress of the investigation the following persons, who are no longer
members, have served as members of the advisory committee.
Earl Stimson (Co-chairman for the AREA) Chief Engineer Maintenance, Baltimore
and Ohio Railroad (deceased)
John V. Neubert (Co-chairman for the AREA) Chief Engineer Maintenance of Way,
New York Central System (deceased)
F. W. Wood (Co-chairman for the Technical Committee of Steel Rail Manufacturers)
Baltimore, Maryland (retired)
John Brunner, Manager Department of Metallurgy and Inspection, Carnegie-Illinois
Steel Corporation (deceased)
A. F. Blaess, Chief Engineer, Illinois Central Railroad (deceased)
John S. Unger, Research Engineer, Carnegie Steel Company, Pittsburgh (retired)
G. J. Ray, Vice-President and General Manager, Delaware, Lackawanna & Western
Railroad
W. A. Maxwell, Jr., Vice-President, Colorado Fuel & Iron Co.
T. H. Sanderson, Assistant Superintendent of Rail Mill, Carnegie-Illinois Steel
Corporation, Gary Mill
Maro Johnson, Principal Assistant Engineer, Illinois Central Railroad
R. Faries, Assistant Chief Engineer — Maintenance, Pennsylvania Railroad (deceased)
C. F. W. Rys, Chief Metallurgical Engineer, Carnegie-Illinois Steel Corporation
L. H. Bond, Chief Engineer Maintenance of Way, Illinois Central Railroad
W. P. Wiltsee, Chief Engineer, Norfolk & Western Railway
The present test party, which is carrying on the work of the investigation includes
the following:
H. F. Moore, Research Professor of Engineering Materials, University of Illinois, in
charge of investigation
Investigation of Fissures in Railroad Rails 685
H. R. Thomas, Special Research Professor of Engineering Materials, Engineer of
Tests, in charge field tests.
R. E. Cramer, Special Research Assistant Professor of Engineering Materials,
metallurgical work
N. J. Alleman, Special Research Associate, rolling-load tests, bend tests of rails
J. L. Bisesi, Special Research Associate, non-destructive tests for cracks, inspection of
rails in test tracks
S. W. Lyon, Special Research Assistant, physical tests of rail steel
Test Assistant: R. S. Jensen
Student Assistants (part time): E. C. Lauck, J. C. Leming, William Mareneck
Mechanicians: H. Belles, F. A. Ferris, H. H. Griesheimer, M. K. Shafer, Harley
Musgrove
Assistant in Machine Shop: C. Boley
Clerk and Stenographer: Rogene Strode
The following persons have been members of the test party, but have left for other
positions:
E. C. Bast, G. B. Bliss, W. D. Boone, K. Anderson, R. G. Emerson, John Haake,
G. N. Krouse, J. G. Lowther, J. C. Mace, J. A. Nachowitz, R. S. Hutton, T. J.
Riggs, N. H. Roy, L. G. Ramer, E. F. Ream, J. S. Shapland, J. R. Trimble,
H. Wallace, C. P. Wampler, H. B. Wishart, Dave Wiegand, R. J. King, R. J.
Houkal, M. W. Woodruff, J. C. Othus, A. E. Abel, Chas. Middlesworth,
H. Hood, D. C. Brown, C. Beiler, P. A. Ramsdell, J. C. Leming, J. O'Neal.
3. Previous Investigation of Fissures in Rails. — ^While the problem of internal
fissures in rails is of comparatively recent origin, rail breakage is a problem as old as the
railroad. In the early days the list of noteworthy research workers includes Styffe in
Sweden, Tetmajer in Switzerland, Wohler in Prussia, Kirkaldy and Sandberg in England,
P. H. Dudley and C. B. Dudley in the United States.
Since the 1911 rail failure on the Lehigh Valley Railroad, a large amount of study
has been given to this phenomenon of internal fissures, especially to transverse fissures,
and the names of Howard, C. B. Dudley, P. H. Dudley, Gushing, Wickhorst, Comstock,
J. R. Freeman, Jr., Gennet, Robert Job, Quick, Rawdon, Clayton, Styri, and J. B. Young
are among those who have made valuable contributions.
A cooperative investigation under the auspices of the Chicago Rapid Transit Com-
pany (the elevated railroad service) and the University of Illinois Engineering Experi-
ment Station was in progress when the present investigation was begun, and the work
of this earlier investigation was taken over by the larger investigation.
4. Strength of Railroad Rails and Service Demands Upon Them. — As is the
case with very many problems in strength of materials, the question of failure of rails
from internal fissures involves two very general questions: (1) What tensile stresses,
what compressive stresses, and what shearing stresses will rails withstand without failure
under service loads? and (2) What stresses in rails are set up in actual service? The
first of these problems involves laboratory tests as the principal means of solution. The
second must be answered by field tests with measurement of actual stresses measured
under train service at a large number of typical locations where rails are subjected to
heavy traffic.
5. In What Ways Can Railroad Rail Failures Be Produced? — Railroad rails
in service are subjected to a remarkably complex system of stresses and strains. It is
immediately obvious that they may fail by direct flexural action, and the classic investi-
686
Investigation of Fissures in Railroad Rails
gations of Professor A. N. Talbot and his Committee on Stresses in Railroad Track have
given a very elaborate analysis for computing the flexural stresses to which rails are
subjected by wheel loads. Rails sometimes fail by stresses in the web of the rail but this
type of failure obviously does not originate from internal fissures in the head.
Rails may fail by a very complex system of localized stress set up directly under a
wheel load. The mathematical determination of tensile, compressive, and shearing stresses
under a wheel resting on a rail was developed somewhat previously to this investigation
independently by Professor N. M. Belajef in Leningrad, Russia, and a little later by
Professor H. R. Thomas and Dr. V. A. Hoersch of the Department of Mathematics,
University of Illinois.^ These two mathematical analyses gave identical results.
PLASTIC ACTION (COLD WORK) DUE TO
WHEEL LOAD TAKES PLACE BELAJEF-
HOERSCH FORMULAS FOR STRESS ARE COMPUTED SHEARING STRESS -PS I X 1000
NOT ACCURATE IN THIS ZONE 1 ^ ° 2 S
Grange of endurance limit
under repeated shear
of rail steel specimens
with minute crack
Fig. 2. — Computed Shearing Stress in Head of Rail Under a Wheel
Load of 40,000 lb. on a 33-in Wheel.
An internal fissure in a rail suggests that shearing stress may be the cause, since
shearing stresses tend to become a maximum below the surface of a beam. The theo-
retical shearing stresses below the tread of a rail under a wheel load are shown in Fig. 2.
Actually these stresses are modified by the fact that near the tread of the rail there is
plastic action, (cold work) so that the actual stresses are lessened near the tread of the
rail. However, as was shown by Thomas and Hoersch there is evidence that at a depth
of 3^ in. below the tread of the rail there is fair agreement between theoretical stresses
and actual stresses. Figure 2 shows the theoretical distribution of shearing stress over a
vertical-longitudinal section of a rail head under a wheel load.
The complex stresses in a rail directly under a wheel are relatively high, and are
confined to a small region — very small in comparison with the full section of the rail.
This means that the size of rail will make little difference in its resistance to the starting
of internal fissures in the head. Moreover, it is magnitude of wheel load which is signifi-
cant rather than flexural stress. However, owing to the lower flexural stresses, cracks
will probably spread more slowly in a heavy rail than in a light rail.
II The Development of Internal Fissures in Laboratory Tests of
Rails and in Rails in Service
By H. F. Moore
6. Test Rails. — In carrying out the two branches of the investigation, strength of
rails and service conditions which they must meet, there were supplied by five different
steel mills about 5,000 tons of 130-lb. rail and 3,750 tons of 110-lb. rail to serve as test
^ Thomas, H. R. and Hoersch, V. A. — Stresses due to the Pressure of One Elastic Solid Upon
Another, Bulletin 212, Eng. Exp. Sta., University of Illinois. Mr. Belajef's work is published in Russian.
Investigation of Fissures in Railroad Rails
687
Fig. 3. — Testing Machine lor Rolling-Load Tests.
rails. These five mills are designated by the letters A, B, C, D and E. From each heat
rolled three rails were sent to the University of Illinois to furnish specimens for various
laboratory tests. The 130-lb. rails were put in test locations on the Baltimore & Ohio
Railroad and the 110-ib. rail on test locations on the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe
Railway.
All these rails were rolled under ordinary conditions and were cooled on hot beds.
Unusually complete records were kept at all stages in their manufacture. They passed
the usual routine inspection and all the test rails were from heats which were accepted.
688
Investigation of Fissures in Railroad Rails
About 289 rails were sent to the University of Illinois for test specimens and from each
one of these rails one or more pieces, six inches long, were sawed off at least three feet
from the end of the rail. The head of each piece was sliced horizontally and the piece
then etched in a 50 percent solution of hydrochloric acid to detect shatter cracks. Eighty-
two of the rails were found to contain shatter cracks. The number of shatter cracks
found in an etch test varied widely. Many more longitudinal shatter cracks were found
than transverse shatter cracks.
7. Rolling-Load Testing Machine for Developing Internal Fissures in
Rails. — A special testing machine was built in which a specimen of rail could be repeat-
edly subjected to known wheel loads and bending moments. This machine is shown in
Fig. 3. In this machine a short specimen of rail 5 is pulled backwards and forwards under
a wheel load which can be varied from zero to 80,000 lb. This load is applied through
the lever L by means of the screw jack, J, and is measured by the compression of the
spring P. The bending moment can be measured as the product of the weight on the
wheel times /, the distance of "overhang" of the specimen rail when it is in its extreme
left-hand position; / can be varied by moving the block B. A revolution counter is
attached to the crankshaft of the machine, and an automatic cutoff switch is operated by
the drop of the lever L when a specimen fails. The stroke of the machine is 7 in. and its
speed 60 r.p.m. Three of these machines have been built and have been used in the study
of fissures in rails and later in the study of batter of rail ends.
8. Results of Tests of Rails Under Repeated Rolling Load. — Tests of short
lengths of rails under repeated rolUng load in the special testing machines designed and
built for this investigation have developed failures starting as transverse fissures in a
considerable number (although by no means all) of the newly-rolled test rails which, by
means of etch tests, were found to contain shatter cracks. (See Fig. 1). No failures start-
ing as transverse fissures have as yet been developed in the laboratory in newly-rolled
rails which etch tests have shown to be free from shatter cracks. Such uncracked rails,
when they fail under repeated rolling load, fail by fatigue cracks starting from the sur-
face of the rail. Moreover, they require higher wheel loads to cause fracture than do
shatter-cracked rails. In all, some 147 rail specimens have been tested in the special
rolUng-load testing machines, many of them to 1,000,000 cycles of stress, or more.
Figure* 4a and 4b show the two types of spreading fracture which occurred.
FRACTURE STARTED HERE
(a) Fatigue fracture starting at sur-
face; this is the type of fracture
in rolling-load tests of rail speci-
mens free from shatter cracks.
(b) Internal fissure starting from nu-
cleus in rail head; this is the
type of fracture in some speci-
mens with shatter cracks.
Fig. 4. — Two Types of Fracture in the Rolling-Load Test.
Investigation of Fissures in Railroad Rails
689
Table 1
Individual Fissures Formed Independently of Each Other — Not Compound
Tests in Rolling-load Testing Machine
Maximum
Shearing
Flexural Stress at Point
Stress Type of of Fracture
lb. per Fissure in Rail Head
Specimen sq. in. Developed lb. per sg. in.
31-2 68,600 Trans. 36,800
473-3 47,400 Trans. 35,400
507-1 47,200 Trans. 35,400
473-1 41,900 Trans. 32,900
31-1 41,200 Trans. 25,800
610 36,500 Trans. 32,800
572-2 36,100 Trans. 38,000
451 33,500 Trans. 21,000
572-3 31,300 Trans. 37,200
701-4 26,800* Trans. 37,600*
70-1 26,300** Trans. 38,200
707-2 22,900 Trans. 26,000
707-1 20,600 Trans. 28,000
701-3 17,200*** Trans. 25,600
70-1 14,400** Trans. 25,700
707-1 14,000 Horiz. 19,400
507-6 11,500 Horiz. 27,000
582 11,400 Horiz. 17,800
1005 10,900 Horiz. 19,800
1007 10,900 Horiz. 19,800
473-6 0 Horiz.
86 0 Horiz. &t 31,900
Vert.-Longt 55,900
473-6 0 Horiz. 23,800
507-3 36,500 Comp'n Horiz. 30,400
34,300 Comp'n Horiz. 23,600
43 47,000 Comp'n Diag. 27,600
42,100 Comp'n Horiz. 19,600
* Did not rupture at theoretical critical section; fissure located by subsequent slicing and etching;
depth to nucleus not precisely known.
** Did not rupture at theoretical critical section; fissure located by subsequent slicing and etching;
diameter of nucleus of fissure, 0.5 in.
**• One of six transverse fissures in two inches of rail.
t Tensile stress normal to horizontal plane.
t Shearing stress in one direction of fracture 42,100 lb. per sq. in., and tensile stress normal to
vertical-longitudinal plane (another direction of fracture) 16,900 lb. per sq. in.
In laboratory tests of rails in the rolling-load machines internal fissures have been
developed under the wheel load at sections where bending moment was very small, but
never, even in shatter-cracked rails, at sections of heavy bending moment outside the
path of the wheel load. Hence it seems clear that the stress under the wheel load on the
rail is a factor of prime importance. Table 1 shows typical results of rolling-load tests.
9. Harmony of Test Results. — From tests of specimens of rail steel (See Chap-
ter VII) the endurance limit of rail steel under cycles of shearing stress varying from
zero to a maximum ranges from 50,000 to 65,000 lb. per sq. in., using polished specimens.
If a series of specimens is tested in which a small fatigue crack has been started the
endurance limit is reduced from 40 to 50 percent. Figure 5 shows results from rolling-
load tests. It will be noted that all but one of the specimens in which internal fissures
were developed were subjected to theoretical shearing stresses which, if repeated, would
690
Investigation of Fissures in Railroad Rails
|Og 70000
°^» 60000
o ui
* '^ <« Knnnn
3hS «40000
M4
_l(0 >C
< >£ o
u a: u '
* ~ * '
— Q£ bj
111 -^ (O
<Ib
|3i
K X
rr^y777/777X777Y77777/777777
RANGE. OF ENOURANCEaiMIT'<:
^UNOER REPEAtEO ShEAR,^
UNCRACKED RAIL STEEL
^ANGE 6f ENbURANCE^LifttirUNDER
><^i>-^zi^EPEATE6xSHEAft ;<RA'|L%
"■ ''^ feTEEL WitH SMALL CRACK
NOMINAL FLEXURAL STRESS AT SECTION WHERE FAILURE OCCURRED
LB PER SO IN
• FATIGUE FAILURES (116 SPECIMENS)
STARTING AT SURFACE NO SHATTER
CRACKS SHOWN IN ETCH TEST
o FATIGUE FAILURES (30 SPECIMENS)
STARTING AT SURFACE SHATTER
CRACKS SHOWN IN ETCH TEST
• FAILURES (24 SPECIMENS) STARTING
AT INTERNAL FISSURES SHATTER
CRACKS SHOWN IN ETCH TEST
t SPECIMEN DID NOT FAIL DURING
TEST (29 SPECIMENS)
FIGURES AT A PLOTTED POINT
INDICATE THE NUMBER OF
SPECIMENS TESTED AT THAT
COMBINATION OF SHEARING
AND BENDING STRESS
Fig. 5. — Results of Rolling-Load Tests of Rail Specimens.
cause failure in a specimen in which there was a small crack. It will be noted that about
80 percent of the specimens which had shatter cracks and which failed from cracks
starting at the surface had theoretical shearing stresses below the range which might be
expected to cause cracked specimens to fail.
It will be noted that specimens without shatter cracks which failed from fatigue
cracks starting at the surface had computed fiexural stresses above those required to
develop failure in cracked fatigue specimens but, with two exceptions, within or below
the range of endurance limit under repeated shear for uncracked specimens. It was im-
possible within the capacity of the rolling-load machines to develop fatigue failures in
full-size heavy rail free from shatter cracks. In this case the section of the rail was
artificially weakened in such a manner that no metal was removed from the shatter-crack
zone, but the section modulus of the rail for resisting flexure was distinctly lessened. In
the rolling-load tests in a shatter-cracked rail fissures have been developed by wheel loads
as low as 40,000 lb. By the theory of elasticity this load would develop a shearing stress
in the shatter-cracked zone of the rail head of about 25,000 lb. per sq. in. at a point
y% in. below the tread of the rail. This would be just about the lower limit of the range
of endurance limit for cracked specimens.
Investigation of Fissures in Railroad Rails 691^
In Section 16 it will be noted that wheel loads of 40,000 lb. occasionally occur
under wheel loads in the test tracks studied in this investigation.
The results of the roHing-load tests give grounds for the following general
conclusions:
1. Shatter cracks in the heads of rails are certainly a major and probably the
major cause of fissures in the rail. Transverse fissures, vertical split heads and horizontal
split heads — all have been developed under the rolling-load test.
2. During the progress of the rolling-load tests for developing fissures, the lowest
wheel load which caused a shatter crack to spread into a fissure was 40,000 lb. This
value has, therefore, been taken as a limiting load, below which fissures probably will
not develop even though lower loads may be repeated several millions of times.
3. The minimum load which caused fissures in the rolling-load tests, the stresses
set up in the rail head at the shatter-cracked zone by that load, and the results of tests
of cracked fatigue specimens of rail steel form a harmonious picture of the mechanism
of the development of the transverse fissure.
10. Transverse Fissures and Shatter Cracks in Service. — During the course
of the investigation some ISO rails have been received in which transverse fissures in
service have been developed. Approximately 87 percent of these when examined and etch
tested were found to contain shatter cracks. Some of the others were found to contain
large inclusions of oxide from which the fissure started. In some of them transverse fis-
sures seem to start from slag streaks but in the laboratory so far no fissures have been
developed from slag streaks unless etch tests showed shatter cracks around them. The
service records confirm in a general way the findings of the laboratory tests that shatter
cracks are the major cause of the development of fissures. However, they indicate, as
might be expected, that in the unusual case of a large oxide inclusion located in the zone
in which shatter cracks occur in a rail a fissure may develop if it is subjected to heavy
wheel load.
11. Effect of Flexural Stress on Growth of Fissures. — Both the mathematical
theory of stresses in rail heads and the results of rolling-load tests agree in indicating
that the start of a destructive fissure is due to the direct action of the wheel load rather
than to the flexural stress. The mathematical analysis of stresses due to this direct action
of wheel load, which is shown to agree very well with rolling-load test results, indicates
that the stresses set up are practically independent of the size of rail. Hence, it seems
that the starting of fissures would not be hindered by the use of heavier rails, except
insofar as they might make track conditions smoother and reduce the "dynamic aug-
ment" of wheel loads. They could not be expected to reduce the wheel loads due to flat
spots on wheels. The etch tests made indicated that shatter cracks were more frequently
found in heavy rails than in light rails.
However, an examination of Table 1 indicates that the relative magnitude of wheel
load and of bending stress in the rail is a large factor in determining the direction of the
fissure. A heavy bending stress tends to cause a fissure to spread in a transverse direction,
while a heavy wheel load accompanied by light bending stress tends to cause a hori-
zontal split head. That is, the use of a heavier rail which would diminish flexural stress
might tend to reduce the number of transverse fissures as compared with horizontal
fissures. Also, the rolling-load tests give some evidence that flexural stresses accelerate the
spread of shatter cracks into fissures, once these fissures have been started by the action
of wheel loads.
692 Investigation of Fissures in Railroad Rails
III Field Tests For Wheel Loads
By H. R. Thomas
12. Object of Tests. — As a result of the rolling-load tests in the laboratory it was
found that the minimum wheel load which would cause a shatter crack to grow in size
and become a transverse fissure was approximately 40,000 lb. This wheel load was some-
what higher than the usual locomotive driver load, and much higher than the wheel
loads for heavily loaded freight cars. Since it seemed probable that transverse fissures
were the result of the application of a relatively large number of wheel loads (more than
could be expected from the number of driver loads passing over the rail) it was felt
that tests should be made in order to answer the following questions:
1. Do heavily loaded freight cars have occasional wheel loads equal to or
greater than the 40,000 lb. mentioned in Section 9?
2. If high wheel loads are found under freight traffic, how frequently do
these occur?
3. If high wheel loads are found, what is the reason for their occurrence?
13. Test Methods and Apparatus. — In order to accumulate the necessary sta-
tistical data concerning the magnitude and frequency of high wheel loads, it was decided
to base such determinations on measurements of average longitudinal strain at the center
of the base of the rail. Since such average strain is very nearly proportional to the
wheel load causing the strain, the problem resolved itself into devising a means for
recording the strain under each locomotive and car wheel for the usual freight train
passing over the test location.
It was decided that the recently-introduced DeForest scratch strain recorder would
be the simplest method of measuring such strains, provided it would give satisfactory
records under the severe impact and vibration conditions found in a railroad rail during
the passage of a train. A trial instrument was obtained and used on the tracks of a local
railroad in order to try it out. It was found that by making some modifications in the
instrument and by introducing rubber padding for damping vibration of certain parts,
satisfactory records could be obtained. Ten of these instruments were purchased and
mounted on clamps which could be attached to the base of the rail at points where
measurements were desired. Figure 6 shows this strain gage and its attachment to the rail.
The principle of operation of the scratch strain gages is very simple: The total strain
in the rail in the four-inch gage length is recorded, without magnification, by a diamond
point scratching on a chromium-plated brass strip. Movement of the strip, producing a
separation of the ordinates corresponding to the passage of the various wheel loads over
the instrument, is produced by a spring whose action is influenced by the variable
friction introduced by the relative movement of the two ends of the instrument due to
the strain being recorded. The rate of feed can be controlled by variation of spring
tension and of the friction acting on the plate carrying the record strip. With proper
regulation of friction and spring action it was possible to obtain records showing the
strain in the rail for each wheel of a 40-car train.
This original form of the scratch strain gage was used for the tests made at Dayton,
Ohio, and at Coatesville, Pa. After the completion of these latter tests, ten new instru-
ments were built in the University shops, embodying the general principles of operation
of the original instruments, but including certain changes which made them more suit-
able for the tests of wheel loads in service. The changes made included: (1) More rigid
construction to prevent vibration; (2) use of celluloid pads coated with diamond dust
Investigation of Fissures in Railroad Ra ils
693
©- CLAMP
(D- STEADYING SCREW
(D- DIAMOND ARM
(5- ADJUSTING SCREW
d)- FRICTION PLATE
©- RUBBER PADDING
@- DIAMOND PAD
t TARGET-CLAMPING ECCENTRIC
TARGET CARRIER
©- FEED SPRING
@- TARGET
Fig. 6. — Scratch Strain Recorder.
This instrument measured the strain in the base of a rail for every wheel load which passed over it.
From this strain and the measured stiffness of the track the wheel load accompanying each indicated
strain was computed. This instrument is an adaptation of the DeForest scratch extensometer, and was
used with Dr. DeForest's permission.
instead of the single diamond recording point; (3) strictly interchangeable parts with
spare parts available for substitution in case of necessity. In most cases parts were
replaceable without removing the instrument from the rail.
These ten revised instruments were used on the tests at Rome, N. Y. After the
tests at Rome, 10 additional instruments were made, and all 20 were used in the tests at
Matfield Green, Kans.
14. Interpretation of Results. — In order to determine wheel loads from the
measurements of mean strain in the base of the rail, use was made of the mathematical
analyses reported by Professor A. N. Talbot in the Sixth Progress Report of the Special
Committee on Stresses in Railroad Track.* Considering a group of four adjacent freight
car wheels, the bending moment under a given wheel may be reduced by the effect of
adjacent wheels, but if there is a dynamic augment in a given wheel load (due, for
example, to a flat wheel) then the increase in bending moment at that wheel will be very
nearly proportional to the increase in wheel load. Since the measurements of strain in the
base of the rail permitted calculations of corresponding bending moments, the above
relationship was used for computing the dynamic increase in wheel load. Bending
moments due to static wheel loads were determined from runs over the instruments at
sufficiently slow speeds (5 miles per hour) to avoid dynamic effects for cars with wheels
in good condition.
«See AREA Proceedings, Vol. 35, 1934, p. 278.
694
Investigation of Fissures in Railroad Rails
IS. Results of Tests. — Over a period of three years, tests for frequency of high
wheel loads for freight cars were made as follows:
September-October 1Q33.— On the B. & O. north of Dayton, Ohio, on the 130-lb.
test rail laid in 1932. Tests were made at two locations, one being near the beginning of
the test rail at North Dayton, and the other near the north end of the test rail at Van-
dalia. On this single track line a considerable percentage of the traffic consisted of loaded
coal and ore cars, with some refrigerator and box cars.
February 1934. — A few tests were made using a special train containing cars with
flat, badly worn, and shelled wheels. Effect of frozen railbed was also studied in these
tests.
September 1934. — Tests were made on the eastbound freight track on the main line
of the Pennsylvania Railroad west of Coatesville, Pa. These tests were on lS2-lb. rail.
Traffic consisted largely of loaded coal cars.
July 1935. — Tests were made on the New York Central Railroad near Rome, N. Y.
at three locations: 1. Near Greenway, on 105-lb. Dudley rail, the track being in rather
poor condition. 2. East of Rome on 127-lb. Dudley rail. 3. On 105-lb. rail on a steel
bridge east of Rome. This rail on the bridge was laid with GEO construction, the ties
being supported directly on the bridge stringers. The test was for the purpose of deter-
mining the effect on dynamic wheel loads of very rigid rail support rather than for
10 0
i*!- ■
•^^
'
\ ^
\ ^^
W
r^^\
\
^
^^^--
BSO TESTS. DAYTON, 0
AV 130 a 100 LB RAIL
NYC TESTS, ROME, NY
127 LB RAIL
PRR TESTS. COATES-
VILLE PA 152 LB RAIL
•SANTA FE TESTS MATFIELD
GREEN, KAN 110 LB RAIL
\
V
"^
^-^^
10
\
\
\
\
\\
"^^
\
\\
\
V \
1
\\
-^
01
V
\
\\
^
\ \^
^^
\
\. \
\
\^
OOi
1 "^
\
\
^
t.
V
\
^^
V
\
N,^
nK>
^^^
N
>
^
0 001
15000 25000 35000 45000 55000 65000 75000 - LB
WHEEL LOADS EQUAL TO OR GREATER THAN
VALUES INDICATED
Fig. 7. — Frequency of High Wheel Loads
at Four Test Locations,
Investigation of Fissures in Railroad Rails
695
0 001
75000 - LB
WHEEL LOADS EQUAL TO, OR GREATER THAN VALUES INDICATED
Fig. 8. — Frequency of High Wheel Loads at Sections of Track with
Different Stiffness of Rail Support.
determining impact loads on a bridge. A few instruments were placed near the bridge,
also on GEO track, for comparison.
Traffic over these test sections was mostly mixed freight, including refrigerator cars
with some coal cars.
May-June 1936. — Tests were made on the 110-lb. test rail laid on the Atchison,
Topeka & Santa Fe near Matfield Green, Kans. This is a single-track freight cut-off
carrying mixed freight with many refrigerator cars and oil tanks. Tests were made using
20 instruments at two locations: (1) On normal tangent track; (2) on a ballasted deck,
timber, pile-supported trestle. The bridge, in general, differed little in stiffness from the
normal track.
In Figures 7 and 8 there are presented load-frequency curves, giving the results of
tests on the four railroads. It will be noted that in Fig. 7 the curves for tests on the
Baltimore & Ohio and the Pennsylvania railroads show good agreement, while the curves
for the tests on the New York Central and the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railroads
696 Investigation of Fissures in Railroad Rails
are about 10,000 lb. lower than the others. A study of the train sheets indicated that
there was approximately a 10,000-lb. difference in the average wheel load for the loaded
cars for these two groups of curves.
In Fig. 8 the curves for tests on the bridges on the New York Central and the
Santa Fe are shown, the curves for tests on the same roads at sections not on the
bridges being given for comparison. It will be noted that for the tests on the Santa Fe
the curve for the bridge tests is not greatly different from that for track away from the
bridge. This is to be expected, since this ballasted-deck bridge was of approximately the
same stiffness as the regular track. The higher wheel loads indicated by the curve for the
bridge on the New York Central were undoubtedly due to the fact that the ties were
supported directly on the bridge stringers, which resulted in a very stiff track support.
16. Conclusions. — Based on a study of the results obtained on the above tests,
including a study of many details not given by the load-frequency curves of Figures 7
and 8, but on file at the Talbot laboratory, the following statements appear justified:
1. Under heavily loaded freight cars (coal, ore, etc.), wheel loads equal to or
greater than 40,000 lb. occurred on an average in these tests once for each 1,000
wheel loads passing over a given point in the rail.^ At some points along the rail,
the frequency of 40,000-lb. wheel loads was three times as great as the average.
2. For less heavily loaded cars the frequency of 40,000-Ib. wheel loads was
less than for the heavier loads.
3. High dynamic wheel loads may be caused by flat spots on wheels, out-of-
round wheels, lack of concentricity of axle and rim of wheel, and non-uniformity
of rail support.
4. From these field tests it seems that in the speed ranges of trains below
25 m.p.h., flat spots on wheels are very prominent as a cause of high wheel loads.
In the range of 40 to 50 m.p.h., hard spots in the rail support seem prominent,
and in the range of 60 m.p.h. and above out-of-round wheels, unbalance in
counterweights and abnormally large play between rail and tie (that is, lack of
uniformity of rail support) loom up as important factors. These speed ranges
probably will not be the same for locomotive drivers as for freight car wheels, but
adequate data on which to base a quantitative statement are not available at
this time.
IV Service Records of Test Rails
By J. L. BiSESi
17. Test Rails on the Baltimore & Ohio and Santa Fe. — Early in the investi-
gation of transverse fissures in railroad rails, two railroads agreed to put in test sections
of rails to be observed for the purpose of determining some facts regarding the forma-
tion of transverse fissures under service conditions. They were all hot-bed cooled rails.
^ Tests of the ratio of flexural strain to flexural load were made by Dr. R. N. Arnold in the Talbot
laboratory, University of Illinois. He applied load rapidly by means of a weight falling from various
heights and striking at raid-span a rail supported head up as a simple beam. To the tension side (base)
were soldered a series of DeForest scratch strain gages which gave a record of strain variation along the
base. From this the load applied could be determined with a fair degree of accuracy. The ratio of load
to maximum base stress was found to be higher — in some cases 100 percent or more higher — than the
ratio of load to base stress under static load. This was due to the resistance to sudden bending offered
by the inertia of the rail.
This result indicates that, since the curves shown in Figures 7 and 8 were determined on the basis
of ratio of load to base stress as given by analysis for a static load, the wheel loads shown in those
figures may be somewhat too low. However, the rapidity of load application to a rail resting on ties
and ballast is probably considerably less than is the case with Dr. Arnold's stiffly supported test beam.
Investigation of Fissures in Railroad Rails 697
The rails were to be rolled under normal conditions under specifications of the individual
railroads and to be placed in average service with no special care or maintenance. Repre-
sentatives of the test party were present at the time of rolling and laying and also each
time that Sperry car tests were made on the rails in service. The rails were rolled in
1931 and 1932 by five mills as listed below.
Mill 130-lb. Rails 110-lb. Rails
Summer Winter Summer Winter
Rolling Rolling Rolling Rolling
A 6 heats 7 heats
B 8 heats 7 heats
C 10 heats 11 heats
D 7 heats 7 heats 6 heats 6 heats
E 6 heats 6 heats 6 heats 6 heats
The roads which participated in the tests were the Baltimore & Ohio and the Atchi-
son, Topeka & Santa Fe. At the test locations, the traffic on the former is heavy as com-
pared with that on the latter, the one moving more coal, ore, and machinery and the
other more oil and refrigerator car traffic. The track of the Baltimore & Ohio has more
grades and curves than that of the Santa Fe.
18. Tests of B. & O. Rails.— The 130-lb. rails rolled for the Baltimore & Ohio
were installed in track, beginning in 1932, and the last test rails were placed in service in
1936. The test rails were distributed over the system and laid in seven location^ as follows:
Toledo Division — North Dayton to Vandalia: 1,529 rails laid in February 1932
on single track. Mile Post 62.5 to 68.1.
Tippecanoe City to Troy, Mile Post 72.9 to 78.1,
1,514 rails laid between May 1934 and March 1936.
Pittsburgh Division — Layton to St. James, 1,108 rails laid December 1933 on westbound
track.
Cumberland Division^ — Bardane to Kearneysville: 371 rails laid July 1933 on Track 2.
Kesslers Bridge to Okonoko: 1,625 rails laid August 1933 on Track 3.
Hansrote: 51 rails laid July 1933 on Track 3.
Patterson Creek cut-off: 142 rails laid March 1932 on Track 4. Service on
this track was discontinued between May 1932 and Oct. 1, 1939.
No special order was used in laying the rails except that the rails from each heat
were kept together. The "A" rails of the various heats, however, were all laid at the
beginning and end of the test sections.
In the fall of 1933 a detailed study was made of the rails laid on the Toledo division,
north of Dayton. For this study a car was constructed on which a six-volt generator
from the laboratory could be mounted and driven by a propelling engine. Cables attached
to the generator in the car could be run out to the end of the rails in track and the
drop-of-potential test run on the full length of the rail.
The drop-of-potential tests were made on 443 rails classified as follows:
(1) 111 "A" rails.
(2) 96 rails from a heat containing a great number of shatter cracks. (Heat
50110).
(3) 119 rails from a heat containing no shatter cracks. (Heat 21660).
(4) 95 rails from a heat representing summer rollings, having few shatter cracks.
(Heat 30240).
I
698 Investigation of Fissures in Railroad Rails
(S) 93 rails from a heat containing few shatter cracks, part of which heat had
been in service 10 months longer than the other test rails. (Heat 43118).
No fissures were discovered in any of the rails tested at this time but this was not
surprising since in most cases few fissures develop in rails in service during the first few
years of service.
Beginning in 1934 the test rails in service on all sections on the Baltimore & Ohio
were tested by means of the Sperry detector car under conditions of commercial testing
in current use. In most cases the test rails were given more attention than is ordinarily
given to the general run of rails. This was especially true during the years 1936 to 1939
when the double-crew method of testing was used and particularly in 1936 and 1937
when the second, or hand-test car made a drop-of-potential test on each indication that
appeared on the record tape.
The cumulative record of failures in the hot-bed cooled test rails on the Baltimore
& Ohio appears in Table 2. The failures found in the Sperry car tests made in 1940 are
included. With reference to this table it will be noted that although the first failure
found in these rails (a vertical split head) occurred in Heat 50110 in 1936, the first trans-
verse fissure failures occurred almost simultaneously in Heats SOI 10 and 43118 after they
had carried a traffic of 73 million tons. Etch tests had indicated that rails in these two
heats contained more shatter cracks than those in other test heats. It should be noted
that of the 14 vertical and horizontal split heads, all occurred in shatter-cracked heats;
none in non-shattered heats. The distribution by rail letter was as follows:
Rail Vertical Horizontal
Letter Split Heads Split Heads
A 2 2
B 1 0
C 0 1
D 2 1
E 0 2
F 1 2
The evidence from the laboratory samples of the above rails seems to indicate that a
majority of these failures originated at slag or segregation streaks, although some of these
failures have been found in service, which gave clear evidence of having originated in
shatter-cracked areas.
No failures have been reported in the test sections on the Cumberland division at
Hansrote (51 rails in Track 3) and on the Patterson Creek cut-off (142 rails on Track 4).
19. Test of Rails on the Santa Fe. — The 110-lb. hot-bed cooled rails laid in the
tracks of the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe were laid southwest of Emporia, Kans. be-
tween Ellinor and Matfield Green, in 1932. This is a single track cut-off which is used
exclusively for freight. In this case these rails were also laid by heats as follows:
Mill From To Total
Letter Mile Post Mile Post Miles Feet
E 124+ 2,985 ft. 131 + 3,023 ft. 7+ 38
C 131 + 3,023 ft. 138+ 2,590 ft. 6+ 4,847
D 138 +2,590 ft. 145 4- 2,462 ft. 6+ 5,152
Total 20 + 4,757
The test rails laid in the tracks of the Santa Fe have also been tested each year since
1934 by means of the Sperry type detector car owned and operated by the railroad
Investigation of Fissures in Railroad Rails
699
{3
i-lH
oj© o o o oj
r-cvjiH;ooooK>
CVJ^OOlOOOOO
ITiCVJ tH iH f-t
■V> 4> 4* 4>
i-l o « o o
f-t r^ i-t »H >-4
inCVJ iH r-l O
O O O O r-l
o o o o o
o o o o o
O 60 OJ o-
iH r-t mo
^ r-l O
Q r^if\
SiH^ ITNIT
,cri o <-H r*". ir
*» 4 UM-I
a i-i fii ro
la *»
H
.H=^-.
o o o o o
O i-H (-1 iH
60 (\J
cr\o
r— 1~-
o o <V)
• • •
M BO (TV
^
u
■H O
*» o
o ^
rH
C r-l
Ei O
OJ (3
♦» »
3 o
gfr 3
(-3 tJ
.5 5
•»» r-l
5t:
5i
o o
§9
Eh »j
II
700 Investigation of Fissures in Railroad Rails
company. In this time no fissured rails have been reported in this test section. There have
been, however, 37 rails removed for the following reasons:
4 Crushed head
26 Curve worn
5 Stock rail
2 Kinked
This rail at the last report (January 9, 1941) had carried 118,406,000 tons of traffic.
The general conclusions which may be drawn from these test rails are:
1. Transverse fissures were generally associated with shatter-cracked rail.
This fact is indicated by the fact that in all cases where transverse fissures have
been found in these test rails, the etch tests of these rails and other rails from
the same heat have shown that shatter cracks have been present. Of the 67
failures in the test rail on the B. & O. only 9 failures have occurred in heats not
shattered. These 9 failures were detail fractures under burns.
2. It is Ukely that in a given group of rails in service under similar track
conditions and traffic, fissures will first be found in rails from heats which con-
tain the greater number of shatter cracks. This is shown by the fact that in the
rails laid on the Baltimore & Ohio the first failures were found in rails from Heats
50110 and 43118, the two heats containing the most shatter cracks, as shown by
etch tests of specimens. Also out of the 67 failures in these test rails, 34 have
occurred in these two heats whereas the rest are spread through IS other heats
not so badly shattered.
3. In order to start a transverse fissure a rather large number of heavy wheel
loads is necessary. This was shown in the laboratory by the fact that in the rolling-
load machines no fissures were produced when wheel loads were kept below
40,000 lb. In this connection it is interesting to note that transverse fissure failures
have occurred in the rails of the Baltimore & Ohio where there are more heavy
wheel loads but not in the rails in the tracks of the Santa Fe where there were
fewer heavy wheel loads. However, etch test results indicated that the Santa Fe
test rails were freer from shatter cracks than the Baltimore & Ohio test rails.
20. Correlation of Rolling-Load, Wheel-Load and Service Tests on Rails
North of Dayton. — The development of transverse fissures in the test rail on the
Baltimore & Ohio recalls the question of correlation of the various test data. This dis-
cussion is based largely on the discussion of the results of the field tests to determine
wheel loads made north of Dayton in 1933. A list of some of the failed rails found in
this section of track is given in Table 3, together with the amount of traffic which these
rails have carried and the dates the failures were found.
Heats 47248 and 27S2S were laid in March 1936 and October 1935, respectively,
after having lain on the ground since they were rolled in 1932, therefore, although the
failures were found in December 1938 they had comparatively little tonnage over them.
In the laboratory, the rolling-load tests were carried out in an attempt to give some
estimate of the number and magnitude of wheel loads necessary to start and develop an
internal fissure in a rail. A study of the data shows that the lowest recorded load which
started a fissure in the laboratory was 40,000 lb. However, after a fissure is started it
will spread under a load less than that required to start it. From a study of rolling-load
test results an admittedly crude estimate is that once a fissure started to spread under
loads of 40,000 lb. or more, then after 200,000 wheel loads of 30,000 lb. or more rail
fracture might occur. From the records of wheel-load tests north of Dayton it was con-
Investigation of Fissures in Railroad Rails 701
T/J)LE 3
TAILED 130-13, TEST RAILS - TOLEDO DIVISION, NORTH DAYTON TO TROY.
Heat No, Defect Tonnage, Date Found Rcmaiks
Millions
H^2hS 1 T.F,* 50 Deer, 1933 Found by
27525 2 H.S.H,* 59 Dec, 193*5 Sperr/
50110 1 V.S.H.* 55,9 May 1936 Detector Car
50110 1 T.P. 73 Nov. 1936 Service
U311g 1 T.F. Nov, 1936 Failure
^^3118 3 T.F. Found ty
50110 3 T.r. 29«2 Sept, 1937 Sperry
50110 5 ?.F. Detector
_!i311?__._..l_Y.S,H, l'_l:l .!!!:__^5^! Car
* T.F, denotes transverse fissure
H.S.H, - horizontal split head
V.S.H. - vortical split head
eluded that at the worst location tested 3 percent of the wheel loads might be 30,000 lb.
or greater. Estimating an average wheel load of 10 tons, and remembering that the
tonnage passing is that for two lines of rail, this would mean the passage of about
65,000,000 tons of traffic before there would be great probability of failure by transverse
fissures.
Again the fact that this was a very crude estimate must be kept in mind. Wheel
loads of 40,000 lb. and higher were measured on the tracks north of Dayton, and their
observed frequency would lead to an estimate of 15,000 such loads under 65,000,000 tons
of traffic at the "worst" location studied. This would probably be an ample number of
wheel loads to start a fissure.
It will be noted in the tabulation that the first fissures to appear in the test rail
were those in Heats 50110 and 43118 which failed in service, breaking the block signal
circuit. These heats were expected to show the first failures, since they contained more
shatter cracks than any of the other heats in service at that location. The failures
occurred after an estimated 73,000,000 tons of traffic had passed over the track. The
vertical split head in Heat 50110 was the top rail in ingot 1 of that heat. It was laid as
the first rail leading to the west passing track at the Needham yards and failed after an
estimated traffic of 59,000,000 tons. It is possible, however, that, due to its location, it
actually carried more than the estimated tonnage and possibly was subjected to a great
many more loads of high magnitude.
The failures in Heats 47248 and 27525 which occurred after only 50,000,000 and
59,000,000 tons, respectively, were in a location about 16 miles from where the wheel-
load tests were made and as noted above, the rails were not put into service until
several years later than the others.
Again the caution must be repeated that the estimates for probable Ufe of shatter-
cracked rail are very crude indeed, and actual tonnage carried will often vary widely
from those estimates. However, the comparison of estimated and observed tonnage before
failure at the Dayton location is interesting.
702
Investigation of Fissures in Railroad Rails
V The Origin and the Prevention of Shatter Cracks in Rails
By R. E. Cramer
21. Occurrence of Shatter Cracks in New Rails.^As pointed out in Chap-
ter II, the available evidence indicates that shatter cracks are the major cause of trans-
verse fissures in rails in service, and a cause of some compound fissures and horizontal
split heads (horizontal fissures). It should be recognized that any other internal "stress
raisers" such as large slag inclusions, as shown in Fig. 9, or blow holes, as shown in
Fig. 10, will, if located in a region of high stress be equally effective in starting interior
progressive fractures. As noted in Chapter II, no fissures were developed in rolling-load
tests in rails without shatter cracks, although some fissures have occurred in service in
rails which showed no shatter cracks in subsequent etch tests. However, in these rails it
is in many cases possible that the fissure started from a single shatter crack, and that
Fig. 9. — Slag Inclusions Which Caused a Transverse Fissure.
Upper side of micrograph shows the nucleus of the fissure. Large inclusions, such as are shown here,
act as stress raisers, and in an area of high nominal stress may start internal fissures.
Magnification SO X- No Etch.
the etch test specimens happened to be taken from locations in the rail which had no
shatter cracks. It seems that occasionally a fissure may develop from a slag streak in the
rail, although rolling-load tests of new rails which showed such slag streaks but no
shatter cracks, failed to develop fissures.
As noted in Chapter II, the question was raised in connection with the early studies
of shatter cracks whether these cracks were actually present in new rails, or whether they
were developed by the etching process, or were caused by the change of strain in the rail
caused by cutting out slices of rail for etch test. By the use of high-magnification exami-
Investigation of Fissures in Railroad Rails
703
Fig. 10. — Blow Holes in Rail Head Close to
Compound Fissure.
This was a "D" rail of Ingot No. 8 in a control-
cooled heat. Many other blow holes were found in
this rail merely by sawing. They ranged in size from
that of a pinhead to that of the diameter of a lead
pencil. A blow hole is defined as "A hole produced
during the solidification of metal by evolved gas
which, in failing to escape, is held in pwckets." Such
stress raisers as blow holes may cause an internal
fissure, especially a horizontal or vertical split head.
Specimen not etched.
nation cracks were found in unetched slices of rail. Also a piece of rail adjacent to one
in which etch tests had shown shatter cracks was thoroughly annealed" so as to relieve any
internal strain. This piece of rail was then sliced and etched, and shatter cracks were
found as in the unannealed piece. This is evidence that there were some actual shatter
cracks in rail as rolled, although the majority of rails rolled in American mills are free
from shatter cracks.
In the earlier studies of shatter cracks in rail few data were obtained on the per-
centage of rail heats which developed shatter cracks. At the start of the present investi-
gation etch tests were made of each of three rails from 99 heats of new test rails and
shatter cracks were found in 45 percent of the heats of 130-lb. rails and in 33 percent of
the heats of 110-lb. rails. It is to be noted that all of the first lot of test rails were hot-
' C. B. Bronson had previously reported similar tests. See ASTM Proceedings, Vol. 19 (1919),
200-201.
704
Investigation of Fissures in Railroad Rails
bed cooled. It is not considered that these high percentages are representative of rail pro-
duction in 1931, as each rolling was only one day's production, and in some cases all
heats rolled the same day developed shatter cracks, while on other days no heats devel-
oped shatter cracks. It should be further noted that subsequent rollings of rails, even
though hot-bed cooled, showed a smaller percentage of shatter-cracked heats.
22. Possible Causes of Shatter Cracks. — It was soon recognized by members
of the test party that shatter cracks in railroad rails are the same type of internal cracks
as flakes in forgings which have been widely discussed since the first World War. Over
100 technical papers have been written on the causes and methods of preventing flakes.
Fig. 11. — Equipment for Gas Analysis of Steel by the Vacuum Fusion Method.
A great many different causes have been suggested including the following as listed by
Zapffe and Sims,^ inclusions in the steel, refining operation, casting temperature, speed of
casting, ingot size, uphill or downhill casting, quick heating in the rolling mill, excessive
draft on rolling, separated ferrite, dendrites, formation of martensite, alloy content,
transformation stresses, cooling stresses, brittle areas, and gas pressure.
Several metallurgists suggested that gas content of the finished rail might be a clue
to the cause of shatter cracks, so in 1932 in conjunction with Dr. G. F. Smith of the
Department of Chemistry of the University of Illinois the equipment shown in Fig. 11
was set up, and analyses were made of sound and shatter-cracked rails for oxygen,
hydrogen and nitrogen. It was found that the oxygen and nitrogen analyses were satis-
factory, but the hydrogen content of the rails was so low as to be below the accuracy
of the analytical method. There was no correlation between presence of shatter cracks in
the rails and the oxygen and nitrogen content. It is now understood that there would be
practically no hydrogen left in the rails two years after they had been rolled, and the
^-in. diameter specimens were machined from the rails several months before they were
analyzed.
'Zapffe, C. A. and Sims, C. E.— Hydrogen, Flakes and Shatter Cracks, Part III— Metals and
Alloys, July 1940, pages 44-51.
Investigation of Fissures in Railroad Rails 70S
From 1929 onward steel mills in the United States and Canada gave much attention
to the problem of preventing shatter cracks in rails. Control-cooled rails were the subject
of much study in steel mill laboratories, under service conditions and, of course, in this
Rails Investigation. In view of reports from German laboratories that "flakes" had been
caused in steel by treating heated steel with hydrogen, tests were made by the author
of this chapter to see whether shatter cracks could be produced in a sound steel rail by
treating it with hydrogen. A carbon-pile furnace in the mechanical engineering laboratory
at the University of Illinois was used to heat six-inch sections cut from rails free from
shatter cracks (as shown by etch test). The specimens were held in the furnace for 27
hours at 2,300 deg. F. in an atmosphere of hydrogen and then cooled in air. Typical
shatter cracks were produced by this treatment.
23. Experimental Study of Control Cooling to Prevent Shatter Cracks in
Rails. — ^The "flakes" sometimes found in alloy steel had been largely eliminated by the
use of control cooling of the steel. Shatter cracks seem to be the same as, or at least
very similar to, flakes. Control cooling of rails, then, seemed a promising method for the
prevention of shatter cracks in rails, and experimental control-cooling processes for rails
had been tried; and by 1935 control-cooled rails were in quite wide use on Canadian
railroads. An experimental study of control cooling was planned and carried out. The
tests were made in three rail mills, F, M, and D. Altogether about 450 rails and rail
specimens from some 25 heats have been tested. In these tests groups of rail specimens
were cooled in special individual cooling boxes, using four different cooling procedures,
as follows:
1. Specimens cooled in air on the mill floor to serve as "control" specimens.
2. Specimens placed in cooling boxes at the same temperature and removed at
different temperatures.
3. Specimens placed in cooling boxes at the same temperature and removed
after a fixed time in the box, the rate of cooling for different specimens being
varied by the amount of insulation used.
4. Specimens placed in cooling boxes at various temperatures and removed
after a fixed time.
In these tests each rail specimen was placed in a wooden box about 18 in. square by
3 ft. long. This box was insulated with rock wool, and the rate of cooling could be
regulated by the amount of insulation used. In this box the rate of cooling was slightly
faster during the first hour than was found to be the case in commercial control-cooling
containers; this was due to the absorption of heat by the rock wool immediately sur-
rounding the rail. However, this placed the experiments on the safe side when interpreting
results. Twelve such boxes were used in a series of tests. A thermocouple was attached to
each rail specimen as it came from the hot saw, and the temperature observed until the
rail specimen was placed in a cooling box. When a specimen was placed in a cooling box,
the first thermocouple was removed and another thermocouple clamped to the specimen
with a connection to a 12-point recording pyrometer which recorded the time and
temperature while the specimen was in the cooling box.
The rail specimens used for these tests were full-section pieces of rail about two feet
long. This length was chosen after a mathematical study of heat transfer in rails had
been made by Professor W. L. Schwalbe of the University of Illinois, who showed that
any "end effects" on the temperature gradient became inappreciable at a distance from
the end of a specimen equal to the height of the rail. At least one of the two-foot rail
specimens from each heat was cooled in air as a control specimen. Cooling in air is a
little more rapid th^n is cooling on a hot bed with other hot rails near at hand.
706
Investigation of Fissures in Railroad Rails
Fig. 12. — Typical Etch Test of an Air-Cooled, Hydrogen-Treated Rail Specimen.
Etch, 50 percent hot hydrochloric acid. This specimen showed 92 longitudinal and 62 transverse
shatter cracks on one side of a 6-in. horizontal slice cut from the head of the rail. It will be noted that
this etch test specimen showed many more shatter cracks than are shown in Fig. 1 (b), which is a
macrograph of an etch-test slice from a normally-produced, hot-bed-cooled rail. Some hydrogen-treated,
air-cooled specimens showed many more cracks than are shown in this Fig. 12.
After the rail specimens had cooled they were shipped to the Talbot laboratory,
horizontal slices were cut from the head of each specimen, and deep etch tests made
with hot hydrochloric acid. The etch tests of the air-cooled rails showed any shatter
cracks present (See Fig. 12). Brinell tests were also made on some specimens.
24. Treating Ingots with Hydrogen to Produce Shatter-Cracked Rails. —
In the earlier cooling tests it was necessary to use specimens from a large number of
heats of rail steel and take the chance that some heats would develop shatter cracks in
the air-cooled or "control" specimens. This was a very unsatisfactory procedure, owing
to the time and expense involved. The experiments with hydrogen treatment of steel
(See Section 22) suggested a way to insure a supply of shatter-cracked rail specimens
for study. A method of treating rail-steel ingots with hydrogen to develop a large num-
ber of shatter cracks was developed at the Carnegie-Illinois Steel Corporation, Gary, Ind.
This hydrogen treatment has been applied to most of the rails used in the coohng tests
during the past years and has proved to be a valuable aid in such experiments, since in
all cases when the ingots were properly treated with hydrogen the "control" specimens
have developed a large number of shatter cracks during cooling in air.
25. Method of Treating Ingot with Hydrogen. — The ingot molds were about
90 in. high, holding about S tons of steel, and in most cases only one ingot from a heat of
steel was treated with hydrogen. The method of introducing hydrogen is shown in Fig. 13.
The hydrogen from the cylinder is bubbled through a bottle containing mercury in order
to know when the gas is flowing. The rubber stopper is wired in, and the bottle tested
to over 40 lb. per sq. in. air pressure. For safety it is partly buried in a box containing
cleaning waste or covered with a wire screen. The bent J/^-in. "double extra strong" pipe
Investigation of Fissures i n Railroad Rails
707
Tf^-
Fig. 13.^ — Method of Treating Ingot with Hydrogen.
extending nearly to the bottom of the mold has a wall thickness of about Y^ in. which
requires considerable time to melt off as the molten metal rises in the ingot mold. The
hydrogen is hghted at the end of the pipe before starting to pour the ingot and to keep
the pipe open, a pressure of IS lb. per sq. in. is used when the metal first enters the
mold. As the metal rises in the mold, the hydrogen pressure is increased to keep an even
flow, as indicated by the bubbling of the gas in the bottle, and the pipe is moved back
and forth across the mold in the molten steel. A maximum pressure up to about 30 lb.
per sq. in. is necessary, depending on how fast the pipe melts away. It has been found
advisable to stop the flow of hydrogen when the metal is about one foot from the top
of the mold to keep the molten metal from spattering out of the mold. The pipe is
shortened by about four feet when removed from the mjtal, depending on how fast the
ingot is poured. The time of pouring has been varied from two to four minutes and this
also governed the volume of hydrogen used, the latter usually varying between 25 and
40 cu. ft. While freezing, the metal gives off considerable hydrogen which burns at the
top of the ingot. In the case of one ingot the solid crust was burned through with an
oxygen jet resulting in a J^-in. stream of molten steel being thrown 5 or 6 ft. high for
about a half minute, showing that considerable internal pressure is developed as hydrogen
and other gases are liberated during the solidification of the steel.
The use of hydrogen treatment of rails in studying the prevention of shatter cracks
does not involve the assumption that hydrogen is the sole cause of shatter cracks in rails.
It does involve the assumption that a control-cooling process which will prevent the very
severe shatter cracking found in air-cooled hydrogen-treated rails will be effective in pre-
venting shatter cracks in normally produced rails. This assumption appears not
unreasonable.
708
Investigation of Fissures in Railroad Rails
26. Results of Tests in Special Cooling Boxes. — Tables 4 and 5 give the
results of cooling tests of rail specimens placed in special individual cooling boxes.
Figure 14 shows typical cooling curves during a test. An examination of Table 4 shovi^s
that shatter cracks were prevented in many of the box-cooled rail specimens, and that
the prevention of shatter cracks is made more probable by (1) placing the rail in the
cooling box at as high a temperature as is practicable, and (2) allowing the rail to remain
in the cooling box for as long as is practicable. Naturally the longer the rail is left in
the cooling box, the colder it will be when removed; however, it will be shown later
that it is the time in the coohng box rather than the temperature of rail specimen at
removal which is significant in the prevention of shatter cracks.
0 > 2 3
TIME - HOURS
Fig. 14. — Typical Cooling Curves for Rail Speci-
men (2 ft. Long) in Individual Cooling Box Insulated
with Rock Wool.
The practicable maximum temperature of the rail as it is placed in the cooling
container is set by the tendency of the finished rail to be soft if the temperature at
time of placing in container is too high. In another series of tests, described in Section 30,
no appreciable change in hardness from that of air-cooled rails was found for specimens
held in a furnace at 900 deg. F. for S and 6 hours. Rail specimens placed in cooling
boxes at 1,100 deg. F. were 5 to 10 Brinell numbers softer than air-cooled specimens.
Rails held in a furnace at 1,100 deg. F. were 25 to 30 Brinell numbers softer than air-
cooled specimens: 900 deg. F. was chosen as an upper temperature limit for placing rails
in cooling boxes. The exigencies of rolling mill practice make it impracticable to get
every rail into the cooling box at precisely 900 deg. F., and for the upper limit of a
temperature cycle of control cooling which should serve as a criterion for judging the
effectiveness of the process in removing shatter cracks, 700 deg. F. was chosen — an arbi-
trary value, but not an unreasonable one. It is, approximately, the lower limit permitted
in the present practice for control cooling rails.
For the lower limit of the temperature cycle 300 deg. F. was chosen. This is also
an arbitrary value which was selected because it was recognized in the present specifica-
tion for control cooling of rails which is in rather general use today, so the time required
for the rail to cool from 700 deg. F. to 300 deg. F. is given in Table 4.
An examination of Table 4 shows that no shatter cracks were found in any rail
specimen which was placed in a cooling box at a temperature of 700 deg. F. or higher,
and which, remaining in the box, required 7 hours or more to cool down to 300 deg. F.
Investigation of Fissures in Railroad Rails
709
TABLE U,
TESTS TOR SBXnm CSACKS IH HAIL SP7CV£WS PLACXD IN SPICItL
COOLIHG B0X3S AT A TaffERAIUM OF 700° FAHS. OH HlfflZH,
Boxes Insulated wlUi roclc wool* One box for each rail E^eclmen teated.
Heat
SDeclmens
Time m
Box
Time to Shatter Cracks
Cool from In &-ln.
Shattai
In 6-1 1
r Cracks
Put m
HanoTod
U of
Box at
from
700° ?.
to
Stch
Specimen
Control
Specimen
degrees
Box at
y, degrees F,
hours
1
300° F.
hoUTB
i
Cooled In Air
lOng,
Trans,
Long.
-Trans,
I.
, TESTS AT MILL T <
Normally produced
Halls
'•
(a)
llS-lb, rails
gg
900
700
leas
than
1,8
less
than
1.8
7
0
22
0
900
6oo
N
N
3."+
n
II
5:?
0
0
900
-
-
-
M
«
0
0
78
900
goo
less
than
1.9
less
than
1.9
7
0
29
0
900
700
■
a
2.6
n
ii
2.6
1
0
900
6oo
II
"
5.'4
"
n
s."*
0
0
900
-
-
-
H
■
3.'^
0
0
73
900
goo
less
than
2.6
less
than
2.6
0
0
15
0
900
700
■
■
U.l
II
■
K\
0
0
900
6oo
II
R
i*.5
H
H
^.5
0
0
900
-
-
-
H
II
2.9
0
0
^
900
soo
less
than
?.3
leE3
than
2.3
8
0
22
1
900
700
"
R
3.2
n
II
3.2
0
0
900
6oo
n
H
5.U
"
n
5.'4
0
0
900
-
-
-
"
»
3.0
3
0
(b)
130-lb. rails
70
900
goo
less
than
2.9
less
than
2.9
1
0
16
0
900
700
"
n
3.7
li
"
3.7
0
0
900
600
"
n
5.5
"
"
5.5
0
0
900
-
-
-
II
R
3.5
0
0
91
900
goo
less
than
2.6
loss
than
2.6
20
0
21*
1
900
700
II
n
3.1
"
n
3.1
9
0
900
600
"
"
5.8
"
n
5.g
0
0
900
-
-
-
"
R
3.'+
3
0
9i
900
goo
less
than
2.8
less
than
2.8
6
0
23
1
900
700
n
"
U.O
"
n
U.o
0
0
900
600
"
"
7.0
"
11
7.0
0
0
900
-
-
-
"
II
3.7
1
0
69
900
800
less
than
2.8
less
than
2.8
16
0
20
2
900
700
"
n
3.2
H
"
3.2
5
0
900
600
"
"
5.5
n
It
5.5
0
0
900
-
-
-
II
"
3.8
6
0
II. TESTS AT HILL U - Nomally produced Balls.
100-lb, rails
900
800
900
700
900
600
900
500
900
900
m
900
-
900
800
900
700
900
600
900
500
900
900
-
900
•
900
-
900
800
900
900
§2
900
500
■900
900
•
900
-
0.2
-
-
7
c
0.6
-
-
6
0
2.2
less
than 2,2
0
0
4.6
n
" 1+.6
0
0
-
n
' 1.9
2
0
-
n
" 3.7
0
0
-
H
" 5.t
0
0
0.'+
-
.
U3
7
1.1
-
-
7
&
3.V
loss
than 3,2
0
0
5.3
"
" 5.3
0
0
-
R
" 1.2
21
1*
-
II
■ i.e
u
0
-
R
" 3.3
0
0
-
" 5.e
0
0
0.5
-
_
10
It
i.3
-
-
0
0
3.3
lets
than 3,3
0
0
b.7
R
" 6.7
0
0
-
"
" l,k
13
3
-
"
" 2.e
1
0
-
"
" 5."*
0
0
10
25
710 Investigation of Fissures in Railroad Rails
TABLE U (Contlnaed)
Eaat Specimens Time in Time to Shatter Cracks Shatter Cracks
Pat in Sanoved Box Coo^ from In 6>in« In 6-ln. of
Box at from 700 7. to Stch Specimen Control Speclmes
Box at 300° P. Cooled in Air
hours hours Long. Trans. Long. Trans*
degrees F* degrees 7.
Ill . TSSTS AT lilLL M - 100-1^. Balls from Hjrdrogen-treated Ingots.
3 900 800 0.3 - - 280 Us i67 33
700
bOO
500
800 0.5 - - 29 10 Uo
500
0.3
.
.
280
1*2
1.1
-
_
261+
1*6
1:5
leas
It
than 2.C
65
0
Ik
0
—
" 2.1
100
^k
*
n
' lit
"1
k
0
0.5
-
.
29
10
1.T
-
-
8
2
2.2
less
*^l:l
2
0
U.b
II
0
0
—
N
" i»5
21
«s
—
It
" 2.5
3
0
—
" U.O
0
0
-
" 5.7
0
0
0.3
-
-
20
g
1.0
B
••
7
^.V
less
than 2.9
0
0
7.1
R
" 7.1
0
0
-
"
" 2,0
10
140
-
»
" 3.5
k
2
-
"
" 6.2
0
0
12 900 800
900 700 1.0 - - 7 Zk 18 qU
900 600 2.9 less than 2.9 0 0
900 500
lY. TESTS AT MIUi D - 131-lt. Itolls from Hydrogen-treated Ingots,
1«0 - ^ 150 5U 207 U3
2,0 "" -' ^
3.0
Kq
5,0
6,0
3.0
Si.o
5.0
6.C
7.0
8,0
2.0 - - 75 1^ 210 90
klo
5.0
6,0
7.0
U1003
1100
930
Ingot 9
1100
8S0
1100
760
1100
760
uoo
710
1100
720
700
1*70
700
410
700
1*30
700
1*25
700
hjo
700
450
U1003
950
710
Ingot 11
950
700
950
665
950
61«o
950
520
950
530
>K)159
700
H65
700
U50
700
U25
700
m
700
iwo
700
390
> .t
150
5U
- -
112
24
- -
35
7
• -
0
0
- -
0
0
- •
0
0
IS
50
20
11
8
5.3
3
1
b.3
0
0
7.3
0
0
8.3
0
0
. .
75
40
• -
25
16
1.3
3
1
2.1
0
0
4.7
0
0
5.0
0
0
2.1
230
^7
56
26
5.2
U2
15
6.1
k
0
7.1
0
0
8.1
0
0
3.1* ^.2 230 4^ 128 29
slo*
6,0»
7.0*
8,0*
• After remoTal from cooling box, specimen was cooled to 100 F,
under a 3-ft, mill fan end then placed In Ice water for 8 hows
to reprdcent severe winter cooling conditions.
Investigation of Fissures in Railroad Rails
711
88
78
73
5^
91
6k
69
TESTS FOE SHATTKE CHACKS IN BAIL SPBCIMMS WHICH VSBS HIMOVBD
PHCW JSPTCIAL COOUNQ box at a HNPEHATOHB HlfflfflR THAH 300' P,
Heat Wt.of
Ball Put In
Box at
Speclmene
F.emoved
from
Box at
l)).per
yard iegreea F. degrees F*
Time
Box
hour*
Shatter cracks
In 6-ln,
Stch Specimen
Long* Trans*
I. TESTS AT MILL 7
(a) 112-11* lulls
- Normally produced rails*
112
112
112
112
700
Goo
800
gs
800
700
Soo
800
700
70 130
130
130
130
100
100
100
900
900
900
900
900
900
900
900
900
900
900
(b) 130-lb* rails
900
900
900
900
900
900
900
900
900
900
900
900
less than
800
700
600
800
700
600
800
700
800
700
600
1.8
1.9
2*6
2.3
3.2
5,h
2.9
3.7
5.5
2.6
3.1
5.8
2.8
U.O
7.0
2.8
3.2
5.5
1
0
0
20
9
0
6
0
0
16
5
0
n* TESTS AT MILL U - Honnalljr produced rails.
900
900
900
900
900
900
900
900
900
900
loo-lb, rails
800
700
600
500
800
700
600
500
800
700
600
500
3 100
100
12 100
900
900
900
900
900
900
900
900
900
900
900
900
800
700
600
500
800
500
800
700
600
50O
0*2
0.6
I '0
2*2
0 0
Ke
0 0
U
'? I
3.2
0 0
5.3
0 0
0.5
10 k
1.3
0 0
3.2
0 0
fc.7
0 0
s from
Hjrdrogen-treate
0.3
280 U2
1.1
264 46
2.2
2 0
<>.x
0 0
0.5
29 10
i:l
5 2
2 0
h,b
0 0
©•3
x«o
20 6S
7 24
2.9
0 0
7.1
0 0
Shatter cracks
In 6-ln, of
Control Specimen
Cooled In Air
Long* Trans*
22
29
15
22
16
2U
23
20
10
25
167
>»0
18
33
9^
712 Investigation of Fissures in Railroad Rails
SABLE 3 (Contlaued)
Heat ft.of Specimens IEi™e la Shatter Cracks Shatter Cracks
Ball Put la EeooTsd Box in 6-ln, in 6-in, of
Box at from Itch Specimen Control Specimen
Box at Cooled In Air
Ib.per
yard degrees F, degrees ?. hours I>ong. Trans. Long, Trans.
IV, TESTS AT Mill B - 131-lt, Halls fran Hydrogen-treated Ingots,.
86371 131 500 390 3.0
S6373 127 500 1+20 3.0
• «»0 ■?8'5 '^•O
Ingot
U
500
390
^0
%5
500
360
500
U20
500
385
500
380
500
325
500
385
500
375
500
360
500
325
1100
930
1100
880
iiOO
7G0
1100
1100
lis
uoo
720
700
470
700
kw
700
kso
700
^so
700
1*30
700
U50
950
710
950
700
950
670
950
9k>
950
520
950
530
500
380
500
370
500
350
500
350
500
320
500
330
700
470^
700
lAo''
700
hyi^
700
1+20''
700
Uoo*
700
390^
5.0
6.0
3.0
h,o
5.0
6,0
7.0
3.0
H.O
5.0
6.0
7*0
8.0
1*0159 131 700 470^ 3.0
700 kko^ ^.0
5.0
6,0
7.0
8.0
2l)0 65
5.0
6,0
85371 127 500 385 3»0
fioo 375 '♦.0
5.0
6,0
U1003 131 1100 930 1.0
Ingot 9 UOO 880 2.0 112 2^ ^^ ^
U.0
5.0
6,0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
I4IOO3 131 550 710 2.0 75 ^ 210 90
21
2
'?
2
0
3
0
7
2
1
0
0
0
1
0
90
15
26
7
21
3
1
0
150
54
112
2h
35
5
0
0
0
0
0
0
50
11
20
8
3
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
75
140
25
16
3
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
31
12
19
5
0
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
.230
U7
5b
26
42
15
U
0
0
0
0
0
160 55
28
128 29
^ Hall cooled by J-foot fan and Ice water on removal from the cooling tox.
Investigation of Fiss ures in Railroad Rails
713
■I on
7 rH a
) rJ 5
> O fl
> "M'tJ
o
; « o
I i-i (p
> a a <^
; ^1
o o
u
o o
■a
^:
6 o I
fVJ <H iH iH
CTv R 5S
^ 5
© -^ -rt d
0) o I
d o
•tf ffi
•H d S
d ♦» -S
JH.g
3» o ,-1 K
& 5^ I
S 8
^
TESTS POH SHATTER CRACKS IH RAIL SPBCIMEHS PUT IK70 SPBCLW,
COOLIKO BOXES AT TaffERATUEES 07 llOO Fahr. OB LOTOR.
"gJJ^ yt.af Speclmena Time In Shatter Cracks Shatter Cracks
Ball Put in Box In 6-ln. in 6-in. of
Sox at Etch Speclioen Control %ieciiaen
ll),per Cooled In Air
yard degrees I. hours z^. Trans, Long. Trans.
I, TESTS AT MILL ? - Hoinally produced rails.
« 112 200 21 1 0
21 0 0
21 0 0
200 21 3 0
21 0 0
a 0 0
7«
112
73
112
^
112
70
131
91
131
9i
131
69
131
II.
2
100
300
uoo
300
I«00
29
200 21 0 0
300 21 0 0 15
UOO 21 0 0
200 21 2 0 22
300 21 0 0
UOO 21 0 0
300 21 0 0 16
I40O 21 0 0
300 21 0 0 2l*
I40O 21 0 0
300 21 0 0 23
IJOO 21 0 0
300 21 0 0 20
TESTS AT MILL U - Komally produced rails.
200 18.0 0 0 10
0
300
WO
18.0
7.6
12.6
0
0
0
lU.?
7
0
0
19.8
8.7
1U.S
7
0
0
0
100 200 lU.? 7 0 25
300 5*^ 0 0
100 200 19.8 70s
300 8.7 0 0
0
III. T^STS AT MILL U - Balls from Hydrogen-treated Ingots.
3 100 200 15.1 loU h 167 33
TOO 6.'* g 0
1(00 11»6 0 0
8 100 200 21.0 5 0 "W 6
g.5 0 0
300
MOO
11.8 0 0
12 100 200 21.0 1 0 18 9^
300
MOO
8.5 0 0
13.5 0 0
IT. IES7S AT MILL D - Ralls from Hydrogen- treated Ixxgots.
86371 131 210 More than 10.0 30 1 l6o 55
255 " " 10.0 lU C
320 " " 10.0 2 0
U20 19.0 0 0
86373 127 200 « » 10.0 13 0 87 28
250 " " 10.0 1 0
300 » « 10,0 0 0
UOO 20.0 0 0
85371 127 200 • " 7.0 110 7 s'to 65
260 » « 10,0 19 0
300 " • 10.0 2 0
Moo 18.5 0 0 ______
Investigation of Fissures in Railroad Rails 715^
27. Is It Necessary to Allow Rails to Remain in the Cooling Box Until
They Have Cooled Down to 300 deg. F,? — The recommended standard practice
now in general use for control-cooling of rails requires that they be not removed from
the cooling container until all rails have cooled down to 300 deg. F. This frequently
requires 20 to 30 hours before the slowest cooHng rail in the container reaches that
temperature. This is a source of expense in rail production.
To throw light on this question Table 5 has been prepared from the data of the
series of tests made at the different rail mills. In this table are recorded the results of
tests of 89 rail specimens each of which was removed from the cooling box at a tem-
perature above 300 deg. F. An examination of this table shows that none of these rail
specimens which had remained in the cooling box as long as 7 hours developed shatter
cracks. It therefore seems that the tests showed that shatter cracks were prevented in all
rail specimens which were placed in the cooling boxes at a temperature of 700 deg. F. or
higher and which remained in the boxes for 7 hours or longer without cooling below
300 deg. F.
In this connection the question was raised whether the above conclusion would hold
in winter weather, when rails removed from cooHng containers above 300 deg. F. would
be subjected to a more rapid cooling to air temperature than was the case during these
tests which were mainly in the summer. To answer this question the rail specimens from
Mill D, Heat 40159, on being removed from the cooling boxes were cooled down to
100 deg. F. under a 3-ft. mill fan, and then placed in ice water for 8 hours. This drastic
treatment did not develop shatter cracks in any rail which had been in the cooling box
for 7 hours or more. The answer to the question, "Is it necessary to allow rails to
remain in cooling box until they have cooled down to 300 deg. F.?" seems to be "no,"
not if a rail is placed in a cooUng container at 700 deg. F. or higher, and remains there
for 7 hours, or longer, without cooling below 300 deg. F. So long as a rail does not cool
below a certain minimum temperature, it seems to be time in the cooling container,
rather than minimum temperature reached which is significant.
28. Rates of Cooling of Rails in Commercial Cooling Containers. — Two
series of tests have been made on rates of cooling in coohng containers in use in Mills D,
E, F, and G. The first series of tests showed that the rails in the lower layer of some
containers cooled very rapidly — coohng from 700 deg. F. to 300 deg. F. in 3 hours or
less in some cases. Since tests had shown that it was not necessary to wait until all rails
had reached 300 deg. F. before removing any rails from the cooling box, it became pos-
sible to remedy this rapid cooling by better insulation of the boxes against loss of heat.
Figures 15 and 16 show how such insulation may improve the control-cooling process.
Figure 15 shows the cooling curves for rails in various locations in an uninsulated cooling
container. One of the test rails cooled from 700 deg. F. to 300 deg. F. in 3 hours and
another in 5 hours. Figure 16 shows cooHng curves for rails in an insulated cooHng box
at the same mill. The fastest cooling rail cooled from 700 deg. F. to 300 deg. F. in 7 hours.
Nearly all the cooling containers in United States mills are now insulated. The bottom of
the cooling box or car is covered with a layer of insulating material, and the sides and
ends are insulated to a height of two or three feet. It seems important that there should
be a minimum of air space between the rails and the sides, ends and floor of the cooling
box or car.
An obvious way of taking advantage of improved insulation in containers, and of
the fact that it seems unnecessary that all rails cool to 300 deg. F. before the container
is opened, is to allow the removal of the lid from the cooling container after some
minimum time. This procedure was tried on hydrogen-treated rails at Mills D, E, F,
716
Investigation of Fissures in Railroad Rails
TIME - HOURS
Fig. IS. — Cooling Curves for Rails in Commercial Cooling Box Without Special Insulation.
and G, using an interval of 12 hours from the time of placing the lid on the container
to the time of its removal. Rails were removed as soon as it was deemed they would not
suffer distortion by handhng. Figure 16 shows a typical set of cooling curves, and Table 6
gives the test results. It will be noted that the air-cooled control rail specimens showed
numerous shatter cracks, but that no shatter cracks were found in the hydrogen-treated
rails which were control cooled using this "lid-lifting" procedure. Some of these test rails
were placed in the top layer of the box, some in the bottom layer. At two of the mills
the fastest cooling rail cooled to 300 deg. F. in less than 7 hours. However, none of the
control-cooled hydrogen-treated rails developed shatter cracks. These tests give rather
strong evidence of the rehability of the plan proposed, to remove the lid from the
cooling container after a definite interval of time.
29. At What Temperature Do Shatter Cracks Actually Form?— This ques-
tion is of interest, although it does not bear directly on the question of details of pro-
cedure in control cooling of rails. Table 7 lists results of tests on 49 rail specimens at
three mills which were put into cooling boxes at low temperatures, and allowed to stay
there for periods varying from 5.4 hours to 21 hours. It will be noted that some speci-
mens put in at 200 deg. F. showed shatter cracks even after 21 hours in the coohng box.
This seems to indicate that in those cases the shatter cracks had begun to form before
the specimens were placed in the coohng box. On the other hand, the specimens put in
at 300 deg. F. showed very few shatter cracks. This would seem to indicate that the
actual formation of shatter cracks takes place somewhere in the temperature range from
200 to 300 deg. F. It may be noted that tests by Wishart and Swanson® on rail specimens
placed in a furnace and reheated after they had cooled to 200 deg. F. show some evi-
dence that the formation of shatter cracks may begin nearer to 200 deg. F. than to
300 deg. F. It is to be noted that, although shatter cracks actually form at or below
* Trans., Am. Soc. Metals, September 1939, p. 785, footnote.
Investigation of Fiss ures in Railroad Rails 717
900
-Cooling Curves for Rails in Commercial Cooling Box with Insulation
Around Bottom and Ends of Box.
This test made at the same mill and under approximately the same air temperature
as the test shown in Fig. IS.
300 deg. F., the rate of cooling at temperatures above that range determines whether or
not shatter cracks occur.
Two main results of the tests of control cooling of rails may be summed up as
follows:
(a) No evidence of shatter cracks was found for rails or rail specimens
which were placed in the cooling container at a temperature of 700 deg. F. or
higher, provided that the fastest cooling rail (usually a corner rail in the bottom
row) did not cool down from 700 to 300 deg. F. in less than 7 hours.
(b) Removing the lid from the container 12 hours after it had been put in
place did not develop shatter cracks in any rail for which the conditions outlined
in (a) were fulfilled.
30. Tests of Rails Held at Constant Temperatures. — Tests on another type
of thermal treatment which has been used at one mill give information on the time
necessary to hold rails at various constant temperatures to prevent the formation of
shatter cracks. These tests were all made at Mill D on 131-lb. rails. After the hydrogen-
treated specimens were cut at the hot saws they were cooled on the mill floor to tem-
peratures of 1,100, 900, 700 and 500 deg. F. and all but the control specimen were placed
in a gas-fired furnace held at the above temperatures. The results of these tests are
summarized in Table 8.
After being removed from the furnace the specimens from Tests 3 and 4 were
cooled under the mill fan and then in ice water for eight hours. This accounts for the
718
Investigation of Fissures in Railroad Rails
Table 8
Results of Etch Tests of Specimens Held For Various Lengths of Time at
Four Different Temperatures
tN
umber of Shatter Cracks on One
Constant
Time in
Side of Six-inch Slice
Furnace
Temperatures
Furnace,
Hours
Test 1
Test 2
Test 3**
Test 4**
Control Spec*
0
105 L, 45 T
1,100° F.
1
2
65 L, 24 T
5L,
3
0
4
0
5
0
6
0
Control Spec*
0
160 L, 44 T
87 L, 18 T
92 L, 62 T
125 L, 50 T
900° F.
1
86 L, 14 T
26 L, 4 T
191 L, 78 T
160 L, 50 T
"
2
55 L, 8T
8L,
43 L, 21 T
163 L, 44 T
>>
3
3L, 2 T
0
8 L, 1 T
14 L, 3 T
i>
4
0
0
0
0
>i
5
0
0
0
0
"
6
0
0
0
0
Control Spec*
0
116 L, 19 T
118 L, 21 T
700° F.
1
85 L, 8 T
94 L, 10 T
2
14 L,
29 L, IT
3
IL,
4L,
4
0
0
5
0
0
6
0
0
Control Spec*
0
139 L, 46 T
500° F.
1
2
3
4
5
6
138 L, 57 T
52 L, 28 T
44 L, 5 T
10 L, IT
0
0
transverse (T) shatter cracks
* Control specimen cooled in air outside the mill.
t Shatter cracks are recorded as the number of longitudinal (L) or
on one side of a longitudinal slice six inches long.
** For Tests 3 and 4, after the specimens were removed from the furnace they were cooled under
a mill fan and then in ice water for eight hours.
increased number of shatter cracks in the specimen held in the furnace one hour as
compared with the number found in the control specimen cooled on the mill floor. It
will be noted that the formation of shatter cracks was prevented by holding the speci-
mens 3 hours at 1,100 deg. F. ; 4 hours at 900 deg. F. and 700 deg. F.; and S hours at
500 deg. F. The tests also furnish further evidence that after the rails have been held a
sufficient time at a given temperature, fast cooHng to freezing temperatures is not
dangerous.
31. The Brunorizing Process for Rails. — A commercial process of normalizing
rails was developed by the Illinois Steel Company in 1936. Rails treated by this process
are called Brunorized rails in honor of Mr. John Brunner, manager, Department of
Investigation of Fissures in Railroad Rails 719
Metallurgy and Inspection, Carnegie-Illinois Steel Corp., co-chairman of the contact
committee during the early part of the Rails Investigation. An important modification
in this process was made in April 1938 which includes holding the rails in gas heated
containers at a temperature about 1,000 deg. F. for two or more hours before the nor-
malizing treatment. A few heats of rails produced by the Brunorizing process before the
modification in 1938 have developed typical transverse fissures in service from shatter
crack nuclei but no Brunorized rails produced after the holding period was adopted have
developed fissures. Laboratory tests were made of hydrogen-treated rails produced by
the modified process but no shatter cracks were found while companion rails cooled on
the hot bed developed many shatter cracks. Laboratory tests and service records so far
available indicate that the holding period is adequate to prevent shatter cracks in
Brunorized rails.
32. The Service Record of Control-Cooled Rails. — Mr. W. C. Barnes, engineer
of tests for the AREA Committee on Rail, reports about 3,000,000 tons of control-cooled
rail (rolled under contract, not including experimentally control-cooled rail) in service
June 30, 1940. Up to October 1940 only three actual fissures' in control-cooled rail and
one vertical split head had been reported to the test party. Laboratory tests showed that
two of the three fissures started from large slag inclusions near the tread of the rail, and
that the third started from blow holes in the head of the rail. A vertical split head
had developed from a gross slag segregation surrounded by a large area of decarburized
steel. All four rails were found to be free from shatter cracks. This may be considered
a decidedly promising record for control-cooled rails, and gives ground for the expectation
that very few, if any, control-cooled rails will develop the ordinary type of transverse
fissure, originating in a shatter crack.
33. What Control Cooling Will Not Do for Rails. — A word of caution about
control-cooled rails seems in order. Control cooling is not a panacea for all rail troubles.
It will not prevent segregation and slag inclusions. It will not prevent decarburization of
steel. It will not prevent undue wear at the tread, with consequent slivering and some-
times the starting of a progressive (fatigue) fracture. It will not prevent failures starting
in the base or the web of the rail. It will not prevent failures starting from wheel burns
on rail. It seems so far to be a very effective inhibitor of shatter cracks, and may be
expected to reduce very greatly transverse fissure failures and compound fissure failures
as the ratio of control-cooled rail to total rail in service increases.
VI Chemical Composition and Metallographic Structure
of Rail Steel
By R. E. Cramer
34. Chemical Composition of Rail Steel.— During the investigation heat analyses
were furnished the test party for all test rails. However, all the test rails showed chemical
analyses within the allowable limits set by AREA specifications. Table 9 gives those
limits.
During the early part of the investigation, when testing 130-lb. rails, shatter cracks
were found to be more prevalent in rails of high silicon content. However, in later tests
of 110-lb. rails, especially those from one rail mill which were quite high in silicon, this
relationship between high silicon and shatter cracks broke down.
* Several broken raik had been repwrted as "transverse fissures" or "compound fissures", which ,on
examination were found to be failures starting from the surface at a bum or at the flowed metal at an
upper comer of the head of a rail. Such failures are not properly classified as fissures, which start
from the inside of the head of the rail.
720
Investigation of Fissures in Railroad Rails
* .«
»^ A
gffj-'' J ■»^' 'V •'■-•''* '-3* ■■ ' ' ^
7 '"^---^kii^iikkj #^' - ■'♦
8
•*>?SwWiPW'^
1
b
i
Fig. 17.— Longitudinal Horizontal Sections of Rail Heads Showing Segregation Streaks.
(a) Rail 82. Etched in acid to show segregation streaks. Numbers indicate location of tension specimens
from the rail. Chemical analysis made of material in streaks m this rail. ^,,„^i,pi
(b) Rail 92. Etched in acid showing segregation streaks from which material was taken for chemical
analysis. , , , , . ^ .
(c) Longitudinal section of Rail 82. No shatter cracks shown by etch test. ,„„„„,♦;„„
(d) Longitudinal section of Rail 546. Both transverse and longitudinal shatter cracks along segregation
streaks shown by etch test.
Investigation of Fissures in Railroad Rails
721
Table 9
Standards for Chemical Content of Rail Steel
AREA Standards
Item 1931 As Revised 1933
Weight of Rail, lb. per yd 110-120 120-140 110-120 120-140
Carbon, percent 0.67-0.83 0.72-0.89 0.67-0.80 0.68-0.82
Manganese, percent 0.50-0.90 0.50-0.90 0.70-1.00 0.70-1.00
Phosphorus, percent, max 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.04
Silicon, percent 0.15 min. O.lS min. 0.10-0.23 0.10-0.23
It was generally recognized that there were more shatter cracks in rails of the
higher carbon content. Because of these considerations the chemical analysis of carbon
steel rails was revised by the AREA in 1933 to slightly lower the carbon content, and
definite limits were set on the silicon content. The changes in chemical analyses were
made before control cooling was adopted by the United States rail mills.
35. Segregation of Chemical Constituents. — It is well recognized that it is
difficult to prevent chemical segregation in ingots of the size used for railroad rails,
which are around 2 ft. square by 80 to 90 in. high. Such ingots require considerable time
to solidify to the center so if the molten steel is not in the ideal state for pouring, the
ingots may develop segregation or pipes. Phosphorus, sulphur and carbon are the
chemical elements most likely to segregate. The recent adoption of the all-ingot nick and
break test should reduce to a minimum the number of piped or web segregated rails
which will be put in service in track.
Table 10
Chemical Composition of Segregated Streaks in Rails 82 and 92
Chemical
Content-
-Per cent
Rail
Method of Sampling
C
Mn
Si
P
.S
82
Composite sample across
rail
0.79
0.88
0.06
0.035
0.026
Sample from segregation
streaks
Increase in streaks
0.87
0.08
0.96
0.08
0.05
—0.01
0.100
0.065
0.067
0.041
92
Composite sample across
rail
0.69
0.80
0.17
0.029
0.041
Sample from segregation
streaks
Increase in streaks
0.77
0.08
0.87
0.07
0.16
—0.01
0.066
0.037
0.076
0.035
Careful consideration has been given during the course of the Rails Investigation to
segregated streaks found throughout the heads of some rails. Figure 17 (a) and (b)
show two examples containing very large segregation streaks. Drillings for chemical
analyses were taken from the segregation streaks of these two rails using a drill 0.086
in. in diameter. For comparison a composite sample was made with a %-in. drill of the
metal across the width of the heads midway between the top and bottom. The analyses
of these samples are given in Table 10.
722
Investigation of Fis sures in Railroad Rails
These analyses show a decided segregation of phosphorus and sulphur in the streaks
and some increase in the carbon and manganese. To determine the effect of this com-
position on the physical properties of the metal in the streaks, 8 tensile specimens yi in.
in diameter, at the reduced section, were machined from Rail 82 which is shown in
Fig. 17 (a). This rail did not contain shatter cracks in the segregation streaks as is evi-
dent in Fig. 17 (c). The method of obtaining such specimens was to etch both ends of
4%-in. sections of the rail head and to center punch the streaks which extended through
the sections. The tensile specimens were then turned out using these punch marks as
centers. Two control specimens, No. 7 and No. 8, were taken from the lower corners of
the head which did not contain segregation streaks. The specimens were tested in
spherical seated holders in an Olsen 10,000-lb. testing machine and special care was taken
to line up the axis of each specimen perpendicular to the plane of the cross-head of the
testing machine. Table 11 gives the results of the tensile tests.
Table 11
Tensile Test Results of Specimens From Segregated Streaks and From
Unsegregated Metal in Rail 82
Specimen
Tensile
Strength,
lb. per
sq. in.
Elongation
in 3 in.,
percent
Reduction
of Area,
percent
Specimens From Segregated Streaks
82-1
146,500
144,000
142,300
140,000
133,300
144,600
"4.3
6.0
6.0
7.0
6.0
7.8
82-2
8.4
82-3
10.8
82-4
8.5
82-5 -
15.0
82-6
11.0
Av. -
141,800
113,500
117,500
5.9
14.0
12.5
10.3
Specimens From Unsegregated Metal
82-7 --
20.2
82-8
28.9
Av.
115,500
13.2
24.6
1
It will be noted that the metal in the segregated streaks was stronger but lower in
ductihty than the unsegregated metal. The results of these chemical and physical tests
give some explanation why shatter cracks are often located along or radiating from
segregation streaks, as shown in Fig. 17 (d). It seems that the brittle material of the
streaks would be more subject to cracking than the more ductile metal surrounding the
streaks and so it is not unusual to find some rails containing shatter cracks only along
such streaks.
36. Metallographic Tests of Rail Steel. — Metallographic examination of pol-
ished specimens has been an important tool throughout the investigation. It is difficult
to summarize the metallographic tests because so large a portion of this work has
necessarily been of a routine nature. Metallographic testing has been used to study rails
for grain size, impurities, location of cracks, decarburization both external and internal,
Investigation of Fissures in Railroad Rails
723
C^
Pi
o
'^ a
-" o
m
o|^
■-'
j3
13 C ^
g- n
n-gs
<c 3-5;
"n^-
n a
•^■9 —
■^ c,«
<u a
a-|'§
M"^ 1-
•-00
G
3
O
a
E
o
> "u 2 o
S - =• 0 -
■q ia>-i.2 o
< .B a"
g '5. rt ■"
724
I n V es ti srat io n of Fissures in Railroad Rails
Fig. 19. — Typical Crystalline Structures of Rail Steel.
(a) Excess ferrite. Magnification 110 X- Etch 2 percent picral.
(b) Pearlitic structure. Magnification 110 X- Etch 2 percent picral.
(c) Excess cementite. Magnification 110 X- Etch sodium picrate.
(d) Pearlitic structure. Magnification 1,100 X- Etch 2 percent picral.
I
In*
>«:,r\J
Fig. 20.— Path of Fatigue Crack Through Pearlite.
Magnification 1,500 X. Etch 2 percent picral. Note that the crack is
comparatively straight with no branches.
Investigation of Fissures in Railroad Rails
72S
etc. About 1,000 photomicrographs have been taken, using magnifications from 100 X
to 4,000 X) and these are available in the files of the Rails Investigation. Most photo-
micrographs of the grain structures of rails have been taken at either 200 X or 2,000 X
magnification, depending on whether it was desirable to show the general grain size or
the nature of the pearlite within the grains. The microscope has also been used to study
and photograph scratch extensometer records and to measure the radii of notching tools
used to make notches in fatigue specimens.
A typical example of the use of the microscope to study failures is shown in Fig. 18.
The straight longitudinal part of Fig. 18 (a) was known to be the origin of a compound
fissure in a Bessemer rail. This picture is a group of three photomicrographs originally
taken at 100 X magnification and here reduced to about 33 X- The straight edge just
above the inclusion marked A-B represents the section of initial failure. At the right end
of the straight section the horizontal component of the fissure turned down in the rail
Fig. 21.— Shatter Crack in PearUte.
Magnification 1,500 X. Etch 2 percent picral. Note that the shatter
crack is very irregular and has branches extending in various directions,
indicating a shattered condition of the steel.
726 Investigation of Fissures in Railroad Rails
head. This portion of the fissure made an oblique angle with the polished surface, which
makes the crack appear much wider than it would on a surface perpendicular to the
crack. If a straight edge is laid along the inclusions C and D in Fig. 18 (a), it will be
seen that they are in line with the edge where the fissure started, indicating that there
has been an inclusion along this straight section of the fissure.
Further verification of the above explanation is shown in the lower photomicrograph
marked (b) of Fig. 18. This micrograph was taken at 400 X magnification and is repro-
duced here at 130 X- It shows the large inclusion marked A-B in micrograph (a). It
will be noticed that there is a narrow band of ferrite along the edges of this inclusion.
A similar band of ferrite is seen along the edge of the fracture extending the full length
of this picture. Also at / there is a small fragment of the original inclusion which was in
this space. The inclusion marked A-B shows numerous cracks. These inclusions are quite
brittle, and would readily crack under heavy wheel loads, thus acting as possible start-
ing points for fissures. These observations indicate that this fissure started in a hori-
zontal direction, in or along a rather large inclusion in the highly stressed area of the rail
head. This fissure as it spread developed into a compound fissure extending toward the
center of the rail head.
Four typical structures of rail steel are shown in Fig. 19. Figure 19 (b) shows
the structure commonly found, a pearlitic structure. Figure 19 (a) shows a structure
infrequently found, in which there is a slight excess of ferrite which outlines the
original austenite grains of the metal. Figure 19 (c) shows a structure fortunately
very rarely found, in which there is an excess of cementite outlining the grains of the
metal. This structure indicates unduly brittle steel. Figure 19 (d) is a micrograph of the
typical pearlitic structure magnified 1,100 times.
Figure 20 shows the path of a fatigue crack across three pearlitic grains of steel. It
will be noted that' at the left of the micrograph the crack cuts across the pearlite
lamellae. In the center grain it extends closely parallel to the grain boundary, while in
the larger grain to the right it is between the pearlite lamellae. It has been found that in
general fatigue cracks progress in a fairly straight line perpendicular to the direction of
the principal tensile stress. Figure 21 shows a shatter crack in pearhte. It should be noted
that the shatter crack is very irregular and has branches extending in various directions.
Such cracks are well named as they represent a general shattering of the metal in the
vicinity of the crack. In general it may be stated that no typical structure has been
associated with shatter cracks except that they are more numerous in segregation streaks
which usually contain more non-metallic inclusions than the surrounding rail metal.
VII Mechanical Properties of Rail Steel
By S. W. Lyon
37. Introductory.— At the inception of the Rails Investigation a program of
mechanical testing of specimens cut from rails was carried out to furnish information
regarding the properties of rail steel. While many of the tests that were carried out
were of such a nature as to give information to supplement the findings of the metal-
lographic, rolling-load, and other tests, the later mechanical tests, especially, were made
with the purpose of enlarging the fund of data regarding the behavior of rail steel as an
engineering material with, of course, especial attention to its use in railroad track.
The tests which comprised the earlier part of the program were mostly concerned
with the establishment of the mechanical properties of rail steel both as found in shatter-
cracked (as determined by etch tests) and in non-shatter-cracked rails. Further to de-
Investigation of Fissures in Railroad Rails 727
lineate the difference between the various properties in shatter-cracked and non-shatter-
cracked steel, specimens were obtained from the shatter-cracked rails from areas containing
cracks and those adjacent in the same rails not having cracks as revealed by the etch test.
The many rails tested included hot-bed cooled rails, control-cooled rails, normalized or
Brunorized rails, and rails of special composition ; these rails also included various weights
and types of section.
When the program of the Rails Investigation was expanded to include the problem
of hardening of rail ends to minimize batter^" a great many mechanical tests of specimens
cut from rails so treated were made. These tests were made on rails end hardened by
11 processes of which 6 represented mill end-hardening practice and 5 practices used
to end-harden rail ends in track. Specimens were cut and tested so as to survey the
mechanical properties of the steel as affected by the various end-hardening processes
and also of the unhardened rail steel to give a comparison of the effect of hardening.
Besides the above enumerated more or less routine tests carried out in direct relation
to the specific problems of transverse fissures and the end hardening of rails, certain
special tests were made. These special tests were suggested by the major problems and
are so related as to give information on certain phases of the transverse fissure and end
hardening problems. Considerable effort was given to the determination of the effect of
temperature, especially low temperatures, on the mechanical properties of rail steel. In
connection with the end hardening of rail ends much work was done on the effect of
hardness on rail steel as to tensile strength, ductility, toughness, and fatigue strength.
Other special tests were also made on the effect of rolling on the toughness of raQ steel.
Included in the various tests applied to specimens cut from rail steel to study the
properties of rail steel were static tension tests, impact bending tests, fatigue tests, impact
tension tests, hardness tests, and other special mechanical tests that will hereinafter be
described. Certain of the above tests were applied not only at normal room temperature
but at depressed temperatures to as low as — 60 deg. F.
38. Static Strength. — ^The various studies of the static strength of raU steel will be
discussed under two main classifications which included the following outhned features.
(a) Many static tension tests of specimens cut from rail heads were made
in connection with shatter-cracked and non-shatter-cracked rails in the pursuit of
the general problem of the cause and prevention of transverse fissures in rails.
(b) In connection with the investigation of end-hardened rails many tension
tests were made of specimens cut from the end-hardened and unhardened steel in
rail ends hardened by the various end-hardening processes. These tests were made
to study the effect of the hardening on the steel in the rails so treated.
(a) Static Tension Tests of Specimens from Head of Rail. — Static tension tests were
made on about 40 tension specimens cut from the heads of certain test rails in the first
lot received (hot-bed cooled rails). Rails from five mills were in this first lot. These
tension specimens were all from rails for which the etch test specimens showed no shatter
cracks. The range of values found is given in Table 12.
Static tension tests were also made on specimens cut from the heads of rails for
some of which the etch test had shown shatter cracks. The type of tension specimen for
this second lot is shown in Fig. 22 (a). The specimens were cut so as to provide speci-
mens from (1) the metal near the surface of rails, and (2) from the steel near the
center of the cross-section of the head.
" A subsequent report will discuss the tests to mea.sure batter on rails with ends unhardened and
with ends hardened.
728
Investigation of Fissures in Railroad Rails
U
O aj oi
H
S
CO a; C
5g
g
O
J3
o
4^
O
&^
<1>
a>
ja
n
iz;
11
i)
(U
i-
>i
aj
CV)
o
VI
J3
a<
It
r!
>, M
u
5? c
H
o
H
B
o
u
■M
1
s
2 3
3
o
H
(J
in
H
^
rt(I,
s
2
X) „
1
J3
to OJ ■ — I .4^
^ o
rt >^ c c
§ r&?
tn (U 5 43 ^
^ ^ ^
>
Qi
t^
■Q.
b^
^
-tJ -tJ
wj
"
^1 ^ c
3j (p (u
<D
P.
5
. U }-,
as.a
rO
:
at
O00(MO-*
o
o
o . .oico
o
o
6-z
TtOS00(N .
o
o
to
«5 '"' '-'
lO
o
►h _
-<J<
us
t-
(X
o o o o o
o
o
rO.
-U 4-> -U -1-3 -l-»
-IJ
->J
O O (M U3 lO
o
o
OO
O . .10U3
o
o
oo
Oi t-(MiM •
o
o
OUn
oo" ^ ^
00
(M
oo
(M
■<a<
«5
oco
>>
o
H
!— I "—I
0)
.&'t1
o
>-• o
pq^
:g
-5 OJ
pi
n M
<io
tf
.s
<D el's
^ o'-u
s5-
c 55
Ol
^ •= 0^ S ^
c
a a ss
(U
(Dry (U «5 fl
3
3
-«
fl
H
3 3
CO
(O
QJ
a
a
03
<!)■
(U r-
3 g
-f CO O)
O) tH is
= .S
-a
o
I -i
s'm a »-i
§ ^ §.2
§a§r
X S X C3
03 S C3 Ol
aSa-^
•4-5 a> -t-> Ol
ota o 2
Jh fl) fn m
cS
o
ca
(-1
a
P
0)
3
CO
bo
S S HH S
-^
a
aa
a
^ — N
ca
{« 03
03
,2 <u
(M
T3
t3t3
73
j=|(M
(M
S
S3 i=l
c
1-^
bfl
i-H
tHCCI
CO
mE
ta
o
oo
O
3
as
tf rt tf
O t^
-or- .
Qc ID
0_ui o
o'B a
Investigati on of Fissures in Railroad Rails
729
(o) -H_h'V po^s" p
(b)
^
\-r-^
RELIEVE 005"
^"EDf^ 2" °^®^ LENGTH
1 I ] V^^-^TENSION SPECIMEN
^RELIEVE J, ,<*■ piL^TAPER^PERI'
, , . -«L_J ^=H-Y > . ,^\ ROTATING BEAM
l(^\ CENTER RELIEVED^ ,.
\^l orOfl- TO 0.010 7 i
CENTER REl
0 COe TO (
(d)
(e)
(f)
■2j-
■HN ( '. ■.
iD
-2i"
-iJojM^r^
FATIGUE SPECIMEN
r GAGE LENGTH
TENSION SPECIMEN
UNNOTCHED CHARPY
IMPACT SPECIMEN
>^45^
f-079" pO.OI* R. J
- — I" '(- l"-
x,-x,-x,a,-j^
IZOD
SPECIMEN
(NOTCHED)
(g) i
HIGH SPEED FATIGUE
SPECIMEN
"H
-1 PgQ)
TENSION IMPACT
SPECIMEN
-3"-
Fig. 22. — Specimens for Mechanical Tests of Strength and Ductility.
Shatter cracks, if present, are found from ^ to 54 in- below the tread of a rail.
Hence the difference between the physical properties of specimens from the center of
heads and those near the surface of heads of rails, in one case having shatter cracks and
in the other case being free from shatter cracks, should give information on the effect of
shatter cracks on the strength and ductility of the me^al. Figure 23 gives graphically a
summary of the average results of mechanical tests of many tests on specimens from a
large number of rails. It is evident that there is a distinct difference in tensile strength,
reduction of area, and elongation between the steel in the center of the heads of rails in
which shatter cracks were found by the etch tests, and the steel near the surface of such
rails — a much larger difference than was found in rails free from cracks. The results
are presented on a percentage basis so as to combine results' of tests from various
strength rails in the summary.
(b) Static Tension Tests of End-Hardened Rail Steel. — In connection with the gen-
eral program of testing of end-hardened rails, mechanical tests of specimens from rails
end-hardened by 11 different processes were made. Included in the mechanical test sched-
ule were static tension tests of specimens cut from the end-hardened and unhardened rails
hardened by these 11 processes. Descriptions of the 11 end-hardening processes are given
in Table 13.
730
Investigation of Fissures in Railroad Rails
Table 13
Summary of End-Hardening Processes Used in Tests of Rail Steel
Process
No.
Mill or
Track
Method of Heating
Method of Quenching
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
■ 8
Mill
Mill
Mill
Mill
Mill
Mill
Track
*
Track'
Track
Track
Mill or
Track
Reheated by electric induction
Reheated by gas burner
Quenched from rolling heat
Reheated by gas burner
Reheated by natural gas burner
Track machine-Oxyacetylene
Warm water
Compressed air
Water spray
Water spray
Compressed air and steam
Conduction of heat to cold
metal
9
10
11
12
Free-held oxyacetylene torch
Automatic oxyacetylene machine
Oxy-propane torch
Oxyacetylene torch
Water sprinkler
700 cc. of water
One pint of water
Compressed air
* Process 8 used with built-up ends of rails. No tests of material reported.
Figure 22 (c) shows the type of static tension test specimen cut from the end-
hardened rails hardened by the 6 mill-hardening processes. The relatively shallow depth
and short length of end-hardened material produced in the rail samples by the 5 track
end-hardening processes precluded obtaining tension specimens for those rails.
Figure 24 is a summary of the static tension test results on the mill end-hardened
rails. Each test value compared for any one process is the average of three or more test
results on specimens. While tension test results were obtained from other zones of the
end-hardened rails only the data obtained from the specimens cut from the portions of the
rail heads adjacent to the tread of the rail were used for comparison, as these results
were judged to be typical and no unusual data were obtained from the other zones
investigated.
Examination of Fig. 24 shows that all of the mill end-hardened rails show increased
tensile strength, elongation, and reduction of area values for the end-hardened material
as compared to the unhardened steel. In view of the increased hardness of the end-
hardened steel the increased ductility as shown by the elongation and reduction of area
data is somewhat surprising. However, this improvement of ductility can be accounted
for by the improved microstructure of the hardened steel brought about by the heat
treatment imposed by the processes of end-hardening. Examination of end-hardened
microstructures shown in AREA Proceedings, Vol. 37 (1936) page 645, and Vol. 39 (1938)
page 816, offers substantiating evidence.
39. Energy Strength (Resistance to Impact)
(a) Tests of Specimens from Vncracked Rails. — Izod impact tests of notched speci-
mens were made on specimens cut from the heads of certain test rails in the first lot of
rails (hot-bed cooled) received. The range of values for energy of fracture is given in
Table 12. The rails from which these specimens were cut were free from shatter cracks,
as shown by etch tests.
(b) Transverse Fissure Studies. — ^When the program of mechanical testing was
started in conjunction with the early work on transverse fissured rails many impact tests
Investigation of Fissures in Railroad Rails
731
Fig. 23.— Results of Mechanical Tests of Specimens of Rail Steel.
were made on specimens cut from shatter-cracked and sound rails. The first impact
tests which were made were carried out on the Charpy 223-ft. lb. capacity machine in
the Talbot laboratory, using standard bending specimens with notch imposed. The resist-
ance to fracture as measured by absorption of energy during fracture gave values, even
for sound rail (1 to 3-ft. lb.), that were so small that the test was unsatisfactory as a
method of differentiating between the test values obtained for shatter-cracked rails and
sound rails. Consequently the unnotched specimen shown in Fig. 22 (d) was used as it
provided a specimen which absorbed for sound rail steel approximately 100-ft. lb. of
energy during fracture. The unnotched specimens besides providing a specimen better
suited for differentiating between shatter-cracked and sound steel was also considered as
giving a better measure of the toughness of the steel rather than a test of a notched
specimen which shows the effect of the particular notch imposed on the specimen.
Figure 23, sixth column, gives a graphical summary of a large number of Charpy
impact bending tests made on unnotched specimens machined from many rails. The
specimens were cut from these rails so that impact energy strength values were obtained
for the metal in the rail heads both at the outside or tread surface of the rails and of
the metal within the head at the zone where shatter cracks form. The rails tested in-
cluded shatter-cracked and sound rails of various weights and sections; these rails also
included rails hot-bed and control cooled. Examination of the sixth column of Fig. 23
shows that while for both sound and shatter-cracked rails the metal from the inside of
the head showed lower impact values this difference in the shatter-cracked rails was
much more pronounced.
(c) End-Hardened Rails. — Included in the general program of testing of end-
hardened rails, impact energy tests were made on specimens cut from the various rail
samples hardened by the processes described. The impact tests served as a measure of
the energy strength of these rails and were made as a part of the program of mechanical
testing.
Two types of impact tests were included in the program of testing. Charpy impact
bending tests were made from the hardened and unhardened material of the end-hardened
rail samples; the unnotched type of specimen shown in Fig. 22 (d) was used. Besides
the Charpy tests, notched Izod bending tests were made. Figure 22 (e) gives the details
732
Investigation of Fissu res i n Railroad Rails
g| HARDENED
TENSILE
STRENGTH
IN
ELONGATION
4 DIAMETERS
REDUCTION
OF
AREA
-ll UNHARDENED
P S 1 X IWOO
o S § 8 i
PER CENT
o tfi 2 C 8 c3
PER CENT 1
o 2 S S ? Sl
PROCESS 1
131 LB. RAIL MILL B
166 000
139 000
15,0
e.o
^^^r
41 3
17 0
^^-
1
PROCESS 2
112 LB. RAIL MILL C
140 100
134 100
-
^
u
16.0
12.0
^^
^^
^^
'
41 1
21 1
^^
1
}
PROCESS 2
112 LB RAIL MILL D
159 000
143 800
-
II 0
80
38 1
2i 3
—
__
PROCESS 2
131 LB RAIL MILL D
176 300
137 100
^
1
e.3
70
36 1
18 3
■■^^^
■
■
7777777t
PROCESS 2
131 LB RAIL MILL E
177 900
136 300
1
8.0
7.0
29 4
14 5
Y?^^
■■
^
y
V777/
Wf
"
PROCESS 3
131 LB RAIL MILL 1
180 400
137 500
^ ^
H H
_
1
8 0
7 5
I^H ^B
23 1
17 1
■
^7^7777
TTTT
VTTTT^
'/////A
PROCESS 4
131 LB RAIL MILL 1
190 600
147 600
^ ^
_
_
10.0
70
^^
36 6
16 2
^^
^
^777^777
7777,
7777^
PROCESS 5
112 LB RAIL MILL F
162 200
133 000
1
10 0
90
32 8
19 4
■
1
W
w<
^^
w
^77777^
PROCESS 6
II? LB RAIL MILL D
166 500
139 400
J-
1
L_
88
76
^_
27 5
21 5
"F
VTTTTTT
^7777777^
if 1 11
\ ^
Fig. 24. — Results of Static Tension Tests of Specimens from End-Hardened Rails.
of the specimen. The Charpy and the Izod impact tests were made on the rail samples
from the rails end-hardened by the 6 mill-hardening processes. As previously explained
the amount of end-hardened material produced by the 5 track-hardening processes was
only sufficient to furnish material for the unnotched Charpy tests. The Charpy specimens
were tested on a 223-ft. lb. capacity Charpy impact machine and the Izod specimens on
an Olsen^Izod machine of 10-ft. lb. capacity.
Figure 25 gives a graphical summary of the results of the Charpy impact tests on the
mill end-hardened and track end-hardened rails and on the Izod tests on the mill end-
hardened rails. The effect of all of the end-hardening processes was to improve the
energy strength or toughness of the end-hardened material as compared to the unhard-
ened rail steel. The increase of toughness with increase of hardness of the end-hardened
steel was, as in the case of the increased ductility for the end-hardened material in the
tension tests, an unexpected result. This increase of toughness with hardness can, how-
ever, be explained by the improvement of microstructure brought about by the heat
treatment imposed on the steel by the end-hardening processes.
40. Fatigue Strength
(a) Tests oj Polished Specimens. — Fatigue tests of polished specimens cut from the
heads of certain test rails in the first lot of test rails received were made. These rails
were free from shatter cracks, as shown by the etch test. The ranges of values for endur-
ance limits under various ranges of stress are given in Table 12.
The metal below the surface of the head of a rail is presumably free from surface
defects and, unless the rail is shatter cracked, from internal notch effects. Fatigue tests
of polished specimens in which surface effects and notch effects are minimized would
seem to give significant results for the metal inside the head of such a rail.
(b) Effect of Shatter Cracks.— hi the inception of the investigation of transverse
fissures in railroad rails and the accompanying problem of the effect of shatter cracks
Investigation of Fissures in Railroad Rails
733
MILL HARDENED RAK S
FIELD HARDENED RAILS
CHARPY TEST
(UNNOTCHED)
ENERGY - FT LB
0 100 200
IZOD TEST
(NOTCHED)
ENERGY- FT LB.
0 2 4 6 8
CHARPY TEST
(UNNOTCHED)
ENERGY - FT LB
RAIL NO 0 100 200 300 400 SCO
Fig. 25. — Results of "Energy Strength" (Impact) Tests of Specimens
from End-Hardened Rails.
in rails, many fatigue tests were carried out on specimens cut from shatter-cracked and
sound rails. The specimens were so machined as to select material from the outside
metal of a rail head and from the inside metal of the head where shatter cracks are
found. By testing specimens from these locations in both sound and shatter-cracked rails
a measure of the effect of shatter cracks on the fatigue strength of rail steel was
determined.
Figure 22 (b) shows the type of fatigue specimen used in the earlier tests. These
specimens were tested in a rotating-beam type of testing machine which subjected the
specimens to cycles of completely reversed bending stress. Figure 23, fifth column, gives a
graphical summary of the effect of shatter cracks on the fatigue strength determined for
the steel from the heads of shatter-cracked and sound rails. The rails from which the
specimens were machined included rails of several different sections and weight, hot-bed
cooled, box cooled, normalized, and from some alloy-steel rails. Examination of these
summarized results shows that the fatigue strength of the metal from the inside of the
heads of shatter-cracked rails was less than 60 percent of that of the outside metal of the
same rails. As the fatigue strength of the metal of the inside of head (cracked area) was
the only material appreciably weaker than the outside metal of the sound rail, the
shatter cracks can be assumed to be the cause of the lessening of the fatigue strength
of the material in the steel from that location.
41. "Damage Line" for Rail Steel.— The damaging effect of occasional high
stresses on the steel in rails, caused by service loads of abnormal magnitude, was studied
in connection with the transverse fissure problems. The development of high-speed
fatigue machines in the Talbot laboratory and the then new "damage line" method pro-
posed by Mr. H. J. French" of the International Nickel Company for determining the
" French, H. J. — Fatigue and Hardening of Steel, Trans. Am. Soc. Steel Treating, Vol. 21, p. 899
(1933).
734
Investigation of Fissures in R ailroad Rails
effect of occasional high stresses in metals furnished a means of studying the effect of
occasional overloads on rail steel. Considerable work was done on the determination of
damage lines for rail steel in the shatter cracked and sound condition.
The damage-hne method as used for determining the effect of occasional high stresses
in rail steel can be best described by following through a typical determination of such
a diagram. Figure 26 shows a graph of a typical damage-line test for rail steel. First a
series of fatigue tests is run, an S-N (stress cycle) diagram drawn, and from that dia-
gram the endurance limit of the original, unstressed metal determined. Then a number of
®
_©._'
©
fENOURANCE LIMIT
4 OF "AS ROLLED" METAL
Ue 000 P. S
GIVEN 1300 CYCLES OF ±78 000 P S I I
DID NOT FRACTURE UNDER 10 000 000"
SUBSEQUENT CYCLES OF ±66 000 PS. I.
-H-
-I — h-l-t-
I I I I
GIVEN 2000 CYCLES OF ±78 000 P.S.I.
FRACTURED UNDER SUBSEQUENT
CYCLES OF ±66 000 PS I I I
J I I I I L
GIVEN 4200 CYCLES OF ±75 000 PS. I
I DID NOT FRACTURE UNDER 10 000 000
SUBSEQUENT CYCLES OF ± 66 000 P S.I
III I I I I I I I I I I
GIVEN 5200 CYCLES OF ±75 000 P.S.I.-
I FRACTURED UNDER SUBSEQUENT I
_ CYCLES OF ±66 000 P S I. I I
I I I I I I I I I M
GIVEN 75000 CYCLES OF ±69 000 PS I
DID NOT FRACTURE UNDER 10 000 000
SUBSEQUENT CYCLES OF ±66 000 PS
1— n 1 — I — m 1 — I — m —
GIVEN no 000 CYCLES OF ±69 000 PS I
FRACTURED UNDER SUBSEQUENT
CYCLES OF ±66 000 PS I |
J_JJ I L
OOOO 100000 I MILLION
CYCLES OF REVERSED FLEXURE
Fig. 26. — "Damage Line" Test for Specimens of Rail Steel.
Rail 102S. Hot-bed cooled. Etch test showed shatter cracks. Tested
at air temperature, approximately 70 deg. F.
specimens are subjected to definite stresses above this endurance hmit and are run for a
certain number of cycles of stress. In Fig. 26 detailed results are shown for three pairs
of specimens subjected to cycles of reversed flexure at stresses above the endurance
limit of the original unstressed material. After undergoing this overstress the specimens
are then subjected to cycles of stress equal to the endurance Umit of the original metal.
Points on the "probable damage hne" are located between the plotted point of that
specimen of a pair which fails under this stressing at the endurance limit of the original
metal and the plotted point for the specimen which does not fail.
It has been proposed by H. W. Russell of the Battelle Memorial Institute"^ that, as
an arbitrary measure of resistance to occasional overstress, there may be used the ratio
Sd : Sf, in which So is the "damage line stress" for 25,000 cycles and 5f is the endurance
^ Russell, H. W. — Damage and Overstress in the Fatigue of Ferrous Metals, ASTM Proceedings.
Vol. 36, Part II, p. 118 (1936).
Investigation of Fissures in Railroad Rails
735
RAIL
THERMAL
TREATMENT
TEST
TEMP
OTHER DAMAGE
SPECIAL Sn/Sc FOR
FEATURES OF
?, , , ,9iS| ,
RESISTANCE
25 000 CYCLES
STRESS
10 IS
651
653
453
668
HOT BED
HOT BED
HOT BED
HOT BED
70
70
70
70
SHATTER CRACKS
UNCRACKED
SHATTER CR«XS
UNCRACKED
■
m
■
"
"
;
"
_
"
^
■
™
1121
HOT BED
70
10
-20
-40
3%
CHROMIUM
UNCRACKED
..
_
"
*
^
F
t:
"
p
F
!
1013
HOT BED
70
10
-20
-40
UNCRACKED
::::::::::3
d
3
■
1
1014
CONTROL -
COOLED
70
10
-20
-40
UNCRACKED
"■
1
z
1025
HOT BED
70
10
-20
-40
MANY
SHATTER
CRACKS
1026
NORMALIZED
70
10
-20
-40
VERY FEW
SHATTER
CRACKS
^
_
^
^
^
^
^
^
*
IIIIIIIII.J
NOTCHED S
'EGIM
ENS
1013
1014
1025
1026
HOT BED
CONTROL COOL'D
HOT BED
NORMALIZED
70
10
-20
-40
UNCRACKED
UNCRACKED
SHATTER CRACKS
FEW CRACKS
-
_
1
"
"
*
"
"
"
1
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
"
5
"
5
^
^
■
*
*
^
^
*
*
■
OTHER STEELS 1
SAE I02C
AS ROLLED
70
10
-20
-40
■
SAE 313!
HEAT TREATED
70
-
-
±
-
i
-
-
-
=
1
^
^
_
_
T
_
■
_
_
_
5
Fig. 27. — Results of "Damage Line" Tests of Specimens of Rail Steel.
limit of the original unstressed metal. In Fig. 26 Russell's ratio would be
73,000 : 66,000 = 1.11.
In Fig. 27 values of Russell's "damage resistance ratio" have been plotted from
test results for specimens from various rails. Although values for these ratios for low
temperature tests are shown, the items designated as run at +70 deg. F. are the ones
under discussion. It will be noted that no outstanding variation of this ratio was found
in rail steel (1) between specimens from shatter-cracked and from uncracked rails,
(2) between specimens from hot-bed rails and from control-cooled or normalized rails,
(3) between specimens of ordinary rail steel and of 3 percent chromium steel. Notched
specimens showed high values of this ratio, although they developed an endurance limit
only about 50 percent of that developed by unnotched specimens.
42. Fatigue Strength of End-Hardened Rail Steel. — In connection with the
program of mechanical testing on end-hardened rails the variation of fatigue strength
of the rails was "explored" by determining the endurance limits for the steel from speci-
mens machined from the hardened steel, the unhardencd steel, and from specimens ob-
tained from the transition zone between the hardened and unhardened material. The
small type of fatigue specimen shown in Fig. 22 (f), tested in a fatigue machine running
at approximately 8,000 r.p.m., was used. Figure 28 gives the results of the fatigue tests
736
Investigation of Fissures in Railroad R ails
MILL END-HARDENED RAILS |
a
z
u
o
lU
HARDENED
FATIGUE STRENGTH
P.S.I. X 1000
o 8 ? S g i
V///////////}
UNHARDENED
PROCESS 1
131 LB. RAIL MILL B
94 000
62 000
_
1
PROCESS 2
112 LB. RAIL MILL C
75 000
62 000
.
^
.
.
.
.
k
PROCESS 2
112 LB. RAIL MILL D
85 000
63 000
^
_
_
md
7777777
777T
PROCESS 2
131 LB. RAIL MILL D
90 000
62 000
_
X
_
m
■
Y/////////
r
PROCESS 2
131 LB. RAIL MILL E
89 000
63 000
-
-
.
m
.
_
^
_
>}}}}}}}}}}\
1 1 1 1 1 1
PROCESS 3
131 LB. RAIL MILL 1
NO TEST
INSUFFICIENT DATA
PROCESS 4
131 LB. RAIL MILL 1
84 000
60 000
1 1 1 II
_
_
1
Y777777777/
PROCESS 5
112 LB. RAIL MILL F
90 000
60 000
_
_
_
_
1
^
^
^
^
■
PROCESS 6
82 000
65 000
■
m
1
V
3
3
V
w
w
W
i 1 1 1 1 1
Fig. 28. — Results of Fatigue Tests of
Hardened Metal from Rails End-
Hardened at the Mill.
of specimens from the hardened and unhardened material from the rails end hardened h •
the six mill end-hardening processes. The results of the transition zone specimens are
not given as no unusual results were found. Figure 28 shows that in all cases the end-
hardened material gave higher values of fatigue strength than did the unhardened rail
steel. These results are in line with the findings for tensile strength test results and
impact test results.
43. Hardness and its Effect on Tensile Strength, Ductility, Toughness,
and Fatigue Strength of Rail Steel. — The application of the various end-hardening
processes to railroad rails to produce a hardened condition in the rail ends, thereby better
to resist battering action at rail joints under traffic in track, consists essentially of the
practical application of the principles of heat treatment to rail steel. Any study then,
which has for its purpose the determination of the most desirable mechanical properties
to be attained in the hardened material of end-hardened rails so as to best resist batter,
resolves itself into a study of the effect of heat treatment on the mechanical properties of
rail steel.
Consequently to provide such studies of the effect of hardness on the tensile strength,
ductility, toughness, and fatigue strength of rail steel a laboratory method of study was
carried out as follows: Specimens were cut from unhardened test rails, heat treated to
produce any desired range of hardness, and then tested to give the desired information
regarding the various properties. Tension specimens, Fig. 22 (c) were prepared and tested
to study the variation of tensile strength, percentage elongation, and percentage reduc-
tion of area; also, variation of toughness" (Tension-Energy) by measuring the areas of
'"' The term toughness is used to denote energy required to fracture a metal.
Investigation of Fissures in Railroad Rails
737
30 AO 50
ROCKWELL C HARDNESS
Fig. 29. — Variation of Tensile Strength, Elongation, Reduction
of Area, Energy for Fracture and Fatigue Strength with Varying
Rockwell "C" Hardness. Rail 1100, 131-lb.
the stress-strain diagrams was obtained. Impact bending tests of unnotched bars
(Fig. 22 (d)) and impact tension tests (Fig. 22 (g)) gave data to determine the variation
of toughness with hardness changes. Fatigue tests of unnotched bars (Fig. 22(f)) were
also made and the data gave variation of fatigue strength with hardness. Adequate Rock-
well "C" hardness readings were obtained on all specimens prior to testing.
After the various specimens were rough machined from the test rails, allowance hav-
ing been made for final finish, they were heat treated and then ground to finished dimen-
sions. The general procedure of heat treatment was to quench all specimens to obtain
maximum hardness, followed by suitable draw to obtain the desired hardness.
Figure 29 presents the results of these tests. E.xamination of these results will show
that in the hardness range, Rockwell "C" 48 to "C" 52, a rather distinct change occurs
in all of the curves of the various properties shown. The tensile strength and fatigue
strength curves reach their peak in this hardness range while all the curves of toughness
(energy strength) and ductiUty (reduction of area and elongation) drop off abruptly.
These results would indicate that the usable hardness of rail steel is exceeded when a
hardness of approximately Rockwell "C" SO (Brinell 465) is exceeded. It should also be
noted that as the hardness decreases the toughness and ductility increase.
738 Investigation of Fissures in Railroad Rails
The above results would seem to furnish a rather direct guide for end-hardening
practice in that the hardened material in end-hardened rails is a rather carefully heat-
treated rail steel. It would therefore be reasonable to assume that the toughness in end-
hardened material would be subject to the same hmitations. In other words it is indi-
cated that the upper limit of Rockwell "C" hardness to be attained in end-hardening
practice should not exceed a value of "C" 45 (or Brinell 415). Also, as heat-treated rail
steel develops good toughness for hardnesses below "C" 45 it is evident that the lower
limit of end-hardening practice would not be set by toughness considerations. The
rolling-load tests (and service tests) indicate that hardnesses in end-hardened rails below
"C" 35 (Brinell 320) are not effective in preventing wear and batter. Briefly then, the
limits of hardness seem to be set on the high end by toughness considerations and on the
lower end by batter and wear considerations. The laboratory tests then indicated a satis-
factory hardness range between "C" 35 and "C" 45, (approximately Brinell 320 to 415).
44. Effect of Temperature. — A considerable study of the effect of temperature
on the properties of rail steel was made as it is a matter of common railroad experience,
especially in the northern United States and Canada, that rail failures are more frequent
in cold weather than in warm weather. Two general types of explanation for this have
been offered: (1) Changed track conditions due to low temperatures and to freezing and
thawing, and (2) changes in the physical properties of rail steel at low temperatures. It
was to provide data to investigate the second of the two reasons given above that the
various studies of the effect of low temperature on rail steel were carried out.
The studies which were made fall into three divisions: (1) tests of specimens cut
from rail steel were tested at low temperatures and at room temperatures to determine
the change of tensile strength, fatigue strength, ductility and toughness of rail steel,
(2) tests at low temperatures, using the "damage line" method, to study the weakening
effect of occasional periods of overload, and (3) tests to determine the effect of hardness
on the toughness of rail steel with variation of temperature of testing. The first two series
of tests were made possible through the very generous aid of the U. S. Air Service in
allowing the use of a cold room at Wright Field, Dayton, Ohio. The third series of tests
was made in the Talbot laboratory at the University.
(a) Physical Properties of Rail Steel at Low Temperatures. — Fatigue tests, tensile
tests, Brinell tests and impact tests of numerous specimens from three rails were run in
the cold room with minimum temperatures of — 40 deg. F. for all tests and of — 53 deg. F.
for impact and tensile tests. Tests were run both on standard specimens and on notched
specimens. Figure 30 shows a summary of the results of the tests, from which it will be
noted that the tensile strength of unnotched specimens increased as temperature decreased
to about zero Fahrenheit, and then decreased with further decrease of temperature for
steel from two rails and increase in strength for the steel from the third rail. Notched
tensile specimens showed decrease of strength with decrease of temperature. Fatigue
strength of unnotched specimens increased with decrease of temperature, while fatigue
strength of notched specimens changed but little with decrease of temperature. At the
lower temperatures the rail steel tested seemed more sensitive to notch effect than at
higher temperatures.
Also shown in Fig. 30 are the results for ductiUty and impact or energy strength.
Elongation, reduction of area, Izod value for notched specimens and (most marked
effect) Izod value for unnotched specimens, all show marked decrease for lowering of
temperature. A high impact test value is a point in favor of a steel.
Of the three rails from which specimens were taken, Rail 1017 was a hot-bed cooled
rail in which etch tests had shown shatter cracks. Rail 1018 was a companion rail slow-
Investigation of Fissures in Railroad Rails
739
FATIGUE LIMIT(NOTCHFn)
RAIL 1017
'mrfffirW
RAIL 1018
LEL
RAIL 1063
ROOM TEMPERATURE - OEGrIeS EAH*ENHEIT
^80
-r-
-p
~
[T
V-
S
$60
0
a
/
S
«<J
^^
|«0
i
/
y
$20
o
i*
1
■»
.--
.^
ot^
s •
o
.$2.9
^2.0
^^
9*
j„;
.n^
i"
?
rrS
irr
M
y
[^
t'
('
1^
!?i^
t^*
".d
?
RAIL I0I7|
o
Q O
II
Mill
8 a
l«
0
««
r
lf__
^1—
-€-—
o# _:_
' y
y .^^
•iirJa::::::
— 1 Si^ ^
^^A ^E l* " Si-h
\^^^^
•J r T
/ RAIL 1018
., \ ' i' ' ' .15
—V- s
-^^- £
%% — '
42
?— - ^
\/
<
f(
o
7 1
v' 0
.^^^'"^
S=;
*M
^::3g5'^«
^
s
RAIL
1063 t
!» li
^.-4
ROOM TEMPERATURE - 0E8REE8 FAHRENHEIT
Fig. 30. — Strength and Ductility Properties of Rail
Steel at Low Temperatures.
cooled, in which no shatter cracks had been found, and Rail 1063 was a hot-bed cooled
rail in which etch tests had shown no shatter cracks. No outstanding differences appear
between the results of strength and ductility tests for these three rails.
Summed up, the evidence of these results indicates that the general tendency is for
strength properties to increase as temperature decreases to — 40 deg. F. but the brittleness
of the steel also increases.
(b) "Damage Line" Tests at Low Temperatures. — The results of the first series of
tests to determine the properties of rail steel at low temperatures suggested the desirability
of running fatigue tests at low temperatures using the "damage Une" method to study
the effect of occasional high stresses. Tests were run on specimens from several rails using
this method at various low temperatures ranging from +70 deg. F. to minimum of
— 40 deg. F. A description of the "damage line" method is given in this report, pages
732-734, along with that of Russell's ratio which was used to evaluate the damage
diagrams obtained during the low temperature testing.
740
Investigation of Fissures in Railroad Rails
TESTING TEMPERATURE RANGE
+ 70' F TO -70»F
(+70* F,+30* F, 0- F ,-30» F, -70*F.)
40 50
ROCKWELL "C" HARDNESS
Fig. 31. — Envelope Diagram Showing the Effect of Tem-
perature at Time of Testing on the Toughness of Rail Steel
for Different Hardnesses Produced by Heat Treating.
Charpy tests on unnotched specimens.
In Figure 27 values of Russell's "damage resistance" ratio have been plotted from
test results for specimens from various rails. It vi^ill be noted that no outstanding varia-
tion of this ratio was found in rail steel: (1) Between specimens from shatter-cracked
and from uncracked rails, (2) between specimens from hot-bed cooled rails and from
control-cooled or normalized rails, (3) between specimens of ordinary rail steel and of
3.0 percent chromium steel, and (4) between specimens tested at temperatures ranging
from -f 70 deg. F. to — 40 deg. F. Notched specimens showed a high value of this ratio,
although they developed an endurance limit only about 50 percent of that developed by
unnotched specimens.
(c) Tests at Low Temperatures to Determine the Effect of Temperature on the
Toughness-Hardness Relationship for Rail Steel. — In Section 39, pages 730, 731 of this
report are described tests on unnotched Charpy specimens heat treated to various hard-
nesses and tested to show the variation of toughness (energy strength) of rail steel with
variation of Rockwell hardness. To determine the variation of this toughness-hardness
relationship of rail steel with change of temperature, this same method of considering the
energy developed in impact-bending tests of unnotched specimens was used as the criterion
of toughness. The effect of temperature of testing was obtained by determining the
toughness-hardness relationships for five testing temperatures, namely -f 70, -|-20, zero,
— 30, and — 70 deg. F. Briefly the testing procedure consisted of bringing the specimens
to the desired temperature in a bath of acetone cooled with dry ice (solid CO2), quickly
placing them in the Charpy-impact testing machine and testing them before appreciable
temperature fluctuation was possible.
Figure 31 shows the effect of temperature on the toughness of heat-treated rail steel
as determined by the toughness-hardness relationships obtained for five testing tempera-
tures. The envelope, which gives the variation of toughness, was constructed by super-
imposing the toughness-hardness relationship curves for the five temperatures and then
Investigation of Fissures in Railroad Rails
741
-30 0 +30
TESTING TEMPERATURE
+70
Fig. Zl. — Variation of Toughness of Heat Treated
and "As Rolled" Rail Steel for a Range of Temperatures
from +70 to —70 deg. F.
Charpy tests of unnotched bars.
enclosing all five curves. These results would indicate that the toughness-hardness rela-
tionship is not greatly changed over the range of temperature between -|-70 and — 70
deg. F. Also, for this temperature range the envelope indicates that to have good tough-
ness heat-treated rail steel should not exceed Rockwell "C" 47 in hardness.
In the lower left corner of Fig. 31 are shown the impact-bending (toughness) re-
sults obtained for the five testing temperatures on specimens of the as-rolled rail.
Figure 32 compares these results with those obtained for the heat-treated specimens of
similar hardness (Rockwell "C" 22). Examination of the curves shows that at all testing
temperatures the heat-treated steel has much greater toughness than the as-rolled rail
steel. It should also be noted that as the temperature at the time of testing is progres-
sively lowered the as-rolled material loses its toughness much faster than does the heat-
treated steel. These results indicate then, that the heat-treatment of the rail steel tested
produced two beneficial results, namely, the toughness was much improved over that of
the as-rolled steel and the effect of temperature was much less for the heat-treated
material over the range of temperatures considered.
45. Effect of Cold Working. — Rail failures due to spalling out of metal near raU
ends are occasionally encountered in service. The cause of such failures has, in many
cases, been charged to the enbrittlement of the metal at the tread of the rail by cold
working due to traffic. It is, also, the opinion of many that such failures occur more
often during cold weather. If such failures were encountered previous to the compara-
tively recent widespread use of end-hardened rails, will heat-treated hardened steel at the
rail ends affect the frequency of occurrence of spalling (i.e. especially of the hardened
steel) after these rails have been in service for some time? It was to provide data to
answer the foregoing question that the tests to find the effect of cold working on rail steel
were made.
The rails from which the test specimens were obtained were from one ingot of one
heat of steel. The test sections of the rail designated to be end hardened were hardened
742
Investigation of Fissures in Railroad Rails
NOT COLD
ROLLED
NOT END
HARDENED
COLD
ROLLED
NOT END
HARDENED
NOT COLD
ROLLED
END
HARDENED
COLO
ROLLED
END
HARDENED
PROCESS NO I
112 LB RAIL MILL D
TELEWELD REHEATED,
WARM WATER QUENCH
2000000 CYCLES OF 40 000 L8
WHEEL LOAD - 1/8" GAP
ji
Ji
CM ■ <M M ■ N
wr
100 u
PROCESS
112 LB RAIL
NO. 2
MILL D
GAS BURNER REHEATED,
WATER SPRAY QUENCH
2000000 CYCLES OF 40 000 LB
WHEEL LOAD - 1/8" GAP
o o
lEH:
Ul
JBliF
1355-
.81
COOLED TO 1500* F FROM HOT
SAWS, WATER SPRAY QUENCH
2000000 CYCLES OF 40000 LB
WHEEL LOAD - 1/8" GAP
PROCESS
112 LB RAIL
NO. 3
MILL D
PROCESS NO 6
112 LB. RAIL MILL D
BRUNORIZED, COMPRESSED
AIR QUENCH
2000000 CYCLES OF 40000 LB
WHEEL LOAD - 1/8" GAP
3««-n-
355-
200]
b
c
100°
c
0
"I gfi mif
1355-
.-'0— 200*
100;
c
0
NOTES
PLOTTED VALUES BASED ON PER CENT OF IMPACT VALUES OBTAINtO FOR UN -
HARDENED RAIL NOT ROLLED
ALL PLOTTED PERCENTAGES WERE CALCULATED FROM AVERAGE TEST RESULTS
OBTAINED FROM FOUR OR MORE SPECIMENS
Fig. 33.— Effect of Cold Rolling (in Rolling-Load Machine) and
of End Hardening on the Toughness of Rail Steel as Shown by
Charpy Impact Tests of Unnotched Bars.
with care by four mill end-hardening processes which are briefly described in Fig. 33.
The test program provided for machining and testing of unnotched Charpy specimens
adjacent to the tread of the rail samples and so cut as to include the desired test material
for which the toughness determinations were to be made. The rail samples were treated
so as to provide specimens to give data on the toughness of rail steel according to the
outlined programs listed below.
Testing Temperatures
Item Source of Test Specimens deg.F. deg.F.
1 Rail not cold-rolled — not end-hardened +70 0
2 Rail cold-rolled — not end-hardened +70 0
3 End-hardened rail — not cold-rolled +70 0
4 End-hardened rail — cold-rolled +70 0
Each rail specimen was placed in a rolling-load testing machine and subjected to
2,000,000 cycles of a 40,000-lb. wheel load. Specimens were provided for testing both at
+ 70 deg. F. and 0 deg. F. The testing procedure for the 0 deg. F. tests was as described
in Section 44 (c), page 740 of this report.
Figure 33 gives a graphical summary of the results of the tests. Examination of the
summary reveals that the toughness of the end-hardened steel was, as expected, greater
Investigation of Fissures in Railroad Rails 743
than in the unhardened steel. The effect of testing at low temperatures was a slight re-
duction of toughness for the as-rolled steel as compared to the reduction for the hard-
ened steel, but the effect was small for all of the conditions of testing listed above. The
rolling reduced the toughness of the as-rolled steel but did not cause this reduction in
the end-hardened material. Processes 1 and 2 were most effective in improving the
toughness of the end-hardened material as compared to the as-rolled steel. From the
above results it is indicated that the end-hardened material has better toughness prop-
erties to resist rolling or cold working and low temperatures than does the as-rolled
material; this result was obtained for all of the four mill end-hardening processes.
VIII Non-Destructive Tests For Shatter Cracks and Fissures
By J. L. BiSESi
46. Usefulness of Non-Destructive Tests. — It is known that in the past rails
have been manufactured from steel which developed shatter cracks or was subject to con-
ditions which would produce them. It has been definitely established that most rails
which fail because of the development of transverse fissures contain shatter cracks and
it has been shown that the presence of shatter cracks is one of the principal causes
(probably the principal cause) of transverse fissure failures. A large number of these
rails are still in service and, while it is true that a majority of these rails will not
develop fissures, many will fail before they are worn out. It is evident that a non-
destructive method of detecting these potential failures in new rails would be very desir-
able, although the use of control-cooled rails may be expected to lessen its importance.
Detector cars have been developed for the purpose of detecting fissures and other
defects in rails after they have reached a considerable size but no method of testing has
yet been devised to detect the presence of shatter cracks or other small defects in new
rails or in rails in service.
47. Detector Cars for Fissures. — Detector cars have been operated on the Ameri-
can railroads since 1928. The type of car which is most commonly used is the Sperry
detector car which was designed to travel over the rails at a speed of five to seven miles
per hour and to detect fissures and other potential failures by means of its electrical and
magnetic equipment.
In connection with the use of any detector car the following condition and limitation
may be noted: The sensitivity of the detector car, in its present state and in spite of the
constant improvements made in its equipment, has not been brought to the point of
detecting all of the small fissures and other defects which have been started in the rail.
The only test available at the present time for the detection of shatter cracks is the
etch test in which horizonal slices are cut from the head of the rail and etched in acid.
This test, if the shces are cut thin enough, will show up shatter cracks if they exist in the
rail. Since this is a destructive test and is time consuming, only a few samples can be
taken from each heat and it becomes a lest of representative samples.
It would therefore be advantageous to have a non-destructive test which could be
made on every rail rolled. It should be noted at this point that a search for a non-
destructive test for shatter cracks is purely a research problem, and is expensive and
slow and that there is a large element of chance in such a search. This chapter describes
briefly various methods for detecting shatter cracks. None of these methods has proved
reliable, but an account of those attempts may be of use to future investigators. In view
of the element of chance and the cost of the equipment involved in making the various
experiments a good deal of the needed equipment used in making the tests has been
borrowed from other departments of the University.
744 Investigation of Fissures in Railroad Rails
48. Study of Mechanical Vibration of Rails. — One of the earUest studies and
one of the studies most persistently followed in the search for a non-destructive method
of detecting shatter cracks in rails has been the study of the mechanical vibrations of
rails. This study has consistently been the most promising of those tried. It is known
that vibrations of a body are influenced by the density of the body and it was rea-
soned that the density of a rail should be affected by the presence of shatter cracks.
This study has been given impetus by various investigators from time to time,
notably by the work of Foppl in Germany and by one of his pupils, von Hydekampf,
employed by the Baldwin-Southwark Company. In some tests made by the latter, speci-
mens prepared from the metal in the heads of shatter-cracked rails, fissured rails and
rails free from either were subjected to a torsional stress and then the stress was released.
From a study of the resulting vibrations it was determined that the damping factor oi
the defective steel was greater than that of the sound steel and that the damping factor
had some relation to the amount of structural damage in the specimen. This work, as
explained above, was dependent on prepared specimens, and since this investigation it
interested in non-destructive methods of testing rails, non-destructive damping tests ol
full section rail specimens were tried.
In the earUest experiments on the vibration of rails a device was designed to strike
the rail on the side of the head, two ea,t phones and later other electro-mechanical
devices were fastened to the other side of the rail head so that the distance from the
striking device to each of the pickup devices was equal. It was thought that the presence
of shatter cracks in the rail, possibly in the path between the striking device and one of
the receivers would so affect the travel of the vibrations in that path that a comparison
of the outputs of the receivers would indicate the difference.
These experiments led to a series of studies utihzing the longitudinal vibrations ol
the rail in order to obtain the accumulative effect of the shatter cracks in the rail. In
these studies various means of inducing the rail to vibrate were used. These methods
included mechanical impact devices and devices so designed that they would constitute a
constant source of vibration of a predetermined fixed amplitude and frequency. The fre-
quency most used was the natural fundamental of the rail specimen, although harmonics
and other frequencies were studied. These devices included hammers which struck the
end of the rails to give an impact, magneto-striction devices, and electromagnetic devices,
the latter two giving constant impetus to the rail.
Studies of the vibrations included studies of the first wave of sound through the rail,
the frequency of the natural fundamental frequency and other frequencies, the damping
characteristics of the rails and the power necessary to vibrate the rails. To make these
studies, methods of recording the vibrations and wave shapes on permanent records were
devised. The detection devices included phonograph pickups, Piezo-electric crystals and
other electro-mechanical transducers." In some cases the output of these devices was
passed into trick radio circuits which were used for obtaining the values for study, and
in other cases permanent records were made of the output utihzing magnetic oscillographs.
49. Mechanical Hysteresis in Cracked and in Uncracked Rails. — Under some
conditions a specimen when. subjected to a stress and then to removal of the stress does
not entirely recover its shape. This indicates that energy has been lost due to inelastic
action during the loading-release cycle of stress. This loss of energy is known as "me-
chanical hysteresis". It was thought that the presence of shatter cracks in a rail might
cause the rail to show greater mechanical hysteresis under such a cycle than would an
uncracked rail.
" This term has been adopted by the American Radio Relay League to denote any apparatus for
transformng mechanical vibrations to electrical impulses, or vice versa.
Investigation of Fissures in Railroad Rails 745
Rails with shatter cracks and rails which etch tests had shown to be free from shatter
cracks were mounted in a testing machine and flexural load was applied and released.
Delicate measurements of deflection were made both under increasing load and under
decreasing load and load-deflection diagrams were drawn. These diagrams showed dif-
ferences between deflection under increasing load and under decreasing load and the area
between the diagram for increasing load and that for decreasing load ("hysteresis loop")
measured the energy lost during a cycle of loading and unloading.
No systematic difference in the areas of the hysteresis loop for shatter-cracked rails
and of the hysteresis loop for uncracked rails could be detected.
50. Thermal Tests. — ^Thermal tests for the detection of shatter cracks in a rail
were based on the theory that when a heavy current was passed through a rail the
shatter cracks would offer a resistance to the passage of the current and thereby cause
heat zones in the rail at the location of the shatter crack. Two methods of detecting
these heat zones were tried, namely, a thermopile and a heat-sensitive paint. These tests
were not successful, mainly due to the fact that since laboratory etch tests have shown
that when shatter cracks are found in a rail they are usually found throughout the entire
length and not necessarily in definite zones in the length of the rail. Moreover, there was
no sign of a sharp enough change of temperature at a crack to produce any marked
difference of temperature at the surface of the rail.
51. Acoustic Tests. — The acoustic tests devised for the non-destructive testing of
rails for the presence of shatter cracks fall in two classes. The first one tried was that in
which the rail was struck a blow and the presence of shatter cracks was to have been
detected by a difference in the "ring" of the rail as heard through a hstening device
which was attached to the rail. This crude method led to some of the tests which have
been tried and which are covered under vibration tests.
The other acoustic test was designed to be used at the mill and was to have detected
the noise of formation of the crack while the rail was cooUng. For the purpose of making
this test a bank-vault microphone was used, the output of which was brought through
an ampHfier to a recording device. The rail under test was supported, immediately after
rolling, in sMngs so arranged that the support could move with the rail in cooling. These
supports were insulated acoustically so that extraneous noises which would be trans-
mitted from them to the rail and hence to the microphone were eliminated. The micro-
phone was fastened to the end of the rail. Air borne noises were to be compensated for
on the record by having another rail equipped in the same manner as the rail under test.
In that way noise which occurred simultaneously in the dummy rail and the rail under
test would be eliminated from consideration.
It was found in these tests that all of the noises which were present only in the
rail under test were due to the cracking-off of scale from the rail while cooling. For this
reason laboratory tests were made on a rail under controlled conditions.
It had been found that shatter cracks could be produced in a clear rail by heating
it to a temperature of about 2,100 deg. F. in a hydrogen atmosphere and keeping it at
that temperature and in that atmosphere for a period of several hours. The popping of
scale as the rail cooled could be avoided by letting the rail cool in an atmosphere of
nitrogen. The microphone test was tried under these laboratory conditions without suc-
cess, although etch tests on the specimen indicated that shatter cracks had been formed
by this treatment.
746 Investigation of Fissures in Railroad Rails
52. Drop-of -Potential Tests. — The drop-of-potential (electrical) test used was
the same as that used by the Sperry Company on its detector cars for a final check on
the rail of the indications on the record tape. A heavy current is sent through a length
of rail (about 4 ft.) and the drop of potential over a length of about J4 in. is explored
by means of two metal strips fastened Y^ in. apart and attached to the terminals of a
milUvoltmeter. Above a fissure the drop of potential increases, since the area of the cross-
section is somewhat reduced by the fissure, and the resistance is increased. This method
had been tried previously at one of the steel mills to detect shatter cracks in new rails,
but without success. It was thought, however, that if a rail were tested by this method
while the head of the rail was in tension the shatter cracks might open up enough to give
some indication on the milUvoltmeter. The rail was stressed to 40,000 lb. per sq. in.
tension at the shatter-crack zone and the drop-of-potential tried but the test gave no
indication on a rail for which the etch test had shown shatter cracks.
53. X-Ray Tests. — Early in the investigation a rail was taken out of service on
the tracks of the Illinois Central Railroad, which contained a horizontal split head that
had turned down slightly to a transverse direction. This rail was sent to an X-ray labora-
tory for a trial of this method for the location of fissures in rail. This experience indi-
cated that this method was very slow and the line of the fissure on the X-ray film was
so indistinct that it would not have been found had the location not been marked previ-
ously. Since shatter cracks are so narrow and since they cannot be located previously, the
X-ray method was not tried for the non-destructive testing for shatter cracks.
54. Bridge Methods. — All bridge methods are essentially null methods of compar-
ing two conductors. The bridge is first balanced with a standard conductor in one arm
and then the standard is removed and the specimen to be tested is put in the arm of the
bridge. If the bridge remains balanced the specimen is the same as the standard. The
bridge may be operated both with direct and alternating current, the only difference be-
ing that when direct current is used the resistance of the current is the only factor
involved whereas the inductance must be considered when alternating current is used.
Various bridge methods were used to test the new rails for the presence of shatter
cracks. In these tests a rail free from shatter cracks was used as the standard and the
shattered rail for the specimen. The results were not successful.
55. Magnetic Tests. — The first magnetic test was inspired by the paper of
M. Suzuki of the Japanese Railways research office entitled, "Magnetic Rail Defecto-
scope". His method consisted in using a U-shaped magnet to magnetize a portion of the
rail. A pick-up coil covering three sides of the rail head was mounted between the legs
of the magnet and it was thought that as the magnet was moved along the rail any
defect would cause a change in the flux linkages and consequently would be indicated by
the output of the pick-up coils. Due to the difficulty in moving this large magnet along
the rail at sufficiently high speed to take advantage of the flux changes it was deemed
impractical for laboratory use.
To overcome this difficulty several forms of rotating armatures were used to replace
the pick-up coils. In some cases one rotating armature was placed in the leakage field
near the rail and was balanced by the second armature rotating in a separate constant
field.
In the other case the two armatures were located across the top of the rail head in
the leakage field. Both methods are differential methods in that, while the device was
made to travel along the length of the rail and approached the fissure or other defect, the
Investigation of Fissures in Railroad Rails 747
first armature would be affected by the change in the field due to the defect while the
other armature would still be under the influence of the unaffected field over the good
part of the rail. In both of these cases when one of the armatures was passing over the
defect an e.m.f. would be generated to give the indication of the defect. Also the gen-
erated e.m.f. would not be dependent on the speed of the magnet along the rail.
It was found that these magnetic methods were affected by the presence of inter-
poles at various places along the rail. It was also found that the generated voltages were
so small that they were obscured by electrical disturbances due to the chattering of the
brushes on the collector rings.
56. Reason for Non-Success of Non-Destructive Tests for Shatter
Cracks. — Most of the methods which have been briefly described have shown promise
of differentiating between rails which contain shatter cracks and those which do not,
but to date none has shown any positive sign of being an absolute criterion of the differ-
ence. In some cases it has been possible to differentiate between the two conditions on
some batches of rails but when the group of rails has been enlarged or when it has in-
cluded two sizes of rails the test has failed. Several reasons could be advanced for the
non-success of the tests tried, the principal one being that shatter cracks are exceedingly
small and that the faces of the fracture, unlike those of transverse fissures or other detail
fractures are interlocking. There is therefore a nearer approach to mechanical, electrical
and magnetic continuity than there would be for the other defects. Due to this fact
slight variations in the condition of the surface of the rail under test or of its magnetic
properties, or the relative position of the rail and test apparatus or variation in the test
apparatus would overcome much of the effect of the presence of shatter cracks.
Most of the tests proposed involve detecting changes in energy loss caused by shatter
(Cracks by measuring in some way the energy appUed to or absorbed by the rail. The
total amount of energy lost around minute shatter cracks is so small that variations in
this energy are masked by variations of energy distribution in the vastly larger mass
of sound steel in the rail.
This does not mean that the search for a non-destructive test for the presence of
shatter cracks is hopeless but it does mean that it would be necessary to make further
investigations of the methods already used to eliminate the variables which now influence
them. For the present, at least, this phase of the investigation has been discontinued.
IX Acceptance Tests For Rails — Drop Tests and Bend Tests
By N. J. Ali-eman
S7. Former Studies of Bend Tests for Rails. — In 1900, when all rails were
produced by the acid Bessemer process, making relatively high phosphorus steel, the
drop test was introduced by the Pennsylvania Railroad as an impact test to eliminate
excessively brittle rails.
After open hearth rails had been in use for several years it was thought by many
engineers that the drop test did not give sufficient information regarding the reliabiUty
of a rail for service, and that some form of bend test would give a better measure of the
strength, elastic properties and ductiUty.'"
"References to bend tests are found in Volumes 12, 14 and 16 of the AREA Proceedings, on work
done by M. H. Wickhorst, then encineer of tests of the Rail committee. Volumes 18 and 20 contain the
results of quick bend tests reported by W. C. Gushing, chairman of the Subcommittee on Quick Bend
Tests.
748 Investigation of Fissures in Railroad Rails
The results presented in a report by W. C. Gushing cannot be applied as a basis for
comparing drop and bend tests. Individual results were not plotted and no comparative
data on drop tests could be found. Much emphasis was placed on "elastic limit" although
the methods for measuring it were not very satisfactory, when judged by present-day
practice.
58. Bend Tests and Drop Tests by the Pennsylvania Railroad. — ^Through
the courtesy of Vice-President C. D. Young of the Pennsylvania Railroad, a large amount
of unpublished data on file at Altoona on bend testing and drop testing obtained over
20 years ago was made available to the test party. After a careful study of the data it
became evident that these tests would not afford the means for getting a correlation be-
tween results of bend and drop tests, since the drop tests were made with the base in
tension and the bend tests with the head in tension and since relatively few rails had
failed in the drop test.
For rails from Mill A it was noted that no rail failed on the first blow in the drop
test when the corresponding bend-test specimen required more than 110,000 ft. lb. of
energy for fracture. Very few broke on the first blow in the drop test when the energy
for fracture of companion rails was greater than 30,000 ft. lb., although six failures in
the drop test were recorded on rails which developed between 80,000 and 100,000 ft. lb.
energy for fracture in the bend test. Results from the other mills showed so few breaks
on the first blow that they did not furnish any basis for correlation.
59. Bend Test Rig and Test Results. — Experiments were started in 1933 to try
the bend test as a detector of shatter cracks in rails. For this purpose a bend test rig was
constructed and used in a 600,000-lb. Riehle testing machine in the Talbot laboratory.
This test rig is described in AREA Proceedings, Vol. 37 (1936), page 999. Test results
obtained with it are given in Vol. 36 (1935), page 1078 and Vol. 40 (1939), page 664.
These include results of tests of 166 rails varying in weight from 90 lb. to 131 lb. per
yard. Forty-two rails contained shatter cracks, 124 being free of cracks; 115 of the rails
were hot-bed cooled, the remaining 51 being controlled cooled. All of these rails had
passed the AREA drop test requirements in the tests made at the mills.
Based on the results of head-down bend tests made with two-point loading and a
span of 5 ft. 4 in., the following tentative minimum values of energy for fracture were
suggested as a criterion for the acceptance of rails. (Values of elongation and deflection
are given for information).
Energy for Total Elongation Deflec-
Rail Weight, Fracture, Elongation, Across Break, tion,
lb. per yd. ft. lb. percent percent in.
130-131 100,000 35 7.S S
110-112 75,000 35 7.5 5
100 50,000 35 7.5 5
On the basis of the above minimum requirements for energy for fracture, 4 rails not
shatter cracked would fail to pass the bend test, 28 shatter-cracked rails would be
rejected and 14 rails containing only longitudinal shatter cracks would be accepted.
Included in the rails tested were three rails from two different heats containing
approximately 3 percent chromium and 0.30 percent carbon. These rails showed high
elastic strength, but were very low in energy for fracture and deflection in the bend test.
The drop test specimens passed the AREA requirements. Apparently the high elastic
strength was responsible for the good values in the drop test. This high elastic strength
is shown by the permanent deflection (set) after the first blow, the value being 0.70 in.,
whereas the set after the first blow on tests of fifty-eight 131 -lb. carbon steel rails ranged
Investigation of Fissures in Railroad Rails 749
from 0.94 in. to 1.16 in. It has been previously pointed out that the permanent set after
the first blow is an inverse indication of the elastic strength of a rail.
However, a fact not so well recognized is that a rail of high elastic strength, but
which is very brittle, may stand up well in the drop test (i.e. require several blows for
fracture) because up to the limit of the elastic strength very little energy is absorbed by
the specimen, most of the energy being absorbed by the springs under the anvil of the
drop-testing machine.
The drop test is supposed to sort out "brittle" rails, distinguishing them from tougher
ones. Apparently a distinction must be made between a tough steel and a high elastic
strength steel.
From the results of these tests it was concluded that the bend test is a relatively
rehable destructive test for separating shatter-cracked rails from sound rails, and that
it would have many advantages over the drop test as an acceptance test for rails.
60. Advantages and Disadvantages of the Drop Test and the Bend Test. —
Some of the advantages and disadvantages of drop tests and bend tests may be briefly
summarized as follows:
1. The drop test is a "pass or fail" test giving very little indication of the
relative merit of different rails which pass the test.
2. Deflection after the first blow in the drop test gives some measure of the
elastic strength. The relative effect of subsequent blows is a matter of uncertainty
due to the distortion of the specimen and to the fact that the springs supporting
the anvil absorb an amount of energy depending on the remaining elastic strength
of the test rail.
3. The bend test gives a measurement of energy for fracture not widely dif-
ferent from that which would be given by a single-blow impact test to fracture,
with equipment to record the energy remaining in the hammer (or tup) after
fracture of the specimen.
4. The bend test gives a measure of strength not determinable from drop-test
data.
5. The bend test fractures a rail under known values of load and deflection
(the energy for fracture is measured by the area under the load-deflection diagram).
The specimen absorbs nearly all of the energy except that lost in elastic deformation
of the testing machine.
6. Deflection values in bend tests of rail are on the order of six inches, using
a four-foot span, making delicate deflection measuring devices unnecessary.
7. Load values are of the order of 450,000 lb. for 131-lb. rail, so that machine
capacity should be about 600,000 lb.
61. Standards for the Bend Test. — In the spring of 1938 the advisory committee
asked the test party to formulate standards for bend tests for the acceptance of rails and
to submit them to the advisory committee with a view to their consideration by the
AREA Committee on Rail and by the Rail Manufacturers' Technical Committee.
In November, 1938, an informal conference was held between the test party of the
Rails Investigation and a subcommittee of the AREA. During this conference the limita-
tions of the present standard drop test and certain advantages of the bend test were
brought out. It was recognized that the preparation of definite specifications for accept-
ance or rejection of rails by the use of the bend test should be preceded by a rather
elaborate series of bend tests and companion drop tests, conducted preferably at one of
the steel mills in connection with regular rail rollings.
750 Investigation of Fissures in Railroad Rails
Before it would be possible to make bend tests at the mill for the purpose of estab-
lishing the minimum requirements for energy for fracture which would correspond ap-
proximately to the drop-test requirement that a rail should withstand one blow without
fracture, certain additional laboratory bend tests of rails were needed in order to decide
questions relative to the proper bend-test procedure. For this purpose additional bend
tests were made on a few 90, 100, 110 and 131-lb. rails with lengths of span of S ft. 4 in.
(the length used in all previous bend tests by the Rails Investigation), and also for
spans of 4 ft. 8 in. and 4 ft. (The 4-ft. span is used in the drop test for rails over
100 lb. in weight). Two-point loading was used, 6 in. to either side of the center of the
span. The results of these tests covering weight of rail and length of span have been
published in the AREA Proceedings, Vol. 40 (1939), pages 664-671.
The load for fracture was found to vary inversely with length of span with a fair
degree of consistency. Energy for fracture was found to vary with span, although vary-
ing the span does not greatly alter energy values. Deflection values increase with in-
creasing span length, although above a span of 4 ft. 8 in. values become erratic espe-
cially on base-down (base-tension) results. This irregularity of action on the longer
spans is probably due to a tendency of the head to buckle as a column when it is in
compression. The only restraint to sidewise buckhng is the friction of the loading block
on the specimen. For tests with the head in tension the base is in compression and is
wide enough to resist buckling. Buckling is more pronounced with the 90 and 100-Ib.
rail. In order to eliminate erratic results it seems desirable to use a 4-ft. span for the
110, 112 and 131-lb. rails and a 3-ft. span for the 90 and 100-lb. rails.
The following list will give some idea of the magnitude of values to be expected
for sound rails tested on a 4-ft. span using two-point loading spaced 6 in. to either
side of mid-length.
Energy for Load for Deflection
Rail Weight, Fracture, Fracture, at Fracture,
lb. per yd. ft. lb. lb. in.
90 116,000 250,000 6.60
100 135,000 305,000 6.50
110 154,000 340,000 6.60
131 200,000 450,000 6.40
62. Proposed Bend-Test and Drop-Test Study.— Very few heats of steel are
rejected at the mills on account of failure to pass the drop-test requirements. It is evi-
dent that bend tests of specimens from heats meeting the drop-test requirements will be
of little value in establishing the minimum requirements for bend-test specifications.
Because of the few drop-test failures considerable time will be required to obtain a
sufficient number of samples for bend tests of rails from heats failing in the drop tests.
Arrangements have been made with the Bethlehem Steel Company to use a 350-ton
hydraulic press in the fabricating department at Steelton, Pa., for making bend tests.
A bend-test rig using central loading on a 4-ft. span has been built and shipped to
Steelton, and a 400,000-lb. calibration bar has been built and calibrated. Shields for
protection from flying pieces are to be constructed at the mill. Specimens for bend tests
are being set aside at the mill. As soon as a sufficient number have accumulated, mem-
bers of the test party will go to the mill and make the tests. It is expected that some
prehminary bend tests on drop-test failed rails will be made in the near future. Tests will
be made with the head down (head in tension), using a single-point loading.
Investigation of Fissures in Railroad Rails 7S1
X Future Study of Fissures in Rails
63. Specifications for Bend Tests for Rails. — Plans have been made and
apparatus built for conducting a rather extensive series of tests of bend tests on rails
at the Steelton Plant of the Bethlehem Steel Company. It is proposed that this work
may be begun during 1941, and it is hoped that it will furnish the basis for drawing up
specifications for bend tests as an alternate to or a substitute test for the present drop
test.
64. Specifications for Control Cooling of Rails. — With the data now in hand
it is planned during this year to draw up, submit and discuss detailed specifications for
the times and temperatures in the control-cooled process for railroad rails, and for
certain details of practice during that process.
Report of Special Committee on Stresses in
Railroad Track
A. N. Talbot, Chairman, F. S. Hewes Louis Yager, Vice-Chairman,
C. B. Bronson G. W. Kittredge W. H. Penfield
W. J. Burton P. M. LaBach G. J. Ray
♦Robert Faries F. R. Layng Albert Reichmann
C. W. Gennet, Jr. J. de N. Macomb H. R. Satford
F. M. Graham G. M. Magee F. E. Turneaure
H. E. Hale **John V. Neubert J. E. Willoughby
Committee
Died September 8, 1940.
Died June 4, 1940.
I
To the American Railway Engineering Association:
The Special Committee on Stresses in Railroad Track, cooperating with the Com-
mittee of the American Society of Civil Engineers and with the Association of American
Railroads, presents the following report of progress.
During the past year the staff of the committee has continued in the work of
analyzing and correlating the accumulation of data and of preparing material for pub-
lication, as well as developing apparatus and carrying on field and laboratory tests. The
Seventh Progress Report has been published and other material is under preparation for
publication.
Seventh Progress Report
The Seventh Progress Report of the committee is to be found in Bulletin No. 418,
June-July, 1940, pages 101 to 208. The report deals with the tests of rail and rail joints
made with locomotives running at various speeds and with rail and bar stresses and
depressions measured by magnetic strain gages and recorded on oscillograph films. Brief
comments on parts of the report seem worth making.
It was found that with the electric locomotive the averages of the stresses in the
base of rail differed somewhat at the two sides of the locomotive and also at the
several gage locations. It is brought out, however, that the averages of the measured rail
stresses for all the driving wheels do not differ much at speeds of 5, 60 and 90 miles
per hour. Average values for individual wheels may differ considerably. Speeds ranging
from 5 to 60 miles per hour show only minor changes in the magnitude of the stresses
for any given wheel at any given gage location. At speeds higher than 60 miles per hour
wider variations in stress are noticeable for different wheels and for different gage loca-
tions; sometimes very marked changes in stress and moment under a given wheel are
developed within a distance of ten feet. In the runs an increase in stress in one rail for
a given wheel is generally accompanied by a decrease in the other rail for the companion
wheel. It is significant that although the average stress in the two rails for companion
wheels may differ little in the various runs at a high speed, the stresses in one rail may
be considerably higher than in the other. At speeds of 90 miles per hour, for one gage
location the left rail developed a bending moment of 205,000 in.-lb. and the right rail
one of 435,000 in.-lb., corresponding to stresses of 7,500 and 15,900 lb. per sq. in., re-
spectively, and indicating a considerable transfer of load pressure from one driver to its
Bulletin 423, February, 1941.
753
A
754 Stresses in Railroad Track
companion wheel. The analytical treatment of forces given in the report indicates how
lateral forces applied to a pair of drivers may greatly modify the division of load pres-
sure between the two wheels and the two rails. As the gages were applied only at the
middle of the rail base, no information is available on lateral bending of the rail. The
data regarding stresses and moments in rail served a very useful purpose as a basis of
comparison in the discussion of the tests of rail joints.
The joint tests gave a great variety and extent of information which cannot be
condensed into brief form. They confirmed the view that, with excellence of fit, stiff-
ness and sturdiness of bar are accompanied by ability to develop a high joint moment
ratio (that is, a high bending moment in the joint for a given wheel load as compared
with the full rail), and this high joint moment ratio constitutes a proper measure of the
effectiveness of a rail joint, provided the track has been tamped to fit the camber of the
bars and the tie supports are normal. The best of the joints showed a joint moment
ratio of 0.85 and 0.90, which are excellent showings in well tamped track. Although the
vertical and longitudinal movements between rail and bar fishing surfaces are very small
with closely fitting bars, opportunities for wear will be present, particularly when the
position of the bearing contacts between bar and rail are such as to develop very high
bearing pressures at the top fishing surfaces near the rail ends when the wheel loads are
apphed. Worn bars were found to give increased vertical movement between bar and
rail, and the effectiveness of the joint to develop bending moment was thereby greatly
diminished.
It is understood, of course, that the use of the bending moment developed in the
joint as a measure of its effectiveness assumes a smooth joint and normal support — the
additional moment developed when batter near the rail ends stimulates impact on the
joint with resulting higher moment in the bars cannot properly be used to measure the
effectiveness of a joint. It was judged that in a joint having excellence of fit little differ-
ence in bending moments would be found in the average bending moment developed at
the different speeds, but at the higher speeds a wide spread of the magnitudes would
occur as was the case with the full rail, due doubtless to variations in the action of the
locomotive at the higher speeds, and therefore that at the high speeds greater values
than those reported may be expected with more or less frequency. Attention may well
be called to the inadequacy of the tests on a few joints of 24-in. length, which gave
smaller moments than those found with 36-in. bars. They should not be used for com-
parison with the longer bars. Further tests in track made under known conditions are
needed before proper comparison between long and short bars may be made.
Having equipment available, tests were undertaken in a preUminary way to find
whether the testing apparatus would be satisfactory for determining the effect of a flat
spot on a wheel and the effect of batter in the rail surface. While intended to be of an
exploratory nature, the tests give information of interest and point to procedures that
may well be followed in a more complete investigation with newly developed high fre-
quency galvanometers. Stresses at the middle of the base of the 131-lb. rail were meas-
ured under a 4-in. flat spot on a wheel of a heavily loaded coal car. With speeds from
10 to 30 miles per hour the trend in the stress in rail was fairly definite, with a maxi-
mum as high as 25,000 lb. per sq. in. at about 21 miles per hour, as compared with a
stress under the other car wheels in normal condition averaging 10,000 lb. per sq. in.
The stress under the impact load is thus 2^ times that for the normal wheels. The rate
of change of stress as the flat spot struck the rail doubtless was too rapid to record the
full amount of the stress with the galvanometers used at the time.
To study the effect of batter in the rail surface, batter spots were ground in the rail
surface both at and away from the rail ends to simulate batter developed in the rail
Stresses in Railroad Track 755
and the joint under service. The batter irregularities were 8 and 9 in. long and the depths
were about is in. The stresses were measured in the joint bars and in the full rail
directly under the batter spots, and while they varied widely at different wheels and loca-
tions, the measured stresses, in general, ranged up to 1J4 times the stress found for normal
rail conditions. Smaller batter impact effects than those found with the large flat spots
are to be expected, as the batter spots have greater length and lesser depth. Grinding the
9-in. batter to a length of 36 in. without increasing the depth, to lessen the slopes of the
batter spots, gave a definite decrease in the impact effect.
For the purpose of obtaining information on procedure in testing for steam loco-
motive counterbalance effect on stresses developed in rail and to learn the characteristics
of the action of a locomotive on the given track, one day was spent in testing with a
fast freight locomotive (4-8-4) that was considered to be normally well counterbalanced.
Three runs were made at 5 miles per hour and 20 runs at 75 miles per hour. To make
clear the methods of calculation used and as an aid to the interpretation of the test
results, a condensed statement was given in the report covering the principles underlying
the analysis of the forces acting on the rail and the methods of applying the analytical
treatment in calculating rail stresses that may be developed by counterbalance forces.
It is hoped that this statement of method of analysis and calculation of results will- be
found useful to young engineers who may wish to look into counterbalance problems.
No brief resume of conclusions for these counterbalance tests seems practicable here.
It is to be expected that at the speed of 75 miles per hour there will be large variations
from average values, for forces other than those considered in the analysis will influence
the rail stress, and the transfer of load from one driver to another evidently occurs to a
greater or less extent. At the high speed the differences in stress at the several gage
locations were greater than expected. With the exception of one or two wheels, in a
general way the trend of the plotted points of rail stresses agrees fairly well with the
direction of the analytical curves, though the test values at some wheels are definitely
higher than the calculated values. One marked exception in counterbalance trend was
found in the right main driver; the stresses surprisingly showed no very definite unbal-
ance effect, the points being scattered over a wide range of stress throughout the whole
revolution. The left main driver gave a definite counterbalance trend with maximum
stresses up to 20,000 lb. per sq. in. at the middle of the base as compared with the
average stress of 10,000 lb. per sq. in. at 5 miles per hour. As in the tests with the elec-
tric locomotive the stresses measured under the individual drivers of the steam loco-
motive showed an almost complete absence of general speed effect such as had been
found in earlier tests of track and locomotives. The measured rail depressions under all
drivers showed surprisingly good agreement with the corresponding measured stresses
as plotted for half of the drivers in the last three figures and corroborated the stress
relations throughout the revolution of a driver even for extreme and unexplained values.
The report of the tests of this steam locomotive is worthy of careful and detailed study
in making up any program of tests on the effect of counterbalance on stresses in track.
Vertical Web Stresses in 112-lb. Rail
A series of tests was conducted in May, June and July 1940 on the tracks of the
Denver & Rio Grande Western Railroad near Green River, Utah. These tests were made
to study the cause of the few longitudinal web cracks in the 112-lb. rail that had
developed in service in less than a year. The staff of the committee had previously con-
ducted a considerable amount of developmental work in connection with the use of
the resistance strip gage and had developed a direct current amplifier for use with the
strip gage that improved the usefulness and reliability of the gage and made possible a
I
756 Stresses in Railroad Track
reliable static method of calibration. Six complete stress measuring units were built and
used in these tests. The longitudinal web cracks had been found in the outer face of
the rail web at the thinnest part of the web section, always on the outer face and mostly
on tangent track. The strip gages were placed in vertical positions on the rail web, gen-
erally at 3 ^ in. above the rail base, approximately the height at which cracks had ap-
peared in the rails that had been replaced. Most of the measurements were made under
regular scheduled freight and passenger trains, but two test locomotives were used for
a day each. The records of vertical web stresses on both of the web faces for some
driving wheels showed compressive stresses ranging from 8,000 to 12,000 lb. per sq. in.
indicating that the wheel bearing came fairly centrally on the head of the rail. More
generally, however, high compressive web stresses were found in the inner face under
most driving wheels, accompanied by tensile stress of lesser amounts on the outer web
face. Occasionally maximum tensile values in the outer web face under the heavy
locomotive driving wheels reached 28,000 lb. per sq. in. Many values of the compres-
sive stress in the inner face were between 25,000 and 50,000 lb. per sq. in., several
reached 50,000 lb. per sq. in., and occasionally there were even higher compressive
stresses. It was well established that the bearing between wheel and rail at points
giving the very high compressive stresses came considerably inside of the middle of the
rail head. The shiny area of the rail head surface also indicated that the wheel bearing
was generally well toward the gage side of the head. The six gages were later placed
on the web at different heights to determine whether eccentric loading on the rail head
or lateral forces was primarily responsible for the uneven distribution. From the meas-
urements and other evidence it is beheved that the primary factor in the uneven stress
distribution between the two web faces is without doubt the eccentric loading of the rail.
To broaden the scope of the work, web stresses were measured under a variety of
conditions: The 1 in 40 tie plates were replaced by 1 in 20 tie plates; at one location
the rail head was ground to % in. center bearing; measurements were made on 110-lb.
RE rail that had been in track 5 years on which the wear had brought the wheel bear-
ing more centrally on the rail head; and a limited number of measurements were made
on a 1-deg. 40-min. curve.
In a further study of the vertical web stress problem tests were made under regular
traffic on new 112-lb. rail in tangent track of the Illinois Central Railroad in Ilhnois in
October and November 1940. Considerable general information was obtained on the web
stresses developed in the rail. Measurements were also made under the following condi-
tions: 112-lb. rail in track 4 years, 110-lb. rail in track 15 years, and 90-Ib. rail in track
20 years. A study is now being made of the stresses measured in the webs of these rails.
Considerable variation was found from place to place in the magnitude and nature
of the stresses, and in the relation between the stresses at the two faces. Cant of rail,
wear of rail head, condition of rail support, contour of wheel tread, place of contact
between wheel and rail head, and other variables evidently are factors affecting the
web stresses.
The information so far obtained brings out a need for further tests on the web
stress problem. A program may well include tests on 112-lb. rail and 131-lb. rail on
both tangent and curved track.
Service Tests of Joint Bars
In cooperation with Subcommittee 7 on Service Tests of Various Types of Joint
Bars of Committee 4 — Rail, observational tests have been continued on the test stretches
of joint bars on the Pennsylvania Railroad and the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe
Railway. A report of these tests is included in the report of the Committee on Rail.
Stresses in Rail.road Track 757
Additional information on the service tests of joint bars was given in the chairman's
address at the 1940 convention. (Proceedings AREA, Vol. 41, 1940, page 659).
Rolling-Load Tests
Rolling-load tests of rail joints have been continued in the rolling-load machine
at the laboratory of the University of Illinois. A report on the tests completed up to
March 1940 was given in the chairman's address at the 1940 convention. (Proceedings
AREA, Vol. 41, 1940, page 665). Further tests have corroborated the findings given on
page 668.
Testing Equipment
Developmental work on electrical measuring and recording instruments is being
continued by the staff. As a more thorough knowledge of the operation of the apparatus
is obtained, it has been found possible by skillful changes or by simplification to add
measureably to the effectiveness and ease of operation of the equipment. At the same
time the staff is keeping well informed on developments in the art of making tests.
The Special Committee on Stresses in Railroad Track,
A. N. Talbot, Chairman.
I
Report on Stresses in Railroad Track*
An Address by A. N. Talbot
Chairman of the Committee on Stresses in Railroad Track
Professor Emeritus, University of Illinois
The report of the Special Committee on Stresses in Railroad Track, beginning on
page 753, contains a short review of the Seventh Progress Report. t It also has a state-
ment of work done in measuring vertical stresses in the web of rails on the Denver &
Rio Grande Western Railroad and Illinois Central Railroad, and refers to the report on
Service Tests of Joint Bars and to the chairman's report on the rolling load tests of
rail joints.
Instead of giving further explanation of the report, it appears to be preferable to
use the available time of the committee in reporting in brief form on the tests of verti-
cal stresses in rail made on the D. & R. G. W. R. R. and the I. C. R. R. in 1940.
Tests of Vertical Stresses in Web of Rail
In January 1940 the maintenance department of the Denver & Rio Grande Western
discovered cracks in the web of 112-lb. rail which had been laid only eight months. At
various rails along a stretch of five miles of main line single track, a horizontal crack
had started on the outer face of the web and extended into the web sometimes as far as
three-fourths of the web thickness. The crack occurred near the thinnest part of the
web, about 3% in. above the base, and had a length up to, say, 14 in. Rails having such
a crack were replaced with new rails. Investigations made by the engineer of tests of the
railroad and the mill representatives failed to find defects or abnormalities in the rails
where the cracks appeared.
As the appearance of such cracks seemed to be a new phenomenon and information
on the cause was not known or not available, the railroad asked for assistance and the
Association of American Railroads arranged for the research engineer of the Engineering
Division and the staff of the Committee on Stresses in Railroad Track to conduct tests
in the early summer in an effort to find the sources or cause of the trouble. In the fall
tests were also made on the Illinois Central in Illinois. This report presents some of the
principal results and findings of the tests on the two railroads. To keep within the speci-
fied limits of time details of the tests will be omitted, only parts of the tests will be
referred to, and the consequent incompleteness will probably not give a full understanding
of the tests.
1, Combination of Bending Stress and Direct Stress
Preliminary analyses of the problem suggested a bending action in the web of the
rail, developing high compressive bending stresses, which in connection with the direct
vertical stresses might result in excessive compressive stresses at one face and lower com-
pressive stresses or even high tensile stresses in the other face. The cracks found were
presumably fatigue cracks progressively developed. Before discussing the test results it
will be well to consider possible causes of bending action in the web. Two sources came
to mind as possible ones, (a) eccentricity of wheel bearing on the rail head and (b)
application of a lateral force by the wheel at the rail head. See Fig. 1.
* This address, presented on March 12, 1941, supplements the report of the Committee on Stresses
in Railroad Track appearing on page 7Sj.
t Seventh Progress Report of the Special Committee on Stresses in Railroad Track, Bulletin 418,
June-July, 1940, pages 101 to 208, and also pages 139 to 246 in the monograph or special report
section of this issue of the Proceedings.
758
Stresses in Railroad Track
750
(a) Eccentric wheel load. — For a concentrically applied wheel load the resulting
vertical stress would be uniform over the thickness of the web. The length of web re-
sisting the vertical pressure in any event is not known definitely nor is the law of varia-
tion from uniformity of stress along its length, but for present purposes an equivalent or
effective length of resisting section may be assumed to apply to all the conditions. With-
out considering what the effective length of the resisting section is (including the varia-
tions in magnitude of stress along that length), it is seen that a central load may be
expected to give a uniform stress over the thickness of the web, which may be termed
the direct stress. (See upper half of Fig. 1). An eccentric load will give in addition a
bending moment at any horizontal section with a magnitude of Pe, where e is the eccen-
tricity of the bearing load with reference to the vertical axis of the rail section. This
ECCENTRIC LOAD
A B
Direct
Stress
Bending fTrv
Stress ^Nl]
Combined
direct and
bending ^ or
stress
£fc.
='-'f
E-Pe
^c
Direct
Stress
Bending
Stress
Combined
direct and
bending
stress
LATERAL FORCE
C D
s,—-7r
Hk
^
^s = +
.- Hz
S =S,-h s.
P-Hz
a * L
't
Fig. 1. Bending Stress and Direct Stress
bending moment will be resisted by the thickness of the web acting as a beam for what-
ever resisting length may be developed. These resisting lengths for both direct stress and
bending stress may be assumed in a manner that will give the calculated stress imme-
diately under the wheel load. It has been found that the length of the section resisting
the direct load is considerably shorter than the length of the section resisting the bend-
ing moment, perhaps 10 in. in all for the former as compared with 30 in. or more for
the latter. For both resisting sections the stress is a maximum at the wheel point and
decreases each way from this point. The effective or equivalent length of resisting sec-
tion for either the direct stress or the bending stress may be worked out from the
stresses at the opposite faces of the web recorded on clear stress records. The discussion
under the heading, "5. Notes on the Distribution of the Direct Stress and the Bending
Stress Along the Length of the Web," gives more definite information on this matter.
I
760 Stresses in Railroad Track
The combined direct stress and bending moment stress may be written
P Pe
s = s. + s. = --:^-Y (77)
c
where Si is the direct stress, s-^ the bending stress, a the effective area of the horizontal
section resisting the direct load, and the section modulus for the effective bending
c
length. It is seen from the formula that the stresses at the faces of the web may be
either both compressive or one compressive and the other tensile.
To put the formula in words: Calling compressive stress minus and tensile stress
plus, the combined direct stress and bending stress given by the formula may be stated
to be the algebraic sum of (1) the compressive direct stress due to the wheel loading
considered as distributed uniformly over the thickness of the web and for a length that
may be called the equivalent or effective bearing section length and (2) the compressive
or tensile bending stress found from the bending moment due to the eccentricity of load-
ing or other applied forces as calculated with a section modulus based on the equivalent
or effective length of the section which resists bending. The combined bending and direct
stress is scaled from the stress record of the film.
It may be added that in evaluating the stress records of the tests the magnitude of
the direct stress at a wheel is taken as one half the algebraic sum of the measured
stresses at the two opposite web faces. The magnitude of the bending stress at either
face under the wheel is plus or minus one half of the algebraic difference of the measured
stresses at the two opposite web faces.
(b) Lateral force at the rail head. — Considering the vertical wheel load to be ap-
plied centrally as in the lower half of Fig. 1, a lateral force H will produce a bending
moment of Hz at a section z below the point of application of H. The combined direct
stress and bending stress may then be taken as the algebraic sum of the two stresses,
found in a way similar to that given for the case of eccentric loading just discussed.
With a lateral force acting, the form of the formula will be the same as that for eccen-
tric loading, but the magnitude of the bending moment will vary with the distance z to
the resisting section taken, and the effective length of the section resisting the lateral
bending of the web probably will be greater for the larger values of s.
It is apparent that a combination of the two sources of bending, eccentric loading
and lateral force, is possible. The assumptions for both cases used are not fully accurate
or complete but constitute an approach to solutions. The analyses, assumptions and
formulas should be considered as preliminary in their nature and roughly approximate;
they are presented in an effort to give a conception of the relation between forces and
stresses. A single laboratory test made with central loading indicates that the stresses at
a horizontal section toward the bottom of the web are much smaller accordingly than
those at a section near the top. This test and other observations indicate that for both
direct stress and bending resistance further investigations must be made to secure fully
acceptable analyses and formulas.
It may be noted here in advance that the test results indicate that eccentricity of
bearing is the principal source of the bending stresses.
2. Principal Tests with 112-lb. Rail on the D. & R. G. W. R. R.
The tests on the D. & R. G. W. R. R. were made on the main line single track
east of Green River, Utah. The track appeared excellent and in very good condition.
Double-shouldered tie plates on ties machine adzed before rail laying gave reasonably
uniform rail cant, ranging from 1 in 35 to 1 in 50. The crushed slag ballast was well
stresses in Railroad Track
761
tamped and in general the ties were well seated in the ballast. The position of the shiny
area on the rail head showed that the general wheel bearing was toward the gage side of
the rail.
The locomotives making these records were largely 3700 class (4-6-6-4, mallet type),
giving perhaps two-thirds of the records, with the other third divided between the 1700
(4-8-4) and 1600 (4-8-2) classes. Driving wheel weights ranged from 33,000 to 37,000
lb. Three runs were obtained with locomotives of the 1800 class (4-8-4). In addition two
locomotives were used to make special test runs, locomotive 3700 and locomotive 1804.
The principal test measurement (a variety of other measurements was made at dif-
ferent times and places) was that of the stress in a vertical direction on the outer face
and the inner face of the web of the rail. The mid-point of the gage lines was placed at
the thinnest part of the web, 3^ in. above the base of the rail. The measurement was
made by carbon strip gages (1-in. or ^-in. gage length) applied directly to the two
opposite faces of the web. By means of the apparatus developed by the staff of the
committee the stresses at these places were recorded on films by an oscillograph near by.
In Fig. 2 are plotted vertical stresses measured in both inner and outer faces of the rail
web at one gage location for the 3700 class locomotives westbound in regular traffic. The
figure is given as an example of the distribution of stresses at the several driving wheels
for a number of runs.
oo 00 0 ®0 0o-^^
-60
-40 -,
-20
-i — tt — 04r i — i — if-
3700 Class Loco.
. Westbound
Traffic
■50-60mph.
Inner
Face •
Fig. 2. Vertical Web Stresses at One Gage Location. D. &
Outer
Face
W. R. R. 112-lb. Rail
The place or location on the track at which a gage or gages were placed is termed a
gage location and is given by naming with it the distance along the track from a refer-
ence point together with the words north or south rail for the rail on which it was
placed. In the tests to be first discussed 13 such gage locations were used on a stretch of
tangent track with a descending grade to the west giving conditions conducive to fast
speeds in the westbound direction.
To give some idea of the meaning of the magnitudes in vertical web stresses, certain
statements may be made as derived from a study of the test results and a consideration
of probable values from an analytical basis. It may be .said that the part of the meas-
ured stress at the wheel point attributable to direct stress may be expected generally to
range from 8,000 to 14,000 lb. per sq. in. compression, this direct stress being calculated
762 Stresses in Railroad Track
by taking half the algebraic sum of the measured stresses on the two opposite web faces.
With ordinary bending in the web, the larger measured compressive stresses on the inner
face at the wheel point may run to 25,000 or even to 30,000 lb. per sq. in. and still be
considered moderate with respect to common conditions of track and rolling stock —
this without any reference to whether these values exceed the fatigue resistance of the
metal. With higher bending in the web, values of compressive stresses on the inner face
as great or greater than 40,000 lb. per sq. in. may be considered high or very high.
Tensile stresses on the outer face at the wheel point as great as 15,000 lb. per sq. in.
must be expected at times under ordinary operating conditions, and values of 25,000 lb.
per sq. in. were found at reflex points in a few instances. As already stated the algebraic
difference between the measured stress and the direct stress will be the bending stress,
either compressive or tensile.
Brief comments on the various test results will now be made. It should be pointed
out that in this report all stresses referred to are those produced by the driving wheels
of the locomotives. Two gage locations called gage location 21 ft. south rail and 10 ft.
south rail were on new rails at points where a crack had been reported in the replaced
rails. A third one was called 99 ft. south rail. At these three gage locations on the south
rail many excessive vertical compressive stresses were found in the inner face of the web
under regular traffic. The speeds of westbound trains ranged from 50 to 70 miles per
hour. Of about 350 records of stresses from driving wheels at the inner face of web at
these three gage locations, 14 percent were above 35,000 lb. per sq. in., 6 percent were
above 45,000 lb. per sq. in., and 1 percent was as high as 55,000 lb. per sq. in. Where
compressive stresses in the inner face as high as 35,000 lb. per sq. in. occurred, the cor-
responding stress in the outer face was generally tensile, and usually as the compressive
stress in the inner face rose, the tensile stress in the opposite face also increased. The
tensile stresses in the outer face were as high as 25,000 lb. per sq. in., with about 8 percent
of the values between 15,000 and 25,000 lb. per sq. in.
At three other gage locations, two on the south rail and one on the north rail, with
150 stress records on a face and regular traffic, about 2 percent were greater than 35,000
lb. per sq. in. compression, but in general the stresses were much smaller than at the
three gage locations discussed above. The tensile stresses at the outer face ranged up to
15,000 lb. per sq. in.
With locomotive 3700 westbound used as a special test locomotive (heavy mallet
type) high vertical stresses on the inner face were found at gage location 10 ft. south
rail at the speeds of 50 and 65 miles per hour. Nearly all the vertical stresses on the
inner face of the web of the south rail at this gage location were greater than 25,000 lb.
per sq. in. compression, 10 percent of the records were between 25,000 and 35,000 lb.
per sq. in., 30 percent between 35,000 and 45,000 lb. per sq. in., 35 percent between
45,000 and 55,000 lb. per sq. in., and 20 percent above 55,000 lb. per sq. in. In magni-
tude and frequency the values here given for this gage location and this locomotive are
the highest found in the tests. They are all on the inner face. On the outer face the
tensile stresses were frequent but not of large magnitude.
At this same gage location on the south rail, for the 5 runs with this test locomotive
at 5 miles per hour no stress on either lace of the web under five of the driving wheels
exceeded 20,000 lb. per sq. in. For the fourth driving wheel all of the values on the inner
face were between 35,000 and 40,000 lb. per sq. in. compression.
On the north rail at gage location 10 ft. north, for the high speeds, the higher
stresses were smaller in magnitude and much smaller in percentages than was the case
on the south rail; sometimes the compressive stress was greater on the inner face and
Stic sscs in Railroad Track 763
sometimes on the outer face. On the contrary for the speed of 5 miles per hour the
higher compressive stresses on this north rail were greater in magnitude and greater in
frequency than those on the south rail at the same speed.
With test locomotive 3700 at another location on the south rail (gage location 48 ft.
south rail) for both high and low speeds the values of the vertical web stress were
relatively low, all below 25,000 lb. per sq. in.
For test locomotive 1804 (a modern 4-8-4 passenger locomotive) at speeds of 5, SO
and 70 miles per hour (4 runs at each speed) no individual wheel on either south or
north rail gave a vertical compressive stress in either inner or outer face of web as great
as 30,000 lb. per sq. in. Of 232 records of stress on the two web faces at the three gage
locations 17 values were between 25,000 and 30,000 lb. per sq. in. Only one of these
stresses was on the outer face. The numbers in this group of stresses were fairly well
divided among the three speeds. Compressive stresses of these amounts are not consid-
ered to be unduly high. It was found that the mean stress of the two faces for each
driving wheel was in the neighborhood of 10,000 to 12,000 lb. per sq. in. compression.
The stresses in the outer face were almost always compressive, only 3 out of 180 values
being tensile and these having relatively small magnitude. The records on which the
above statements are based included those at gage locations 10 ft. south rail, 10 ft. north
rail and gage location 48 ft. south rail, the values at the three gage locations being quite
similar. The results show that the vertical stress records for this locomotive were low or
moderate and uniform and reasonably similar for the three gage locations. They may be
contrasted with the values for locomotive 3700 at the same three gage locations.
3. Tests with 112-lb. Rail on the Illinois Central
The tests on the Illinois Central were made on double track main line at perhaps
32 different spots in three main groups several miles apart at places south of Mattoon
and one group north of Oilman, 111. The 112-lb. rail south of Mattoon had been laid
four months and that north of Oilman had been in track for about four years under
fairly heavy traffic. The track was in fairly good condition. Most of the ties were not
new. The cant of the rail, intended to be 1 in 40, varied more or less from place to place
and was mostly about 1 in 25. The records were taken under regular trains. The locomo-
tives were almost wholly 4-6-2 and 4-8-2, with driving wheel loads ranging from 30,000
to 33,000 lb. The speeds ranged from 60 to 80 miles per hour for passenger trains and
30 to 55 miles per hour for freight trains.
Measurements were made on the 112-lb. rail at six gage locations on the left rail
and 17 on the right rail, six of which were opposite those on the left rail. Perhaps 500
driving wheel records of vertical stresses were made for each face of the web of the
rail. Some of the general findings of these tests are as follows:
1. Generally the high compressive stress was on the inner face of the web — perhaps
there were three values on the outer face of about 30,000 lb. per sq. in.
2. Of these 500 records on the inner face, only four values are above 45,000 lb. per
sq. in. compressive stress, three being for one run of passenger locomotive 2458 and one
under the main driver of passenger locomotive 1135 pulling the Panama Limited train.
On the two other runs locomotive 1135 gave only one stress as high as 22,000 lb. per
sq. in.
Of the 500 records six values of the compressive stress at the inner face were between
40,000 and 45,000 lb. per sq. in, and six values between 35,000 and 40,000 lb. per sq. in.
4. It is seen that a vertical compressive stress higher than 35,000 lb. per sq. in. at
the inner face was rare, occurring in only about 3 percent of the total inner face stress
records made by driving wheels.
764 Stresses in Railroad Track
5. Vertical web compressive stresses between 25,000 and 35,000 lb. per sq. in. were
found in about 8 percent of the records, only 2 percent occurring at the outer face.
Considering the opportunities for eccentricity of bearing, the number of values in this
group may be called very moderate.
6. The tension values in the outer face were relatively small. Very few were above
15,000 lb. per sq. in., and only one was as great as 20,000 lb. per sq. in.
4. Additional Tests on Both Railroads
The foregoing relates to 112-lb. rail presumably laid with a cant of 1 in 40. To
learn something of the effect of other conditions like wear and cant and centralized bear-
ing, tests were made on the D. & R. G. W. R. R. (a) with the 112-lb. rail canted 1 in 20,
(b) with the rail ground for a short length to give central bearing on the rail head, and
(c) tests were also made on UO-lb. rail that had been in service and had become worn.
With the l-in-40 tie plates replaced with l-in-20 tie plates on new 112-lb. rail at one
gage location where many of the vertical web stresses in inner face had been found to
be very high and also at one gage location where the vertical web stresses had been
found to be moderately high, the web stresses were materially modified. At the inner
face the compressive stresses were greatly decreased, and stresses at the outer face were
changed from tensile to compressive. In many cases there was reversal of stress on the
two faces from the original values. It was apparent that the change in cant of rail had
made a significant change in position of wheel bearing on rail head. The results give
definite evidence that eccentricity of bearing of wheel on the rail head was a principal
source of the high compressive stresses originally found at the inner face.
To secure fairly central bearing of wheel, a 112-lb. rail was ground through a length
of 4 or 5 ft. so as to leave a slight ridge ^ in. wide at the middle of the head. The effect
was to markedly modify the stresses on the web faces. The test was made with locomo-
tive 3700 which had before given very high compressive stresses at the inner face. The
stresses at this face were materially decreased and those at the outer face became compres-
sive stresses of small magnitude, only 3 out of 180 values being tensile. It was also found
that certain wheels that had given high lateral bending stresses in the base of the rail
did not continue to produce this effect.
Tests were also made on 110-lb. rail laid in 1935 and worn somewhat so that it
more nearly fitted the average wheel tread contour. At the inner face 10 percent of the
values were between 25,000 and 32,000 lb. per sq. in. compressive stress, and none was
higher. This decrease in web stress as compared with the 112-lb. rail doubtless results
from more nearly central bearing of wheel on rail. On the outer face the stresses were
evenly spread between 13,000 lb. per sq. in. tension and 13,000 lb. per sq. in. compres-
sion. A few tensile stresses were recorded for the inner face. The appearance of the head
of the rail also indicated smaller eccentricity of wheel bearing than did the new 112-lb.
rail.
On the I. C. R. R. tests were made at six gage locations on 110-lb. rail laid in 1924.
The rail had become worn and canted to some degree and thus more nearly fitted the
usual coning slope of wheel treads. The condition of the track varied from place to place.
At four of the six gage locations the vertical stresses on both faces of the web were
moderate, generally under 20,000 lb. per sq. in. compressive stress. Frequently the com-
pressive stress in the outer face was greater than the corresponding stress in the inner
face. At two other gage locations opposite each other, a number of compressive stresses
were found between 25,000 and 35,000 lb. per sq. in. Of these higher values those on the
right rail are at the inner face and those on the left rail are at the outer face. As these
stresses in Railroad Track
765
higher values on the two rails were found to be simultaneous, it is seen that the wheel
bearings on the right rail must have been inside of the middle of the head and at the
same time those on the left rail were outside of the middle of the head. For these tests
on 110-lb. rail the highest compressive stress was 41,000 lb. per sq. in., and 3 percent
ranged between 30,000 and 40,000 lb. per sq. in. The few tensile stresses recorded were
small and they occurred on either face of the web.
Also on the I. C. R. R. tests were made at three gage locations on 90-lb. rail laid in
1920 and still carrying the regular traffic. This rail had considerable head wear and but
little batter at the rail ends. The web stresses were not high. Two compressive stresses
of 29,000 and 33,000 lb. per sq. in. were recorded — all the other 58 stresses on the inner
faces were smaller. Small tensile stresses were found on either face; the highest was
15,000 lb. per sq. in. It may be noted that the head of this uncanted rail was worn to
an inward slope approximating average wheel contours. It is apparent that the worn
shape of the head has a strong influence in preventing the occurrence of high web
stresses.
To show variations that occur in track, reference may be made to the conditions
at two gage locations a rail length apart on 110-lb. rail on the I. C. R. R. laid in 1924.
The ties were not in good condition, and shims had been placed under the outer end of
the tie plates of the right rail for two rail lengths, making the gage a little tight and
resulting in a cant of 1 in 25 on the right rail and 1 in 20 on the left rail. Under these
conditions the web stresses were quite moderate.
D.d R.G.W.R.R.
Gage
Side
Tangent Track
-60
5th Driver 3700
4th Driver 3709 a— a
1st Driver 1803 O-O
2nd Driver 1609 +--+
-20
Average
Direct Stress
Fig. 3. Range of Measured Vertical Web Stresses
To find the relative magnitude of the vertical web stress at different heights on the
web, strip gages were placed one above another on the two faces and simultaneous values
obtained. Fig. 3 shows stresses measured at gage Unes with centers at 2, 3% and 4% in.
above the rail base at a gage location on 112-lb. rail on the D. & R. G. W. R. R., made
by a wheel for single runs of four locomotives. The diagram shows something of the range
in the web stresses found under regular traffic conditions. The higher compressive stresses
decrease rapidly from the uppermost gage line to the lowermost gage line. In general
the web stresses do not reverse sign from the upper to the lower portion of the web.
The direct stresses shown at the right were calculated from the measured stresses at
766
Stresses in Railroad T rack
opposite faces of the web. Similar measurements of stresses made at other gage locations,
one on 112-lb. rail and one on 110-lb. rail on the D. & R. G. W. R. R. and still another
on 112-lb. rail on the I. C. R. R. (two of them made with two gages and one with three
on a face), gave similar decreases in magnitude of stress from the upper gage to the
lower one or similar trends. It is apparent that the decrease in stress from above to be-
low is greater accordingly than would be accounted for by difference in thickness of web.
Perhaps the greater length of the effective section resisting web bending to be expected
at the bottom gage as compared with that at the top gage, or some similar action in the
web, will be found to explain the change in magnitude from top to bottom of web.
5. Notes on the Distribution of the Direct Stress and the Bending
Stress Along the Length of the Web
A further discussion may help to give a clearer understanding of the variable rela-
tion between the direct stress and the bending stress at and away from a wheel load.
The measured vertical stress at any point in a web stress record may be considered
as made up of (1) a compressive direct stress and (2) a bending stress due to the flexure
in the web. The division of the measured stress between direct stress and bending stress
may be made by the method of calculation given under the heading "1. Combination of
Bending Stress and Direct Stress." A study of many records indicates that the magnitudes
of the direct stress along the web varies from a maximum at the wheel point to a small
amount at points averaging perhaps 5 in. in front of and behind the wheel point and
that the form taken by these stress values along the web approximates a straight line.
This variation of direct stresses along the length of the web is similiar to that found in
the laboratory test with a concentric load on a rail. The records of the tests indicate that
in general the compressive direct stresses at the wheel point had magnitudes of 8,000
to 14,000 lb. per sq. in.
-50
c-
o
I/)
-40
Q)
-30
o
-20
1
-10
-Cl
Q>
^
U
.c -10
I 0
^^ +10
.%-^20
to
.S +30
Measured Stress
Bending Stress
Measured Stress
Inner Face
Direct
Stress
Bending
Stress.
Outer Face
20 10 0 10 20 20 10 O 10 20 20 10 0 10 20
Distance along Rail from Wheel Point- Inches
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 4. Forms of Measured Vertical Web Stresses in Rails in Track
Stresses in Railroad Track 767^
Three representative forms of the vertical stress records showing inward bending of
the web at a pair of opposite gage lines having their centers 3)4 in- above the rail base
are given in (a), (b) and (c) in Fig. 4. A compressive direct stress of 12,000 lb. per sq.
in. at the wheel point for each face has also been plotted, and the direct stress has been
taken to decrease as a straight line to zero at points S in. before and behind the wheel
point.
The bending stresses developed in the web (compressive and tensile) will also vary
from the wheel point along a distance IS to 20 in. in front of and behind the wheel
point. The scaled vertical distance from a point on the stress record to one on the line
representing the corresponding point for the direct stress or to the horizontal axis of the
diagram beyond any direct stress will represent the magnitude of the bending stress at
any given distance from the wheel point, the stress being compressive at the inner face
and tensile at the outer face. The resulting lines representing the bending stresses would
have a curved form from a maximum at the wheel point to a joint 15 to 20 in. each
way.
Taking first the form at (a), the stresses measured at the inner face of the web
(top diagram) are compressive all along a distance 20 in. in front of and 20 in. behind
the wheel point, and the stresses at the corresponding points on the outer face (bottom
diagram) are tensile. The stresses shown are 46,000 lb. per sq. in. compressive at the inner
face and 22,000 lb. per sq. in. tension at the outer lace when the wheel is over the gage,
both compressive and tensile stresses decreasing at points away from the wheel point.
Subtracting the plotted direct stress from the total measured stress at any point, it will
be seen that the bending stress (either compressive or tensile) is a maximum at the
wheel point and decreases each way. The length of web resisting bending may be three
or four times that resisting the direct or bearing load. The form at (a) is typical for
stress records having relatively large bending stresses.
In (b) of Fig. 4 a different relation is seen to exist between stresses at inner and
outer faces within the 10-in. length having direct stress. The effect of the direct stress
here is to reflex the stress record and form a notch in the record for the outer face and
thus to develop a higher tensile stress at the reflex point 5 in. away than is found at the
wheel point. Examples were found when the stress at S in. from the wheel was 25,000
lb. per sq. in. tension and that at the wheel point only 10,000 lb. per sq. in. Away from
the reflex points forward and backward the measured stress is almost wholly a bending
stress, compressive on one face and tensile on the other face. The length of web resisting
bending is somewhat shorter than found in (a). Records similar in form to (b) are found
when the bending stresses have medium magnitudes.
In (c) of Fig. 4, in front of and behind the reflex points where the direct stress is
too small to be noticeable, the measured stress again is almost wholly a bending stress,
compressive on one face and tensile on the other face. However, between the two reflex
points the stress record of the outer web face crosses from tension to compression, and
at the wheel point the compressive stress at the outer face may have a magnitude as
great or greater than the tensile stress at the reflex point. The form at (c) is represen-
tative of the large number of stress records having moderate or low vertical bending
stresses in the web. As the eccentricity of wheel bearing approaches zero the notch of
the record for the outer face may be expected to approach the part of the diagram
representing direct stress.
The diagrams in Fig. 4 arc explanatory of most of the forms of the vertical web
stress records. As will be seen, they apply to inward bending of the web, but by reversal
they will apply to outward bending. Naturally there may be variations from these forms.
Cant of rail, wear of rail head, wheel contour, and other variations will change conditions
768 Stresses in Railroad Track
in different ways. Thus, with outward bending of the web, tensile stress may be found
in the inner face and compressive stress in the outer face. The length of the web thick-
ness resisting the direct stress and also the length and the distribution along the web use-
ful in resisting the bending moment will vary from that indicated on the diagrams.
Stresses at horizontal sections of the web lower than 3^ in. above the base may have
different bending moments and different resistances than those here discussed. The dia-
grams however will be useful in interpreting the varieties in the stress records.
6. Comments on Some of the Results
To summarize the main results of the tests:
The position of the centroid of wheel bearing on the rail head evidently exercises a
most importance influence on the magnitude of the vertical bending stresses developed
in the web of the rail; eccentricity of wheel bearing is doubtless generally the principal
source of the bending action found in the tests. These bending stresses may be consid-
erably greater than the stresses called direct stresses. It is evident that the amount of
the cant of the rail and also the shape of the worn top surface cause marked differences
in the position of the wheel bearing and thus will affect the magnitude of the vertical
stresses in the rail web. The larger rail cants decreased the web bending stresses mate-
rially. Worn rail heads giving greater inward slope to the running surface likewise de-
creased the bending stresses, and thus the higher compressive stresses were decreased.
It is apparent that even under good track conditions and under ordinary operating
conditions of wheels of locomotives and cars, variations in eccentricity of wheel load
bearing are to be expected. Minor imperfections of rail alinement and surface, differences
in cant and wear of rail, wear and variations in tread of wheels and in bearings and
other parts of rolling stock, shifting of wheel flange to and from gage side of rail, hunt-
ing and wandering of wheel on rail due to coning and other causes, inherent variations
of locomotive forces at the two sides for different locomotives and different speeds — all
must be expected. The position of the bearing contact of wheel on rail is dependent upon
wheel contour (worn or not), actual cant of rail under loaded conditions, wear of rail
section, position of wheel flange with respect to gage side of rail as the wheel continues
its hunting along on the rail incident to coning of the wheel, and other causes. What is
needed is the nearest practical approach to conditions giving moderate bending stresses
in the web. Such modern improvements as machine adzing of ties with high-grade equip-
ment should be given credit for improved conditions. Excellence in design and mainte-
nance of rolling stock is very important.
In addition to eccentricity of wheel bearing, the existence of large lateral forces ap-
plied to the top of the rail by the wheels of locomotives and cars even on tangent track
may develop large bending moments in the rail web. That such lateral forces may even
exert extremely high bending action in the rail web is of course apparent in the down-
ward and inward bending when rail is kinked by imperfect locomotive counterbalance,
and of course lesser counterbalance effects will contribute in lesser degree to bending in
the web without visible effects.
In the tests on the D. & R. G. W. R. R., vertical compressive stresses of consider-
able magnitude were found under the wheels on the inner face of the web and tensile
stresses of lesser magnitude on the outer face. These larger values were found on the left
rail at the high westbound speeds with regular traffic. Locomotive 3700 (4-6-6-4) used
for tests on one day, gave many high stresses on the left rail at the higher speeds west-
bound and much lower stresses on the right rail, while at speeds of 5 miles per hour the
high stresses were found on the right rail and moderate stresses on the left rail. Locomo-
Stresses in Railroad Track 768a
tive 1804 (a newer 4-8-4 passenger locomotive) at both slow and fast speeds gave mod-
erate or small stresses on both rails, uniform and reasonably similar for the same three
gage locations.
The principal source of the high web stresses on the D. & R. G. W. R. R. is evi-
dently eccentricity of wheel bearing at the surface of the rail. Change in cant of rail,
use of central ridge for the bearing surface for the wheel, and brightness of rail surface
near the gage side corroberate this conclusion.
With 112-lb. rail on the I. C. R. R. the higher of the compressive web stresses found
were moderate in magnitude (except for 4 values) and relatively infrequent, and the
tensile stresses were usually relatively small. Although laid with tie plates with inclina-
tion 1 in 40, the greater cant of the rail in track, mostly 1 in 25 at the gage locations,
contributed to moderation in web stresses. In 110-lb. rail laid in 1924 and worn and
canted in a way to conform toward the usual wheel coning and with appearance of head
indicating small eccentricity of wheel bearing, moderate web stresses were the rule. In
90-lb. rail laid in 1920 and having the rail head worn to an inward slope approximating
1 in 17, even though one rail web was vertical and the other canted only slightly the
web stresses were all moderate or small.
Although many vertical web stresses of considerable magnitude were recorded in
the tests of 112-lb. rail on the track of the D. & R. G. W. R. R., the actual percentage
of high compressive stresses developed in the passage of all the driving wheels of the
locomotives is not great, and the percentage of the higher tensile stresses coupled with
alternations of compressive stresses of considerable magnitude on the outer face of the
web (where the cracks had formed) is even smaller. It is not thought that the high com-
pressive stresses developed in the inner face of the web, alternating on that face perhaps
to zero or to small tension, bear any known relation to the formation of cracks in the
outer face. The number of repetitions of alternating tensile and compressive stresses
found in the outer face greater than 15,000 lb. per sq. in. is small, seemingly insufficient
to cause the development of fatigue cracks. As to the magnitude of the higher values of
stress, at the inner face of the web a few compressive stresses of 60,000 lb. per sq. in.
and a few tensile stresses of 30,000 lb. per sq. in. were found, though these were not
necessarily alternating or made on the same run, and no cracks had been found on the
inner face. At the outer face a few tensile stresses between 25,000 and 30,000 lb. per
sq. in. (including high tensile stresses 5 in. ahead or behind a wheel at reflex points)
were found and also a few compressive stresses of similar magnitude, though their occur-
ence was not in a way to form cycles of stress. Reversals of this magnitude are so infre-
quent that they can hardly by themselves explain the formation of cracks. It is evident,
however, that higher stresses are frequently developed in the web of the rail in service
than had been supposed and in many cases these vertical web stresses are relatively
higher than the longitudinal bending stresses existing elsewhere in the rail. Faster speeds
or indifferent conditions of equipment would have increased the web stresses. Whether
other sources of strains in the rail were present and superimposed on the measured
stresses is not known. This matter is worthy of further investigation.
Two suggestions are made in conclusion:
(1) That further tests and investigation be made on the occurrence and the sources
of high vertical stresses in the web of rail on both tangent and curved track for both
112- and 131-lb. rail.
(2) That a comprehensive investigation be made of the fatigue resistances of the
metal in the web of the rail, together with other conditions that may contribute to the
formation of cracks.
PROCEEDINGS
PROCEEDINGS
Report of the opening session of the convention on Tuesday
morning, March 11, 1941; the closing session on Thursday
afternoon, March 13; and other business not related to
the presentation of the committee reports
Address of F. L. C. Bond as acting president
Memorial tribute to George S. Fanning
Address of C. H. Buford, vice-president, AAR
Report of the tellers
Address of Hon. Clarence F. Lea
Reports of secretary and treasurer
Opening Session, Tuesday Morning, March 11, 1941
The forty-second annt-tl convention of the American Railway Engineering Asso-
ciation was called to order at 9:55 a.m., on March 11, 1941, in the Grand Ball Room
of the Palmer House, Chicago, by Vice-President F. L. C. Bond, vice president and
general manager. Central Region, Canadian National Railways, Toronto, Ont.
Vice-President Bond: This is the forty-second annual convention of the American
Railway Engineering Association. It is now declared open for business. This convention
is likewise the annual meeting of the Construction and Maintenance Section, Division IV
— Engineering, Association of American Railroads, the sessions being concurrent.
The first order of business is the reading of the minutes of the last annual meeting.
Inasmuch as these minutes have been printed and a copy has been furnished to each
member, unless there is some objection, the reading of the minutes will be dispensed
with. Any objections? As there are no objections, the minutes stand approved as
printed.
Address of Vice-President Bond
In calling the convention to order this morning it is with a heavy heart and a deep
sense of the responsibility which devolves upon me owing to the calamity which has
befallen our Association through the loss of our revered president, George S. Fanning,
to whose memory appropriate reference will be made before beginning the routine func-
tions of the convention.
In substituting for our late president I will endeavour, as far as in me lies, to give
the convention an account of his able stewardship during his term of office — his aims and
accomplishments on behalf of the Association.
Efforts to Improve the Association
In accepting the highest office which the Association could bestow, Mr. Fanning
considered it a position of trust and responsibility, which called for the application of
all the resources at his command, and which he gave unsparingly, particularly to the
solution of the more difficult problems which came to the fore during his term as presi-
dent, and measures designed to improve the effectiveness of the Association.
769
770 Business Session
This is well illustrated by the means he adopted in an effort to carry out one of
his chief aims as your executive officer — an improvement in the proceedings of our
convention, and the manner of presenting the committee reports. Firm in the conviction
that much could be done if his ideas were placed before the committees in a convincing
manner, he set for himself the task of attending at least one meeting of each committee.
While he was unable to carry out this plan in its entirety, nevertheless Mr. Fanning
succeeded in presenting his message in person at the meetings of 14 committees — no
doubt a far greater number than has ever been visited in a year's time by any other
president of our Association.
However, he was by no means content even with this record, and, to insure that his
views would be presented before the remaining committees, he wrote to the chairmen,
setting forth what he had proposed to say, and asked that his letter be read at com-
mittee meetings. I take the hberty of quoting extracts from one of these letters:
Many observers feel that our proceedings are too dull, with too much
evidence of the "steam roller," and with too little discussion. The reasons for
this are perhaps, first, that our time is limited, and, second, — and probably
much more important — that our committee reports are so thoroughly worked
over, and there is nothing generally which the member on the floor can find
to criticize if he had read them.
However, there is something else which I think the committees can do,
and that is, make the presentation of their reports to the convention more
interesting. The present practice is either to read all or part of the printed
report, or simply to refer to it by bulletin and page number. What I think we
should have, to introduce each subcommittee report, is a snappy statement of
the high lights of the report, presented in as striking a way as the subcommittee
chairman can command
Our reports, as printed in the bulletins, should be thorough, and, in being
thorough, they occasionally may have to be dull, but in the presentation of the
reports on the floor of the convention, let's forget the thoroughness and get
away from the dullness.
I am sure our committees have taken our late president's suggestions to heart and
that our convention this year, and those which follow, will be made more interesting
and more valuable in consequence.
In centering his attention on the presentation of the reports, Mr. Fanning did not
overlook the fact that presentation is the instrumentahty for stimulating discussion from
the floor of the convention. Again we find evidence of his initiative in a circular letter
which he wrote in his capacity as chairman of the Engineering Division, Association of
American Railroads, to the chief engineers of the member roads, suggesting a critical
examination of the committee reports by members of their staffs, and discussions of
the same from the standpoint of the experiences and practices of the individual rail-
roads. I sincerely hope that discussions originating from this source will be given freely
during the sessions which follow.
Increased Usefulness of Association
The administration of your president has been marked by an expansion of the
Association's usefulness and prestige. In his capacity as chairman of the Construction
and Maintenance Section of the Engineering Division he took an important part in
broadening the scope of the research activities carried on for the solution of problems
Address of Vice-President. Bond 771
assigned to our standing committees, as evidenced by an increase of $25,900 in the
allotment of funds for such work by the Association of American Railroads during 1941,
as compared with the appropriation for 1940. The success of his efforts to this end
may well be ascribed to a practical view of matters bearing on research, which inspired
confidence in the soundness of his judgment and advice.
Among- the projects recently authorized is the investigation of the relation of track
to equipment — particularly the effect of locomotive counterbalancing, in which your
Association in its capacity as a unit of the Engineering Division, is participating jointly
with the Mechanical Division. President Fanning had an active part in the conferences
leading to the development of the general plan of this work, and to the formation of
a joint committee to administer this important project.
The resignation of Dr. A. N. Talbot as chairman of the Special Committee on
Stresses in Railroad Track, effective with the close of this convention, has created a
primary problem to which your president and members of the Board of Direction have
given a great deal of thought. After nearly three decades, during which our knowledge
of track and its behaviour as an engineering structure has been tremendously expanded
under the leadership of Dr. Talbot, your board is now confronted with circumstances
that differ widely from those that were presented when he started his classic experiments
in 1913. Instead of one research project, your Association is now carrying on a variety
of important investigations with funds provided by the Association of American Rail-
roads. Furthermore, it has at its disposal the services of a research engineer who was
engaged four years ago for the special purpose of taking an important part in the
research work of the Engineering Division.
Value of Coordinated Research
In view of all the circumstances, your board is convinced that the advantages of
coordinated administration of this research work would be more readily attained by
having the research engineer's office serve as a clearing house for all, or nearly all, of
the research work carried on for your Association. Accordingly, for the purpose of
insuring an effective contact between your Board of Direction and the research engineer,
your board has adopted a change in the committee organization, effective with the close
of this convention, which I will describe briefly:
The Special Committee on Stresses in Railroad Track has been replaced by a new
committee, which, in recognition of its broader responsibilities, will be known as the
Committee on Research Administration. This committee will;
Exercise general supervision over such research work of the Engineering
Division as administered by the research engineer, insofar as it relates to
assignments of AREA committees or work that falls within the scope of the
Association's activities.
Review the requests of the standing committees for research appropria-
tions; service and submit them to the Board of Direction with appropriate
recommendations.
Initiate arrangements with universities and others when the need for
cooperative investigations is indicated.
It should be understood that the acts of this committee will be subject to such
review as must be exercised by the Committee on Research of the Engineering Division
by reason of its responsibilities for the research work of the division.
772 Business Session
Among the more formidable activities of thie Association during the past year has
been the continuation of the work of revising the trackwork plans on which the initial
steps were taken in 1930. This is an exacting task, which has involved the generous
cooperation of the manufacturers of frogs, switches and crossings, and which, when
completed during the present year, will result in a marked improvement as well as a
simplification of practices in this phase of railway engineering. The Committee on
Track, which is charged with the responsibihty for this work, will present tomorrow
morning, as a part of its report, SO of the new plans for your consideration and adoption.
While on the subject of committees, I wish to direct your attention to the report
to be offered this afternoon by the Committee on Cooperative Relations with Universities,
the first report to be presented by this committee since its restoration to activity by
action of the Board of Direction a year ago.
You are also reminded that the Committee on Rules and Organization, which,
for certain reasons, submitted no report in 1939 and 1940, will come before the convention
on Thursday afternoon with an extended compilation of rules, which will be duly
submitted.
In accordance with a suggestion made by President Fanning shortly after the last
convention, the current progress report on the investigation of fissures in railroad rails
has been preprinted in Bulletin 423, rather than withhold publication until after the
convention. I am sure that perusal of the report will greatly enhance the value of
Professor Moore's presentation tomorrow afternoon.
Association's Finances
The finances of your Association are in sound condition. The revenues for the
calendar year of 1940 were substantially the same as those in 1939, but the expenditures
were greater in the amount of $2,181.64, due primarily to an extraordinary outlay of
$1,785.93 for the publication of the trackwork plans, and an increase of $651.31 in the
expense for publications other than these plans. However, in spite of this, the revenues
exceed the disbursements by $1,814.62.
An analysis of the expenditures of the Association over a period of several years
discloses a marked uniformity in the outlay for the various accounts from year to year,
except in that for publications. It follows without demonstration that as the work of
our committees increases or decreases, as measured by the number of printed pages
of reports, our disbursements for printing are subject to comparable variation.
In general, therefore, it may be said that the value of the work of our committees
bears some relation to the size of our printing bill, inasmuch as we know that our
committee members and chairmen have made it their practice to weigh carefully the
intrinsic value of the matter which they submit for publication. This is a point that
we should keep constantly before us. ^
Junior Memberships
Further details of the affairs of our Association are contained in the reports of
the secretary and the treasurer, which there is no reason for me to anticipate at this
time other than to make special reference to the change in our constitution, which
became effective last June, for the purpose of estabhshing a junior grade of membership,
the object and nature of which should be sufficiently apparent.
We look forward to a continuing response from those younger members of our
profession who are resolved to equip themselves for their chosen vocation and who
can appreciate the incalculable benefits and opportunities thus placed at their disposal.
Tribute to George S. Fanning 773
The response so far has been encouraging, but it is only a beginning. I will take this
occasion to welcome most heartily all those junior members who are attending the
convention; you will find a helpful brotherly spirit everywhere in evidence; you arc
to feel quite at home, and we would like you to show your active interest by taking
your part in the discussions.
In conclusion, may I remind you that, on March 16, 1940, you ■ entrusted the
affairs of the Association to the late George S. Fanning. You knew that his adminis-
tration as president would present problems of more than ordinary consequence; but
his record, and unfortunately I must add, his posthumous record, speaks for itself. It
proves beyond question that you chose wisely. His achievements are both an inspiration
and a challenge to those who follow.
Vice-President Bond: The next order of business is the report of the secretary
and the treasurer. I will ask Mr. Lacher, the secretary, to present these reports.
(The secretary commented briefly on these reports, which appear in full on
pages 791 to 801, inclusive.)
Vice-President Bond: You have heard the reports of the secretary and the treasurer.
What is your pleasure?
Past-President Hastings: I move their adoption.
(The motion was seconded, put to a vote and carried.)
Vice-President Bond: I will now ask Mr. Hastings if he will kindly enable us
to pay a tribute to the memory of our president who is not with us today.
Tribute to George S. Fanning
During the closing hours of the 1940 convention many of those who arc here this
morning witnessed the installation of the new president of the Association. I had the
privilege and honor at that hour of handing to George Stokes Fanning the symbol of
office, the gavel he was to use throughout the year. Surely none of us thought then
that when we came to another convention, after a year had rapidly rolled away, we
would not find George Fanning in the chair. Here we are this morning and Mr. Fanning
is not here. On January 2 this year he put down the cares and burdens of fife, gave
up its joys and sorrows and went on out into that which lies beyond and endures
through all eternity. We take this moment to honor his memory. How insufficient
words seem to be at such a time; we feel within us the urge of things that cannot be
expressed, and yet we try to express them in order that the world may know we are
not devoid of feeling and may know that this great engineering association is concerned
in the human things, the principles of love and friendship, the things of life that arc
the first things and the things that endure. The poet Longfellow said in a familiar
verse:
Life is real, life is earnest.
And the grave is not its goal,
Dust thou art to dust returnest.
Was not spoken of the soul.
Mr. Fanning lived a life that was real and a life that was earnest. He put himself
unselfishly into all the walks of life wherein he trod, and the engineering profession,
the railroad industry, civil and social life are all better because he was here and
7 74 Busines s Session
contributed to the ongoing of all. I had the privilege of having a close warm friendship
with Mr. Fanning, as well as the professional and association contacts; his kindly
counsel and earnestness of purpose I cherish in memory.
I do not here recount to you his work with this Association, you know of it, the
records of the Association record it for posterity. We miss him now, we will miss
him in the years to come, but to look at the record of such a life and personality
should be a challenge to all of us as we face the future.
The passage of time this past year has cut deeply into the ranks of those that
this Association has honored and who have by their work helped to make the Association
what it is. In addition to Mr. Fanning, there passed on during the year Past-President
Storey, Past-President Downs, Past-President Neubert, Past-President Irwin, Director
Faries and others. These losses are keenly felt; they should make us pause amid the
confusion, strife and uncertainty of the present day and realize that indeed "Life is real
and Hfe is earnest" — it should be spent in service and right living, for it is all too short.
Surely when we contemplate the worth and influence of the lives of those who have
gone on, we should feel that life is real and life is earnest, and that we ourselves should
so conduct our living and our thinking, our walking and our striving in hne with
those immortal words of Bryant, when he wrote:
So live, that when the summons comes to join
The innumerable caravan, which moves
To that mysterious realm, where each shall take
His chamber in the silent halls of Death.
Thou go not, as the quarry slave at night,
Scourged to his dungeon ; but sustained and soothed,
By an unfaltering trust, approach thy grave
Like one, who wraps the drapery of his couch
About him, and lies down to pleasant dreams.
Mr. Bond, I have the honor, on behalf of the Association, to hand to you this
morning the president's plaque, the gift of the Association to its president, and to ask
you to present it to Mrs. Fanning. The inscription on the plaque reads:
"The American Railway Engineering Association here records its appreciation of
George Stokes Fanning for his able administration of the office of President 1940-41.
With his winning personality and the power to lead, with unfaltering courage and his
keen mind and his will to do, he served well."
Vice-President Bond: Mr. Hastings, on behalf of Mrs. Fanning, I accept this
plaque in trust and for transmission.
For a few moments of silent remembrance, I will ask you to stand.
(Silent tribute)
Vice-President Bond: As stated previously, this Association also functions as the
Construction and Maintenance Section of the Engineering Division of the Association
of American Railroads and, as such, reports to the vice-president of operations and
maintenance, Mr. C. H. Buford, who is with us this morning.
Mr. Buford, I know our members are very happy to hear from you; any remarks
instructions, or reprimands will be equally welcome. (Applause)
AddressofC.H.Buford 775
Address o£ C. H. Buford
Vice-President, Operations and Maintenance Department
Association of American Railroads, Washington, D. C.
When Mr. Bond invited me to talk to you today, there was doubt in my mind
about being able to accept his kind invitation. I am glad things worked out so I can
be with you, because there are things I wanted to say to your group concerning the
current railroad situation.
The members of the American Railway Engineering Association, which is the Engi-
neering Division of the Association of American Railroads, are directly responsible for
the construction and maintenance of almost all the railroad mileage of the North
American continent. Your problems are increasing with the modern trend toward
higher speeds and larger locomotives. The successful operation we have today is a
credit to the manner in which you have done your work.
I am glad to know that the cooperative work of the Engineering and Mechanical
divisions is being continued. The Board of Directors of the AAR has authorized an
expenditure of about $115,000 for the joint study of counterbalance and its effect on
track. This authorization is a tribute to Professor Talbot and the committee appointed
by him to carry on the work. This committee has the full support of the general
committees of the Engineering and Mechanical divisions, and I am confident that the
results of its efforts will add another star to the crown that rightfully belongs to
Professor Talbot in recognition of his many years of leadership in improving the railroad
plant in this country.
The officers of the AAR appreciate the way in which you have handled the activities
of its Engineering Division during the past year. The address of your presiding officer
and reports of the various committees show that your work is being handled in an
excellent manner and is in competent hands. In view of this, there is no need for me
to repeat what you already know. Instead, I want to talk with you about the general
railroad situation.
Transportation and the Defense Program
Railroad transportation is important in peace time. In this changing world and in
our efforts to strengthen the defense arms of our nation, more people are reahzing just
how important it is. The increasing need for transportation in this country is causing
apparent concern to some writers and others who are referred to as "transportation
experts." It is fuel for the flame of a small group who openly or in their hearts hope
for government ownership of the railroads. This group usually plant their feet firmly
on what happened in 1917 and 1918. They ignore the lessons the railroads learned
from that experience and the improvements that have been made since then, and
they point a finger of doubt at the railroads' ability to handle business resulting from
the national defense program.
As railroad officers, you will hear of some of these things; therefore, I want to
review briefly what happened in 1917 and 1918, the changes that have taken place and
what the railroads are prepared to do in the future.
What was the situation immediately preceding the last World War, and what were
the underlying causes of the transportation difficulties at that time? In 1916, there was
no strong central railroad organization with authority to meet any transportation
emergency. With the increase in business due to the war in Europe, some difficulties
were encountered and an effort was made to set up an organization to handle the
situation. The Railroad War Board, created immediately after America entered the
776 Business Session
war, did some excellent work, but due to conditions beyond its control, it had little
chance to function effectively. These conditions are covered and confirmed in the reports
of the director general of railroads and in the annual report for the fiscal year 1919
of Brigadier General Frank T. Hines, who was the chief of transportation service of
the United States army. I shall not give in detail the many difficulties listed, because
they all add up to one thing: Railroad cars were used for storage instead of for trans-
portation purposes.
No Basis for Comparison
Some people who analyze the railroad situation today apparently assume that
conditions in the railroad industry are the same as those which existed in 1917 and
1918. The difference in the conditions then and now is the underlying cause of the
erroneous conclusions that some investigators reach. There is no basis for a purely
statistical comparison of the two periods, and there is no justification for the assumption
that the same difficulties will arise again.
Today, the railroads have a strong central organization that is authorized to act
for them in any emergency. This organization — the Association of American Railroads —
has been working with the army, the navy and shippers over a long period of years
on plans designed to avoid any possibility of transportation difficulties which might
arise. The railroads are at least 20 years ahead in their planning, and a few facts in
regard to this might be of interest to you.
Take the port situation: Late in 1917, practically all the Atlantic ports were
congested; thousands of cars loaded with overseas freight were held back in the country
because all yards near the ports were full of loaded cars that could not be unloaded.
On June 11, 1918, an export control committee was organized and was successful in
cleaning up the accumulation, and thereafter regulated the movement in a satisfactory
manner.
On November 15, 1939, the Car Service Division of the Association of American
Railroads established its Port Control Office. This organization was created due to
increasing export movement caused by the war in Europe. Since its establishment, there
have been months when the movement through the Port of New York was almost equal
to the movement through this same port during the last World War. Yet, there has
been no congestion, and at this port, as well as at all other ports in the United States,
cars are being unloaded, on the average, within the tariff-free time. The manager of
port traffic has an advisory committee of competent railroad officers and works with the
railroads and ocean shipping agencies in bringing about this satisfactory condition. The
free flow of commerce through the ports has been accomplished by cooperation, and
it has not been necessary to use the embargo and permit system which can be employed
to arbitrarily control any emergency.
Desired Results Being Obtained
The creation of this port control agency was not an accident. It was the carrying
out of a plan that has been in existence for years — a plan designed to prevent condi-
tions such as existed at the time the federal export control committee was formed in
1918. It has been effective and has obtained the desired results. It is now in a position
to handle promptly any emergency that might develop at any port in the United States.
Under the Railroad Administration during the last World War, some arbitrary
measures were used. Orders regarding maximum loading of cars were issued, and higher
per diem rates were established. These steps were taken to increase the effective use of
cars for transportation purposes. Some people say that the railroads should reinstate
Address of C. H. Buford 777
these restrictions; that it is necessary because there has been no improvement in the
length of time that cars are in the hands of shippers. We have a record of the time
shippers hold cars for loading and unloading, and detention is measured pretty well
by the demurrage account. If shippers had held cars as long in 1939 as they did in
1920, they would have paid over 14 million dollars more for demurrage than they
actually did pay in 1939.
Prompt Unloading Essential
Another situation we are watching closely is the large construction jobs being
done for the army and the navy. Our last report was for projects totaling more than
$1,150,000,000. Cars were being unloaded in an average of about a day and a half.
Spot checks made at various industries indicate that a good job is being done in unloading
cars promptly. There is no need at the present time for any kind of restrictions on
shippers, and we do not want to place any. We believe the mutual interest of carriers
and shippers will make it possible to get the desired results by cooperation, and we
will continue our present plan unless conditions necessitate a change. I hope those of
you here today who have charge of maintenance work will resolve to do as well in
using equipment as shippers are doing, and after making that resolve, you will arrange
for current checks of cars under load with company material to see that a good job
is done.
About the largest shipper in our country today is the United States government.
The Army, the Navy and those engaged in national defense work are moving large
quantities of materials. During the last World War, shipments for the government
caused a lot of trouble. The indiscriminate use of priorities for shipment with no
place to unload the cars was the principal source of trouble. Plans were made and
are in effect now to avoid this. The Car Service Division of the ARR has a Military
Transportation Section. The manager of the section, with a competent staff, is located
in the office of the quartermaster general of the United States army at Washington,
D. C, and is the contact for all railroads in looking after the transportation needs of
the army and the navy. It has not been necessary to resort to any form of priority
in movement of any business for the government, and we do not think any priorities
will be needed.
During the last World War, there was no organization of railroads and shippers.
We now have 13 regions in the United States where there is a Shippers' Advisory
Board cooperating with the railroads in each area. These regions are represented in
a national board which looks after the interest of shippers in the United States. Each
board in the group furnishes advance quarterly estimates of the prospective carioading
in its territory. These estimates are the best forecast for future loadings that have ever
been devised, and are valuable to the Car Service division in its efforts to maintain an
adequate car supply for all sections of the country.
I will not take up more of your time in outlining things that have been done to
avoid the sort of transportation difficulties that were encountered in 1917. The lessons
we learned then have not been forgotten, and are a valuable guide for setting up
safeguards for the future.
Facilities Are Adequate
After a careful analysis, I am convinced that the main line, yard and terminal
capacity of our railroads is more than adequate for any business that will develop as
a result of the national defense program. The only increase that may be needed will
778 Business Session
be in equipment. The need for equipment is directly related to the business to be
moved, and this problem has given us the most concern. We have set up the machinery
to provide a continuous and accurate flow of information on future business. Our
estimates have indicated that the defense load will not exceed eight percent of the
average commercial load.
Recently Mr. Ralph Budd, transportation commissioner of the Advisory Commission
to the Council of National Defense, made public estimates of increased traffic for the
years 1941 and 1942. These forecasts were based on estimates of increased production
furnished by the Bureau of Research and Statistics of that body, covering commodities
representing about 60 percent of the total carload traffic originated by the railroads.
The Bureau of Railway Economics translated these estimated increases in production
into terms of carloads and arrived at estimated carloads for 1941 of 39,780,237, or
an increase of 9.4 percent over 1940. The estimate for 1942 was 42,293,982 cars, or an
increase of 16.9 percent over 1940.
Of course, the average weekly carloading does not mean much from a standpoint
of car supply. Carloadings throughout the year vary from week to week. The peak
loading occurs in the fall, usually in October, and the railroads figure on cars to
handle that peak. Many thousands of cars have to be put in condition for this peak
load, and ordinarily have no other loading throughout the year. To the extent that
loading can be increased during the off-peak weeks, cars can be used that are otherwise
idle. The defense program will call for fairly uniform shipments, and will not cause
the same percentage of increase in the normal peak weeks that will occur for the other
weeks of the year. This tendency to flatten out the loading curve will facilitate the
movement of a large part of the increased loading without the need for additional cars.
Sufficient Cars in Sight
There are sufficient cars in sight now to take care of the loading this year, and
others are being ordered as needs warrant. More cars will be purchased or rebuilt
as earnings increase. The equipment purchases that are being reported to us indicate
conclusively that the railroads were serious when they assured those whom they serve
and the government of the United States that they would "meet to the full the demands
of commerce and the needs of national defense."
The railroad industry has set up machinery to enable it to cope with an emergency.
It has given satisfactory service during the peak loading periods of the past two years.
It will be in shape to handle all business that may develop this fall, and will continue
to be ready at all times to meet the demands of commerce. Still there are those who
question the railroads' abihty to do the job, and I would like to point out several
things that may have given them this impression.
In the early stages of the defense program, a certain industry was behind in its
shipping schedule and reported to the Procurement Department of the Army that
it was short on cars. Investigation showed that the industry's track was filled with
empty cars. Another industry also was behind schedule and wired the Procurement
Department numbers of two cars that supposedly had been shipped. Investigation
showed that the cars had not been loaded and the empties had just been spotted.
One of the cars was shipped two days after the report that shipment had been made,
and the second car was shipped four days later. Facts in cases of this sort are obtained
by wire and given to the Procurement Department by the manager of the Military
Transportation Section. Such excuses only serve to embarrass the industry making them.
Address of C. H. Buford 779
Unnecessary Refinements
Here is another thing that might cause some people to think that the railroads
do not have sufficient equipment. There are hundreds of different sizes of box cars
when the inside length, width and height are considered. A car placed on a shipper's
order may be one inch too narrow to fit the particular boxes he loads. Plenty of wider
care are available, but are too wide because he does not want to do any blocking.
Consequently, there is a shortage of the particular size car wanted. Cars are turned
down because the length varies as little as two percent from the actual length desired.
These cases are rare and are not really car shortages, although some people regard
them as such. I mention these cases because someone may hear a shipper say he
could not get a car, and without knowing all the facts, assume it was due to a shortage
of equipment.
There is one thing in connection with transportation that is causing a great deal
of concern to a lot of people at the present time. This has to do with the winter
wheat crop which will be ready for movement in a few months. Of course, much can
happen to a gain crop in a short while. Because of the fact that most of the storage
space is now filled with grain carried over from previous crops and that there is at
present a prospect of a good crop of winter wheat, serious thought is being given
to what will be done with the grain when it is harvested. The Department of Agri-
culture is studying the matter and will probably find a solution.
Railroads are interested because the movement of the winter wheat crop is normally
a major problem in car supply. We will have sufficient cars to move the crop, but
cannot hope to provide cars for storage purposes. It is absolutely necessary that proper
facilities be supplied for storing the grain, because cars will not be spotted for loading
unless they can be unloaded at destination. To handle it otherwise would only tie
up cars that will be needed by other shippers of important commodities. I am confident
that the problem will be solved, and mention it simply because it is the only thing
I know of at this time that might be troublesome.
Avoid Hysteria
On previous occasions, I have urged that people avoid hysteria in connection
with our defense efforts. We are under terrific pressure to speed up production, and
some people get excited and become hysterical under such conditions.
Your continued work with a railroad requires that you do not become hysterical
under pressure, because railroading is necessarily a pressure business. You are well-fitted
to think clearly in these strenuous times, and I hope you will lose no opportunity to
correct any loose talk you hear about the railroads and their ability to cope with
any transportation situation.
Vice-President Bond: On behalf of our Association, I want to thank you for that
interesting and instructive address. We know you are here at some personal inconvenience,
and we appreciate it all the more.
780 Reportof Tellers
Report of the Tellers
(Presented Wednesday Afternoon, March 12, 1941)
We, the Committee of Tellers, report the following as the result of the count of
the ballots:
For President:
F. L. C. Bond 934
For Vice-President:
W. F. Cummings 911
Scattering 18
For Directors (Three to be elected):
F. S. Schwinn 563
E. T. Howson 519
B. R. Kulp 425
J. F. Pringle 376
W. B. Irwin 262
R. R. Cummins 209
H. A. Aalberg 183
L. C. Frohman 1 73
H. F. Brown 153
Scattering 2
For Nominating Committee (Five to be elected):
A. E. Perlman 596
C. H. R. Howe 594
J. A. Lahmer 569
A. D. Kennedy 504
Miss Olive W. Dennis 446
H. F. King 428
E. W. Caruthers 417
R. D. Garner 413
D. B. Thompson 342
M. J. J. Harrison 336
Scattering 9
Respectfully submitted,
The Committee of Tellers,
R. C. Bardwell, Chairman R. A. Morrison D. C. Teal
J. C. Bradley F. E. Morrow J. N. Todd
W. T. Dorrance A. B. Pierce R. E. Warden
R. N. Foster W. C. Pinschmidt J. B. Wesley
H. L. McMuUin H. E. Silcox A. R. Wilson
R. M. Stimmel
ClosinRScssion 781
Closing Session, Thursday Afternoon, March 13, 1941
Vice-President Clarke (in the chair): Is there any further business to come before
the convention?
W. G. Nusz (Illinois Central): I would like to present a resolution:
Be it Resolved, That the American Railway Engineering Association, in convention
assembled, express its thanks to C. H. Buford for his constructive address at the opening
session of our convention and for his cooperation with our Association throughout the
year in his capacity as vice-president, Operations and Maintenance Department, Associa-
tion of American Railroads. I move its adoption.
(The motion was seconded, put to a vote and carried.)
D. J. Brumley (Illinois Central): I have the following resolution:
Be it Resolved, That the American Railway Engineering Association, in convention
assembled, extend its appreciation to the National Railway Appliances Association for
the constructive exhibit of materials and equipment applicable to the construction and
maintenance of railway roadway and structures, presented concurrently with the con-
vention, which exhibit has added much to the educational value of our meeting.
I move the adoption of the resolution.
(The motion was seconded, put to a vote and carried.)
E. M. Hastings (Richmond, Fredericksburg & Potomac) : I would like to offer the
following resolution:
Be it resolved. That the American Railway Engineering Association, in convention
assembled, record its appreciation to Hon. Clarence F. Lea for his constructive address
at our luncheon, which address emphasized to our members the problems involved in
the framing of legislation to provide equality of opportunity to the railways and other
agencies of transportation. I move the adoption of the resolution.
(The motion was seconded, put to a vote and carried.)
Vice-President Clarke: If there is no further business to come before the con-
vention, I will ask Past-President Wilson and Past-President Brumley to please conduct
President-Elect Bond to the rostrum.
(President-Elect Bond was escorted to the rostrum.)
Vice-President Clarke: I will ask Past-President Campbell, I believe the oldest
past president here and who was president when I became a member of this Associa-
tion, to install President-Elect Bond.
Past-President Campbell: My dear Mr. Bond, it is my privilege to notify you
that, as expressed in the election returns, the American Railway Engineering Association
has elected you to be its president during the ensuing twelve months.
Your qualifications for this high position are so eminent and obvious that it is
unnecessary to elaborate them. There is an additional reason why this Association
delights at this time to so honor you.
The jurisdiction and the membership of this Association extend far beyond the
limits of the United States. From time to time it has delighted to give recognition
and honor to Canada through the membership from that neighboring country, so that
we have had the pleasure of being presided over by a president from that land.
Therefore, by the authority of the American Railway Engineering Association,
I declare you to be its duly elected president for the ensuing twelve months and, as
the emblem of your authority and jurisdiction, I have the honor to present to you
this gavel. (Applause)
(President Bond assumed the chair.)
President Bond: Mr. Campbell and Gentlemen: I am indeed very much moved
by the kind, flattering and, to a certain extent, neighborly remarks of our past-president,
A
782 Business Session
Mr. Campbell, with whom I have had the pleasure of being associated at intervals
over a comparatively long period of years. In my earliest recollections of the AREA
I remember Mr. Campbell.
In accepting the highest office at the disposal of this distinguished and able Asso-
ciation, I am sincerely conscious of the high honor and the distinction which you have
thus seen fit to bestow.
It is also with a very deep sense of the responsibility which devolves upon me,
following as I do a long line of distinguished predecessors who in turn have each felt
their responsibility and their obUgation to do all in their power to promote the welfare,
the continuing and the progressive welfare of our Association. But my feeling of
unworthiness is relieved when I look around at the Board of Direction and also the
membership from whom we have always received the most able and helpful advice.
Any change naturally involves a certain amount of a bump, and it is with sincere
expressions of regret that we note the retirement of our friends Mr. Geyer, Mr. Layng
and Mr. Brennan, who have been so active on the Board committees and whose work
has always been of outstanding eminence and abiUty.
We also have to note the new vice president, Mr. Cummings, and we also have
Mr. Howson, Mr. Kulp and Mr. Schwinn, who have been elected to the Board of
Direction. May I ask those gentlemen to kindly stand so that we can see whom we
have elected? (Applause)
I would also like to pay my sincere tribute to our very able secretary. Following
the tragedy that met us during the past year, I cannot pay tribute too high to the
able assistance which I personally and we all received from our secretary. (Applause)
The final registration is as follows: For 1941 we had 692 members and 526 guests,
making a total of 1,218. Last year we had 719 members and 483 guests, making a
total of 1,202. That means we had 16 more this year than last, although there are
fewer members this year and more guests.
I have to explain that a good many of your members from your neighboring
country to the north have found it exceptionally difficult to attend this year and,
on their behalf, I will ask you to excuse those who are not here because I think you
will find that they had ample and abundant reasons for not being able to get to
the Association meeting.
If there is nothing further, I will now call the meeting adjourned.
(The meeting adjourned at four-five o'clock.)
Federal Regulation of Transportation
An Address Presented Before the Annual Luncheon on March 12, 1941
By Hon. Clarence F. Lea
Chairman, Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce,
National House of Representatives
I am going to speak to you on the subject of "Federal Regulation of Transporta-
tion." I recognize I am speaking to men who are familiar with the mechanics of
construction and operation of railroads. I think of an engineer as a man who devotes
himself to planning and constructing useful things that better serve people. I think
of him as carrying out plans that overcome the handicaps of nature. He adds to the
sum of human comfort and advancement. I think of a railroad engineer as a man
who has designed a modern terminal with its freight and car-handling devices and
Address of Hon. Clarence F. Lea 783
arrangements, who has defied the broad and turbulent stream and over it constructed
a magnificent bridge on which people and materials pass in rapid safety and comfort.
He has thrown the steel rail lines across the desert, laid them along the banks of the
plunging mountain stream imbedded in narrow and tortuous canyons. He has designed
locomotives that pull their great loads from the four corners of the republic across
the valleys and along the very rim of the jagged peaks of our greatest mountains, to
the other side of the continent. He is a constructor, a builder, a benefactor. His job
is never ended. There is something new yet to be done, another improvement to be
made, another purpose to be accomphshed.
So far as the federal government is concerned, it has staked its future relation to
transportation upon a policy of regulation. Under a policy of regulation founded on
intelligent treatment of our carriers with fairness and according to the economic worth
of their services, the interest of the government and all our transportation agencies lie
parallel with the interest of the people of the nation. The success of that policy is
dependent upon public understanding and support.
Authority to Regulate Commerce
Outside of the taxing power given to the federal government, there is probably
no other one clause in the Constitution which more directly concerns the economic
affairs of the country than that provision which gives Congress authority to regulate
commerce with foreign nations and among the several states.
The Articles of Confederation, under which this nation functioned prior to the
adoption of the Constitution, had many weaknesses, one of which was: It had no
control over interstate commerce, no authority to promote it or to protect it against
unfriendly action of the individual states.
The people who had self-sacrificingly and heroically cooperated to bring the Revo-
lutionary War to a successful conclusion soon thereafter found themselves in unhappy
disagreement with each other. Some of the states were attempting to restrict or bar
the commerce of their sister states in favor of their own. Retaliatory legislation with
bitter resentments followed.
In recent times, a barge load of potatoes merely passing up the Danube River to
an interior country was subject to a tax by lower states through which that river
flowed. So before the Constitution, an ox-drawn wagon bringing firewood from Con-
necticut to keep Old New York warm could not pass over the boundary line of that
state until it had paid its toll at a custom house. A charge was made in New York
on products entering New Jersey and other states. In a feeble effort of retaliation,
New Jersey imposed a tax on the New York lighthouse maintained at Sandy Hook.
Similar irritations, with resulting sectional hatreds, created a compelling demand for
a new federal government. The bitterness of these trade difficulties developed to the
point where representatives of some states went so far as to assert that they would
rather ally themselves with a foreign country than with some of their sister states.
Common Interest in "Regulation of Trade"
On January 21, 1786, a General Assembly of Virginia appointed commissioners
to meet with such commissioners as might be appointed by other states "to take
into consideration the trade of the United States; to examine the relative situations
and trade of the said states; to consider how far a uniform system in their commercial
regulations may be necessary to their common interest and their permanent harmony ;
and to report to the several states, such an act relative to this great object, as when
784 Business Session
unanimously ratified by them will enable the United States in Congress, effectually to
provide for the same."
This action was followed by the Annapolis convention which met September 11,
1786, and the Virginia resolution was given the concurrence of Virginia, Delaware,
Pennsylvania, New Jersey and New York for the same purpose. New Jersey, in appoint-
ing its commissioners, suggested the consideration of "other important matters" which
was the course followed by the constitutional convention. As a result of the action of
these states, the constitutional convention assembled and our Constitution was finally
written and ratified.
Regulation of commerce by the federal government was designed to provide a
system of uniform regulation, or rules, governing commerce for the whole nation to
lift regulation above the petty, provincial and retaliatory action of the individual
states. It was intended to encourage, protect and make commerce free. In a few words
written into the Constitution, Congress was given authority to regulate commerce
with foreign nations and among the several states.
On December 14, 1795, the House of Representatives created a standing Committee
on Commerce and Manufacturers. That committee is the original predecessor of the
persent House Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce. That was 91 years
before the Interstate Commerce Act was written. Part of the work of that committee
was to exercise jurisdiction under the clause authorizing Congress to regulate commerce.
More Power to Federal Government
The original thirteen states reluctantly yielded to the federal government the
powers that were necessary to make it virile and effective. The constitution took from
each state its absolute power to control interstate commerce within its borders. In the
main, it gave that power to the federal government. It intended to deprive the states
of the power to hamper and harass the commerce of their sister states and bring it
into federal protection and regulation. It gave to this commerce the freedom of the
protection that the federal government could give. It relieved each state against the
burdensome and destructive action of every other state. This clause of the Constitution
was established to promote and protect commerce. That is still the legitimate end
of federal regulation. We deliberately seek liberty of commerce within the restraints
of law rather than license without the restraint that the forty-eight states could impose.
The Constitution was written when transportation and communication were difficult.
There were no railroads, no motor vehicles, no steamboats, no airplanes, no modern
highways, no telegraphs, no telephones, radios, electric or pipe lines. There were no
great industrial enterprises. America was an agricultural country. Only five percent of
the population lived in cities. The farm was an economic unit of production, manu-
facture and consumption. It had little dependence on the markets of other states.
There was no mass production. The modern corporate system of doing business was
then practically unused. The financing of great business enterprises through the wide-
spread sale of their securities on market exchanges was not part of the economic life.
The new government under the Constitution did not hasten to assert its powers over
commerce. Placing the power of control of interstate commerce beyond the destructive
hands of the states in itself largely accomplished the protection that was needed in
the early days of the republic. Congress passed only minor acts as to such commerce
prior to the Civil War. It is said that in over seventy years preceding the Civil War
only about twenty cases involving the interstate commerce clause reached the Supreme
Court. The first great step in federal regulation was taken when the Interstate Commerce
.\ct was passed in 1887.
Address of Hon. Clarence F. Lea 785
Changes that Led to Interstate Commerce Act
Someone reviewing the history of the exercise of power under the interstate com-
merce clause states that it was not until the Interstate Commerce Commission was
created "that the sleeping giant" of federal regulation was awakened. That statement
was probably justified. A more compelling reason, however, for regulation arose out of
the economic changes coming with the decades following the Civil War.
As the nation advanced from its primitive to its modern conditions, these changing
developments brought into sharper conflict the original division of state and federal
powers as established by the Constitution. It was rail transportation with its lines
running across state boundaries serving the needs of this newly developed economic
world that first obviously emphasized the new interstate relations.
As the rail Unes advanced, 10,000 communities in the United States welcomed their
advent wdth brass bands and barbecues. The rail Unes offered these communities the
best known transportation, a spreading market for their products, a new day for their
community. And so it was. Today when we travel over some sections of our country,
we may see abandoned roadbeds or rusty rails. They are reminders of the days of
daring enterprise, of progress and decline.
The Civil War was followed by a marvelous period of railroad construction and
expansion, including over-expansion and in many cases improvident dupUcation of
facihties. Abuses in financing operations were notorious and unjust discriminations and
rebates grew up that affected shippers, roads, industries and sections. These abuses
created the demand for federal regulation and reflect the type of regulation adopted.
The general purpose of the early legislation was to protect shippers, communities and
the public against the established abuses of railway operations. Reflecting this purpose,
the original Interstate Commerce Act was directed principally at requiring rates to be
reasonable, and the prohibition of unjust discriminations, rebates and monopolistic
agreements.
The last 25 years have seen a great change in our transportation system. At the
conclusion of the World War, the Panama Canal was an open water route from the
Atlantic to the Pacific and made intercoastal water transportation available to over
one-half of the population of the country. Three milhon miles of highways, many of
them paved, made a net-work over the nation. Thirty-two miUion motor vehicles are
operated on these highways including several million trucks. Twenty-five years ago
these roads were only feeders and not competitors to the rail lines. Today, they are
substantial competitors of every form of transportation. The pipe line and the airplane
have entered the transportation field in a substantial way. A division of the traffic
and a competition of rates with a long depressed business period in recent years have
all been problems for our carriers and the country.
Changing Economic Conditions
In that quarter of a century, regulation has taken a more embracing form. The old
abuses have been largely eradicated. Changing economic conditions have made the
carriers themselves objects of a protective care of the government. Regulatory protec-
tion is no longer confined to the pubHc as against the carrier. Now, without deserting
the public, regulation gives the carrier protection against abuses that may injure or
destroy him. Surplus facilities, present and potential intensive competitive conditions,
and a long depression have emphasized the need of coordination of facilities and of
placing the game of competition under fair rules.
The owners of transportation facihties, including their security owners, are entitled
to that just consideration that the government should give to ownership everywhere.
786 Business Session
Regulation does not place on the government the obligation to support unwarranted
or improvident investments nor to maintain a transportation unit after it has lost its
economic value to transportation needs. The pubHc should be concerned, however, in
the maintenance of useful facilities and securing a fair return to their owners. The
maintenance of our transportation system on the basis of private ownership ultimately
depends on a showing that an investment in such facility is reasonably secure and offers
a fair return.
We have had abandonments and reductions of rail service to an important extent.
We have the threat of gradual elimination of more branch lines and then more important
lines. A degree of such abandonments is inevitable and undoubtedly, in some instances,
necessary. There is a danger, however, that abandonments may occur based on the ill-
experience of an unfortunate period, where the maintenance of such lines under proper
regulation might be warranted from the longtime viewpoint.
The Test of Economic Regulation
The test of economic regulation for the next ten years depends upon how success-
fully it may preserve useful transportation, prevent its substitution by a less qualified
service and so stabilize the industry that sources of funds for continuing operations and
replenishment of capital shall not dry up. In other words, the desirable remedy is to
put the carriers on a self-supporting, healthy basis.
If this end shall be accomplished, the responsibility, to no small degree, must
rest upon the Interstate Commerce Commission as our regulatory body. Its members
are men of high ability, integrity and purposes. They should be given the benefit of
every aid that might contribute to the success of their work. Their task will call for
enlarged responsibilities, greater initiative and new approaches to some of their problems.
People who use a railroad want it to give efficient service at reasonable prices; the
laboring man wants it to give employment; the farmer and producer want it as an
outlet to their market. Some local communities want it to be their principal taxpayer.
The rail lines have served those purposes fairly well.
The original motive for the construction of the railroad was the hope of a secure
and profitable investment. The weakest point in our transportation system of recent
years has been the inability of a large number of our railroads, of our shipping lines
and of our commercial highway carriers to keep red off their balance sheets. The long
depression affected transportation lines much as it has all business. The common carriers,
however, had less opportunity to reduce fixed charges and adjust outgo to income than
most lines of business.
Though regulated, we cannot expect to reUeve our carriers in periods of depression
as well as in periods of prosperity from sharing the fate of the country they serve. If
that were the only trouble, the problem would be less difficult.
Notwithstanding many increases of cost, railroads have introduced new methods
and modernized equipment and have given more efficient service on reduced charges
during the last two decades. Special speed for emergency freight has been provided.
Tracks have been improved, rolling stock suppHed, schedules reduced, and cost lowered
with additional accommodations to the shippers. Passenger trains have been stream-
lined and air conditioned. The fact that all this has been done in the face of the
depression, a proportionate reduction of traffic and increased competition, must be recog-
nized as an accomplishment creditable to railroad management of this period.
If it be true that we have excess transportation facilities that must be discarded,
that some must perish and some survive, then the problem of regulation is to .see that
Address of Hon. Clarence F. Lea 787
the conditions under which some survive and others perish must be under fair rules
of competition, in other words, under a system of rules which, as nearly as possible,
will permit the carrier economically justified to survive and leave failure alone to those
not economically justified.
To boil down the situation we have these facts: We have a newly developed, highly
competitive situation between various transportation agencies which calls for coordina-
tion to protect our national transportation system and conduct it under fair rules of
competition. In the second place, we have a need of regulation so exercised that each
of these agencies within its legitimate field may receive a fair and just reward for the
useful service it is performing to the nation. These purposes must be among the objects
of federal regulation if we are to face the situation candidly.
Transportation Policies
In the Transportation Act of 1940, Congress wrote a declaration of a national trans-
portation policy. It is provided that the Transportation Act must be enforced with a
view of carrying out those policies. This is the first broad declaration of a national
policy for transportation that has been written in the laws of our country. It is the
most modern statement of the purposes of regulation that has so far found its expression
in our federal laws.
Several purposes are declared. One is a purpose to provide for fair and impartial
regulation of all modes of transportation. Heretofore we had some carriers regulated,
some unregulated and different agencies regulated by different authorities. This new
act, with the exception of air transportation, places all our transportation agencies
under the unified regulation of the Interstate Commerce Commission. That was a
conception of necessary regulation that the great Judge Cooley had when he was made
the first chairman of the Interstate Commerce Commission 54 years ago. This is a step
in the evolution of regulation of historical importance. Without any claim that we
have reached an ideal state of regulation, this is one step that materially advances that
time when we may hope to give regulation its best test as to whether or not it can
master the complicated problems of Federal coordination of transportation.
This declaration of policy further declares a purpose to recognize and preserve the
inherent advantages of each mode of transportation. Each new mode of transportation
brought under regulation conjured up some grounds to fear it might be a stepchild to
regulation. It found some grounds to claim it should be immune from the powers of
regulation to which its competitors were subject.
Each government agency exercising regulatory powers resisted the surrender of
those powers even where such surrender was manifestly required for the purpose of
unifying regulation or coordinating the transportation agencies of the country. Each
agency, with limited exceptions, seemed to regard itself as a particular partisan advocate
of its branch of the transportation service and thinks of our transportation system pretty
much in the narrow limits of its own interest.
America, as a whole, cannot be expected to devote itself to preserving any uneco-
nomic unit of transportation. To do so would simply be against the rules of progress.
Progress has an immutable rule of change from the old to new and better methods.
All capital is conscious of that uncertainty that attaches to every investment.
Manifestly, the railroad has some advantages over other carriers. It is equally
true that the truck and the bus and the ship and the pipe line and the air carrier each
offers superior advantage under some circumstances for its class of transportation.
Those inherent advantages are manifestly of benefit to the nation. They give it service;
788 Business Session
they contribute to the comfort of the public; they aid economic advancement. The
country is rightly interested in the inherent advantages in each of these types of carriers.
Each of these agencies competes for and shares the transportation business of the
country. Our federal regulatory authority has charge of the regulation of their rates.
We have entrusted the commission with the burden of their regulation with a view
of preserving the inherent advantages of each.
It must be recognized that as between these various types of carriers there will
be a broad field where competition in service may prevail. There will be a field in
which competition in both prices and services will prevail. There will be cases where
the proper adjustment of rates will give the traffic to one carrier instead of the other.
The fundamental principle underlying these distinctions is based on the just principle
of the value of the service rendered. There is no injustice in that principle. The difficulty
of administering this principle, it must be conceded, is great.
Must Visualize All Agencies
In attempting to preserve the inherent advantages of each method of transporta-
tion, we must visualize all the agencies of transportation as included in the transportation
system of the United States, each having its useful function in performing its part,
which should not be obnoxious to the other agencies of transportation.
Another declared purpose of our regulation is to promote safe, adequate and efficient
service as a duty of the carrier to the public.
Another purpose is to foster sound economic conditions in transportation and among
the several carriers. This purpose is consistent with the modern trend of regulation.
Once regulation had in mind only the protection of the users of the railroad. In the
face of modern conditions, we must recognize the importance of maintaining sound
economic conditions among the carriers themselves. The transportation agency, to fully
perform its service to the public, must be well and soundly financed. The public has
an interest in seeing that justice is done to the carrier. Regulation in attempting to
protect the carrier has a right to insist that his operations shall be conducted with a
degree of economy, prudence and integrity that is conscious of responsibility to the
public. In other words, regulation as it has developed reaches out and recognizes a
much larger field of the public interest than was recognized a half century ago.
Still adhering to the purpose of regulation assigned fifty years ago, this declaration
of policy commits regulation to the maintenance of reasonable charges without unjust
discriminations, undue preference or advantages. Then again, recognizing the need of
carrier protection, the declaration of purpose commits regulation against unfair or
destructive competitive practices. The carriers are entitled to protection against cut-
throat methods of competition. There is a further declaration of purpose to encourage
fair wages and equitable working conditions. This is the statement of the just relations
that should exist between employer and employe. Then this declaration concludes by
asserting that the end of this regulation is to develop, coordinate and preserve a national
transportation system by all these agencies to meet the needs of commerce and our
national defense.
Like all the rest of us, carriers hve off their income.
Rate regulation goes to the heart of the problem of coordination; to the question
as to what units of transportation shall survive; and it is the primary factor of regu-
lation that affects the balance sheet. Regulation is neither the cause or the cure of
many transportation ills. Transportation has all the problems common to the business
world and its public relations besides.
Address of Hon. Clarence F. Lea 789
Certain general principles are applied under which rates are fixed. The primary
principle is that all rates must be reasonable — reasonable to the carrier, reasonable to
the public and reasonable as between competitors. The carrier feeling that he has a
rate less than is reasonable has a right to seek the aid of the commission, if necessary,
to give him that reasonable rate to which he thinks he is entitled.
In many cases, a carrier foregoes that reasonable rate to which he might be entitled
and voluntarily proposes a lower rate in order to meet competition, or to develop
industries on his line, or to enable the traffic to move. If a carrier fails to secure the
profit from transportation that he would expect, he may content himself with a meager
profit rather than lose his traffic. It may even be that in the zeal of competition, in
the contest for traffic, he will even forego any profit and any practical advantage to
himself in order to keep the traffic from his competitor. In those cases, a competitor
carrier can invoke the aid of the commission to protect him against unfair competition.
What the carrier might ordinarily regard as a reasonable rate may be so high
that it prohibits the commodity from reaching its market. Regulation may permit the
carrier to reduce his rate in order that the traffic may move.
There have been many cases where the lack of competition has led to unreasonably
high rates and other cases where excessive competition has led to unreasonably low
rates. Fortunately, excessive rates are much less frequent than in former times. The
present keen competition between the rail, buses, trucks and other agencies of trans-
portation have reduced excessive rates formerly due to the lack of competition. Legiti-
mate regulation, as I see it, will tend to put rates on a more just basis where practicable
and attempt to eliminate artificial influences that unjustly impose either excessively
high or unfairly low rates. For instance, as I see it, just regulation will not permit of
excessive rates because of the lack of competition nor should it tolerate cut-throat
rates because of excessive competition. Reasonable rates of economic carriers must be
protected wherever possible if we are to have effective coordination.
Another consideration in rate making is the value of the service rendered to the
shipper. It is a practice practically world-wide to classify freight and fix rates with
reference to the value of the service given. The principle is of importance from the
standpoint of industries affected and also from the standpoint of preserving our trans-
portation system. There may be two cars of equal load in the same train. One may
carry a low grade freight, the other a high class freight. The car with the high class
load may pay a tariff twice that of the low grade car. The low grade freight helped
carry overhead and the carrier was better off on account of carrying it, but if forced
to haul all freight at an equal rate, he could not operate. The high grade freight makes
possible the cheap transportation of the low grade freight. It enables some producers and
industries to get into markets they otherwise could not reach. It enlarges the oppor-
tunity of different sections to reach the central markets; it tends to strengthen the
nation economically ; it helps upbuild industries in communities that thereby give
greater support to the carrier; it tends to enable the carrier to continue in business.
This principle of freight regulation must necessarily apply to all types of carriers.
One of the first things we must recognize in rate regulation is that rates are and
must necessarily be largely based upon necessary expediency. There is no possibility
of reducing a sane rate structure to arbitrary provisions and preclude the consideration
of the circumstances of each particular case.
So, under our system of regulation, when all is said and done, we must turn to
the Interstate Commerce Commission and trust much to its members to whom the
serious responsibilities of regulation must be confided. Theirs is an unspectacular work,
790 Business Session
the plodding burden of responsibility. We cannot ask them to be supermen, but it
does not appear to me to be beyond the possible that our rate structure may yet be
greatly improved to the advantage of our carriers and the country.
Some day, perhaps twenty or thirty years from now, the nation will reach its
final verdict on regulation. It may be proclaimed a failure, it may be proclaimed a
success, it may be decided to be a necessary method, but of an indifferent success.
I trust the final verdict will pronounce it a satisfactory method of preserving our
transportation system and doing justice to the carrier and the public. To me, the only
course available at the present time is to support and improve our system of regulation.
Water Transportation
The original Interstate Commerce Act covered regulation only of common carriers
by railroad or partly by rail and partly by water when under a common control with
a railroad. In the recent Transportation Act, for the first time in the history of our
country. Congress placed water regulation under unified control with our other principal
transportation agencies. In doing this, Congress took a step that was absolutely essential
to coordinate our principal transportation agencies into a national transportation system.
Water carriers transport a substantial amount of our commerce. They are important
competitors with the regulated agencies. There can be no just effective system of regu-
lation where a substantial part of the carriers are unregulated and free to follow their
own desires as to their methods of competition. I am confident that the water carriers
will, within a few years, recognize that federal regulation is desirable for their own
welfare and will contribute to the stabilization and betterment of the industry.
Board of Investigation
The Transportation Act of 1940 provides for the appointment by the President
of a Board of Investigation and Research to investigate and report to Congress as
to the relative economy of our different transportation agencies, with a view of deter-
mining the service for which each type of carrier is best fitted. It is also the duty to
investigate the extent and effect of public subsidization of rail, motor and water carriers;
also the extent and effect of taxes imposed upon such carriers. This board is authorized
to investigate any other matters it deems important for the improvement of transporta-
tion conditions.
In substance, this board is to have the responsibility of making a thorough investi-
gation to furnish basic information which should be useful in working out the coordination
of our transportation facilities and moulding these various agencies in one consistent
rounded-out national system of transportation. The creation of this board recognizes
the need of preserving the inherent value of each type of transportation and coordinating
them to each other for the benefit of the nation. A thorough, impartial and courageous
investigation of the type authorized may make a useful contribution toward the
ultimate solution of our confused transportation problems.
The combined carrier agencies of the United States in their speed, service and
efficiency constitute the greatest transportation system in this world. It is one of the
great institutions of America. In the course of its evolution, it has reached a stage
where it needs more complete and more practical coordination in order that it may
reach out in fuller dimensions and serve the transportation needs of this country. It
needs stabilization with a fair reward based only on the economic value of its services.
There is only one agency that can accomplish this task ... the government of the
United States.
REPORT OF THE SECRETARY
March 1, 1941.
To the Members:
Judged by all ordinary standards, the American Railway Engineering Association
carried on its work in a thoroughly satisfactory manner during the period covered by
this report. The term "period" is used advisedly because it designates the calendar year
in the report on finances; the Association year (from the end of one convention to the
close of the next) in deahng with committee work, publications, etc.; and the 12 months
from March 1, 1940 to March 1, 1941, in the report on membership.
To sum up — the accounts of the Association for the year ending December 31, 1940,
showed an excess of receipts over expenditures of $1,814.62; there was a moderate in-
crease in the net membership; and an appreciable increase in the number of pages of
printed matter published in the bulletins, Proceedings and the Manual supplement. As
has been demonstrated previously, the prosperity of the Association, hke that of the
railroads, varies from year to year with general business activity. The current high level
of railway traffic is therefore a favorable condition. However, it is not an unmixed
blessing, because the underlying cause of the "defense" boom, namely, disturbed world
conditions, has had its adverse effects on the Association, as exemplified by complete
loss of contact with members in certain "hquidated" countries, resignations and dehn-
quencies of members in other foreign countries due to unfavorable exchange rates, and
a decline in publication sales.
Finances
As will be seen in the financial statement which appears on a following page, and in
the summary shown below, the outcome of the operations for the calendar year of 1940,
was much better than had been anticipated in the budget. An expected deficit of $2,210
was turned into a net gain of $1,814.62, owing to the fact that the receipts were about
$1,100 more than had been anticipated and because the projected progress in the revision
of the Portfoho of Trackwork Plans was not realized.
1940 1940 1939
Budget Estimate Actual Actital
Receipts $27,130.41 $28,265.82 $28,188.92
Disbursements 29,340.00 26,451.20 24,269.56
Excess of receipts over disbursements $ 1,814.62 $ 3,919.36
That the financial operations of the Association follow a decidedly fixed pattern
from year to year is clearly demonstrated in the second table, which shows the receipts
and expenditures for the last six years, as adjusted to correct certain inconsistencies.
First of all, the table discloses a marked uniformity in the revenues; it was only in 1937
that the figures were out of line — due to receipts of more than $7,000 from the initial
sales of the new loose-leaf Manual.
This similarity in figures is also indicated for the disbursements, when the expendi-
tures for two large items of "special purposes" are segregated as shown. The figures for
"Manual" include only the outlay for the creation of the new loose-leaf volume, expendi-
tures for the annual supplements have been included in the so-called "normal" expen-
ditures.
791
792
Report of the Secretary
Incidentally, by extending the analysis still further, it would have been possible to
demonstrate that the variation in the normal expenditures may be accounted for very
largely by annual differences in the size of the printing bill, as influenced by the amount
by which the number of published pages in one year is greater or smaller than in another
year.
Comparison of Receipts and Disbursements for a Six- Year Period
Receipts Disbursements
Normal Special
1935 $29,001 $25,311 $4,799*
1936 28,643 25,050 9,612*
1937 36,523 23,605 8,595*
1938 28,422 22,780 614**
1939 28,189 22,969 878**
1940 28,272 24,000 2,451***
* Outlay for new loose-leaf Manual, except cost of supplements.
** Revision of Trackwork Plans.
*** Manual charge $665, Trackwork Plans $1,786.
Membership
With this issue of the secretary's annual report, a new factor is introduced into the
review of membership changes during the year, namely, the Junior grade of membership,
which became effective on June 7, 1940, with the adoption of an enabling amendment
of the Constitution.
Omitting consideration of Junior members, the record for the year ending March 1,
1941, was as follows:
Members on rolls as of March 1, 1940 1,880
New members 88
Reinstatements 16
1,984
Lost by death 36
Resigned ^ 27
Dropped 39 102
Net gain 2
Membership as of March 1, 1941 1,882
To this membership total must be added the Junior members of whom 30 were
elected during the year. However, as 3 of these were lost because they left railway
service, the net number of Junior members is 27. Adding this figure to 1,882 gives a
total Association membership of 1,909.
The motive behind the creation of the Junior grade of membership was to stimulate
the influx of young men into the Association in order that qualified members will be
available to carry on the work as the older men retire or become less active. For the
purpose of developing the outlook of the Association as influenced by the "expectancy"
of its membership roll, the accompanying graph was prepared in which the members are
grouped by the year of affiliation. As is to be expected, the chart discloses a marked
correlation between growth of membership in any one year and general economic con-
ditions. It shows also, that only 448, or 23 percent of the present members joined prior
to 1919, and that of these, 151 or one-third represent substantially the Association's
entire Life membership.
While the chart affords assurance of no marked change in membership status during
the next three years, the fact that 265 or nearly 14 percent of the present members joined
Report of the Secretary
793
'00
'05 '10 '15 '20
Distribution of AREA Membership by Years
in Which Members Joined
in the three years, 1919 to 1921, inclusive, points to a marked increase in transfers to
Life membership beginning with 1944.
The loss of 36 members by death during the last 12 months was 6 less than the
preceding year, but was noteworthy because those 36 members included the president,
George S. Fanning, who died on January 2, 1941, and four past-presidents, W. B. Storey,
L. A. Downs, J. V. Neubert and J. C. Irwin, the latter having been a member of the
Board of Direction at the time of his death on March 20, 1940. The Association also
lost a third member of the Board through the death on September 8, 1940, of Robert
Faries, director, and the chairman of the Committee on Wood Preservation with the
death of C. F. Ford on June 9, 1940.
Publications
General — There was a definite increase in the volume of printed matter pubUshed
by the Association in the year ending with the 1941 convention. This appUes alike to the
number of pages in the bulletins, the Proceedings and the Manual supplement.
Bulletins — The number of pages in the seven bulletins ending with the issue of
March, 1941, was 1,282 compared with 987 for the preceding seven. However, for a true
comparison, it is necessary to deduct 78 pages from the total because the 1,282 pages
embrace both the sixth and seventh progress reports on the Investigation of Fissures in
Railroad Rails, owing to the fact that the seventh progress report (78 pages) was pub-
lished prior to the convention (February bulletin) whereas all of the previous reports
of this kind have been withheld from pubUcation until after the convention.
Ample material has been available for publication in the so-called summer bulletins
as indicated by the following list:
Bulletin 418, June-July, 1940
Sixth Progress Report of the Joint Investigation of Fissures in Railroad Rails
Second Progress Report — Joint Investigation of Continuous Welded Rail
794 Report of the Secrctar>-
Annual Report on Stresses in Railroad Track
Seventh Progress Report — Committee on Stresses in Railroad Track
Prehminary Report of Committee 5 — ^Track (Installment of 9 trackwork plans)
Tie Renewal Statistics for 1939
Bulletin 419, September-October, 1940
Reports of the Committees of the Electrical Section, Engineering Division, AAR
Mechanization in the Maintenance of Way Department (Special report prepared by
Committee 22 — Economics of Railway Labor)
Report of the Joint Committee on Standard Specifications for Concrete and Re-
inforced Concrete
Preliminary Report of Committee 5 — ^Track (Installment of 26 trackwork plans)
Proceedings — The Proceedings for 1940 were larger than in several previous years
owing to the publication of several monographs in accordance with a decision of the
Board of Direction to resume the reprinting in the Proceedings of all or nearly all of the
monographs published in the summer bulletins, as a means of insuring a more perma-
nent record of valuable material. Among the monographs so reprinted was that by
E. E. R. Tratman on Car Ferries, which was republished after considerable editing and
amplification by the author of the original paper that appeared in Bulletin 387 for
July, 1936.
Manual — Progress in the revision of the Manual is shown in the table of annual
supplements. The 1940 revision was the most extensive to be issued since the appearance
of the loose-leaf Manual.
New Sheets Old Sheets Net
Supplement Issued Withdraivn Increase
1937 110 69 41
1938 151 121 30
1939 128 95 33
1940 185 139 46
Total 574 424 150
It is to be expected, of course, that the supplements in the even-numbered years will
be larger than in the odd-numbered years owing to the policy of revising and reissuing
the alphabetical index of some 24 sheets (48 pages) only in alternate years.
With the approval of the Board of Direction, arrangements have been made to facil-
itate the sale of the Manual in chapters and parts of chapters, as indicated by the scale
of prices appearing on page 491 of Bulletin 422. This was done to meet a growing demand
for the smaller units of Manual material.
During the last year 176 copies of the complete Manual were sold, bringing the total
distribution to 1,914 copies. Adding to this number of complete Manuals, the number of
copies that have been broken up for the sale of chapters and parts thereof, brings the
Association to a realization that it has reached another stage in the history of the loose-
leaf Manual, namely, to the inception of the first reprinting.
This will not be as formidable a task as it might appear at first thought, for instead
of being done all at once, it will be started with the chapters for which there has been
the largest demand. This is a rather fortunate situation since it permits the reprinting
to be carried out in an orderly manner over a period of about two years.
Track Plans— While progress in the revision of the portfolio of track plans did not
equal the rather ambitious program that the Committee on Track had set up, 50 new
Report of the Secretary 79S
plans were completed during the year, of which 9 appeared in Bulletin 418, 26 in Bulletin
419, and 15 in Bulletin 423. These, added to the 24 approved last year and 13 others
requiring only minor alterations, will provide a total of 87 revised plans that will be
ready for distribution shortly after the convention and will leave about 50 more plans to
be completed for submission at the convention next year.
Miscellaneous — Only one change of any consequence was made during the year in
the make up of the publications, namely, the revision of the introductory statement of
the committee reports for the purpose of introducing page-number references to the
reports on each assignment. While this is certain to facilitate the study and presentation
of the reports, it is believed that the experience with the initial trial of this plan will
point the way to the refinement of certain details that will effect further improvements.
Work of the Committees
The total personnel of the Association's 27 standing and special committees includes
858 names. However, because four committees consist of representatives of other com-
mittees and because a considerable number of members are identified with more than
one committee, the net number of members on committees is 660. While this figure affords
an index of the widespread participation in committee work, a more convincing picture
is afforded when the analysis is confined to those who actually prepared the reports,
namely, the chairmen of the subcommittees that submitted reports this year on subjects
assigned to them. A check of the reports appearing in Bulletins 420 to 423, inclusive,
shows that 89 individual subcommittee chairmen were responsible for one report each,
8 others wrote two reports each and 3 more prepared three reports each, or a total of
114 reports prepared by exactly 100 men.
From the standpoint of subject matter and content the record is equally interesting.
The 1940 outUne of work for the 27 committees hsted a total of 201 subject assignments.
The reports prepared by 26 committees embrace individual subcommittee reports on
128 subjects, and while it is not possible to set up any rigid classification of the material
in these reports, the following analysis affords a fair idea of the nature of the contents:
Revisions of the Manual — minor 13
Revisions of the Manual — major 8
New Manual material — minor S
New Manual material — major 7
New Manual material — tentative 8
Information 50
Reports on research projects 9
Statistical material S
Mathematical studies S
Bibliographies 3
Brief reports of progress IS
Total 128
Research Work
Work on a considerable number of committee assignments has been possible only
because of the availability of data obtained in the course of research work, most of which
has been carried on with funds provided by the Association of American Railroads.
Appropriations for investigations in which AREA committees have a particular interest
are shown below for both 1940 and 1941. The items in this list are exclusive of the
annual appropriations for the work of the research engineer, and do not include the
796 R e p o rt of the Secretary
special fund allocated jointly to the Engineering and Mechanical divisions for an investi-
gation of the effect of locomotive counterbalancing on track and equipment.
Project 1940 1941
Rail Investigations (statistical) $ 5,400 $ 5,400
Transverse Fissure Investigation 22,500 9,000*
Stresses in Railroad Track 23,000 18,000**
Tests of Joint Bars 3,500 3,500
Tests of Manganese Frogs 1,000 1,000
Tests of Bolt Tension 600
Impact Studies 4,000 11,500
Fatigue Tests of Structural Welds 5,000
Tests of asphalt and coal tar pitch 500
• AAR contribution is matched each year by a like amount of money contributed by the rail
manufacturers. .
•* Part of the expense of the stresses in track staff in 1941 will be charged to the special appro-
priation for the locomotive counterbalance investigation.
The most important development during 1940 in the field of railway engineering
research was the appointment by Vice-President Buford, of the Operations and Mainte-
nance Department, of a Committee on Relation Between Track and Equipment to
replace an earlier committee known as the Joint Committee on Relation Between Track
and Rolling Stock. The personnel of the new committee as appointed on May 21, 1940
was as follows:
Representing the Engineering Division
Robert Faries (Chairman), Assistant Chief Engineer-Maintenance, Pennsylvania
Railroad, Philadelphia, Pa.
W. J. Burton, Assistant to Chief Engineer, Missouri Pacific Railroad, St. Louis, Mo.
G. M. Magee, Research Engineer, Engineering Division, AAR, Chicago.
W. S. Lacher, Secretary, Engineering Division, AAR, Chicago.
Representing the Mechanical Division
Kenneth Cartwright, Mechanical Engineer, New York, New Haven & Hartford
Railroad, New Haven, Conn.
A. G. Hoppe, Assistant Mechanical Engineer, Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul & Pacific
Railroad, Milwaukee, Wis.
W. I. Cantley, Mechanical Engineer, Mechanical Division, AAR, Chicago.
V. R. Hawthorne, Executive Vice-Chairman, Mechanical Division, AAR, Chicago.
Mr. Faries was appointed chairman of the committee, and following his death on
September 8, 1940, Mr. Cartwright succeeded him as chairman, and Mr. E. M. Hastings,
chief engineer, Richmond, Fredericksburg & Potomac Railroad, Richmond, Va., was
appointed to replace him as representative of the Engineering division.
This committee has developed a comprehensive program of investigations in which
the study of locomotive counterbalancing will occupy the most important place for the
present, and the sum of $115,200 has been appropriated for instruments and work to be
done during 1941.
W. S. Lacher,
Secretary.
Report of the Secretary
797
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF MEMBERSHIP
United States and Possessions
Alabama 14
Arizona 2
Arkansas 10
California 57
Canal Zone 1
Colorado 20
Connecticut 26
Delaware 2
District of Columbia 33
Florida 11
Georgia 25
Hawaii 1
Idaho 1
Illinois 321
Indiana 37
Iowa 18
Kansas 29
Kentucky 33
Louisiana 13
Maine 6
Maryland 31
Massachusetts 42
Michigan 48
Minnesota 59
Mississippi 9
Missouri 94
Montana 5
Nebraska
Nevada ,
New Hampshire
New Jersey . . . . ,
New Mexico . . . ,
New York ....
North Carolina
Ohio
Oklahoma
Oregon
Pennsylvania . .
Puerto Rico . . . ,
Rhode Island . .
South Carolina
South Dakota .
Tennessee
Texas
Utah
Vermont
Virginia
Washington . . .
West Virginia . .
Wisconsin
Wyoming
25
2
5
30
1
141
14
142
7
8
157
1
3
2
3
25
73
7
7
91
19
23
14
2
1748
Other Countries
Canada 93
Mexico 9
Australia 8
Brazil 8
England 5
Argentine 6
Central America
China
Japan
Cuba
India
Manchukuo
Un. Soc. Sov. Rep. . .
Czechoslovakia
Bolivia
Colombia
France
Germany
Poland
Switzerland
Tanganyika Territory
Uganda
161
798 Report o f the Secretary
Beceasfeb Mtmbevi
F. D. Bardwell
Retired Assistant Engineer, New York Central Railroad, New York City
H. A. Bertram
Division Engineer, Chesapeake & Ohio Railway, Peru, Ind.
Lincoln Bush
Retired Consulting Engineer, East Orange, N. J.
J. F. Donovan
Division Engineer, Lehigh Valley Railroad, Wilkes Barre, Pa.
L. A. Downs
Chairman of the Board, Illinois Central System, Chicago
B. T. Elmore
Bureau of Statistics, Interstate Commerce Commission, Washington, D. C.
R. C. Falconer
Assistant Vice-President, Erie Railroad, Cleveland, Ohio
Geo. S. Fanning
Chief Engineer, Erie Railroad, Cleveland, Ohio
Robert Faries
Assistant Chief Engineer Maintenance, Pennsylvania Railroad, Philadelphia, Pa.
C. F. Ford
Supervisor Tie and Timber Department, Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific Railway, Chicago.
C. W. Galloway
Vice-President Operation and Maintenance, Baltimore & Ohio Railroad;
President, Monongahela Railroad, Baltimore, Md.
Geo. Gibbs
Consulting Engineer, Gibbs & Hill, Inc., New York City
H. C. Griswold
President, John P. Morton & Company, Louisville, Ky.
W. W. Gwathmey
Consulting Engineer, Norfolk, Va.
C. S. GzowSKi
Chief Engineer, Construction Department, Canadian National Railways, Montreal, Que.
C. S. Heritage
Bridge Engineer, Kansas City Southern Railway, Kansas City, Mo.
E. M. M. Hill
Chief Engineer, Western Region, Canadian National Railways, Winnipeg, Man.
Report of the Secretary 799
H. I. HOAG
Division Engineer, New York Central Railroad, Buffalo, N. Y.
J. C. Irwin
Valuation Engineer (Retired), Boston & Albany Railroad (N.Y.C.R.R.), Boston, Mass.
D. J. Kerr
President (Retired), Lehigh Valley Railroad, Spokane, Wash.
G. H. Kimball
Consulting Engineer, Pontiac, Mich.
G. E. Ladd
Consulting Engineer Geologist, Chevy Chase, Md.
H. B. Lincoln
Division Engineer, New York Central Railroad, Cleveland, Ohio
Ralph Modjeski
Consulting Engineer, New York City.
Gilbert Murray
Division Engineer, Canadian National Railways, Prince Albert, Sask.
John V. Neubert
Chief Engineer Maintenance of Way, New York Central Railroad, New York City.
E. H. Pfaitlin
Assistant Division Engineer (Retired), Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul & Pacific Railroad, Chicago.
J. H. Prior
Chief Architectural Engineer, Chicago Board of Education, Chicago.
L. J. Reiser
Assistant Supervisor, Tie and Timber Department, Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific
Railway, Kansas City, Mo.
O. M. Rognan
Architect, Northern Pacific Railway, St. Paul, Minn.
A. B. Scowden
General Bridge Inspector, Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, Cincinnati, Ohio.
H. B. Seaman
Retired Consulting Engineer, Brooklyn, N. Y.
V. I. Smart
Deputy Minister, Department of Transport, Ottawa, Ont.
W. B. Storey
Retired President, Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway, Chicago
R. H. Washburn
Assbtant Divbion Engineer, Alton Railroad, Bloomington, 111.
J. W. Williams
Chief Engineer, Western Pacific Railroad, San Francisco, Calif.
800 Report of the Secretary
FINANCIAL STATEMENT FOR CALENDAR YEAR ENDING
DECEMBER 31, 1940
Balance on hand January 1, 1940 $85,323.26
RECEIPTS
Membership Account
Entrance Fees $ 920.00
Dues 17,550.06
Binding Proceedings 1,467.85
Sales of Publications
Proceedings 962.26
Bulletins 902.66
Manuals 1,908.17
Specifications 703 .97
Track Plans 503.75
Advertising
Publications 796.68
Interest Account
Investments 2,078.26
Miscellaneous 41.75
Joint Bar Investigation 430.41
Total $28,265.82
DISBURSEMENTS
Salaries $ 8,300.00
Proceedings 4,293.11
Bulletins 4,009.69
Stationery and Printing 851.61
Rents, Light, etc 780.00
Supplies 80.49
Expressage 13.21
Postage 562.91
Exchange 97.46
Office Equipment 168.77
Annual Convention 669.01
Refunds, dues, etc 37.00
Audit (year 1939) 200.00
Pensions (E. H. Fritch, A. K. Shurtleff ) 2,460.00
Social Security Act 78.00
Manual Supplements 1,837.49
Track Plans 1,785.93
Miscellaneous 137.96
Committee and Officer's Expense 88.56
Total $26,451.20
Excess of Receipts over Disbursements $ 1,814.62
Balance on hand December 31, 1940 $87,137.88
Report of the Treasurer 801
REPORT OF THE TREASURER
To the Members:
Balance on hand January 1, 1940 $85,323.26
Receipts during 1940 $28,265.82
Paid out on Audited Vouchers 26,451.20
Excess of Receipts over Disbursements 1,814.62
Balance on hand December 31, 1940 $87,137.88
Consisting of
♦Bonds at cost $75,945.81
Cash in Northern Trust Company Bank 10,331.23
Gash in Royal Bank of Canada 835.84
Petty Cash 25.00
$87,137.88
•Includes $6,240.00 book value of Rock Island, Arkansas & Louisiana 4yi% bonds due March 1,
1934, not paid, in default.
Also includes St.L.S.W. 5% bonds, book value $1,319.31, interest coupons January 1, 1936 and
thereafter in default.
Respectfully submitted,
W. H. Penfield, Treasurer.
We have made an audit of the accounts of the American Railway Engineering
Association for the year ending December 31, 1940, and find them to be in accordance
with the foregoing statements.
C. G. Rivers,
E. Deming,
Auditors.
GENERAL BALANCE SHEET
December 31, 1940
Assets 1940 1939
Due from Members $ 900.00 $ 765.00
Due from Sales of Publications 33.80 25.95
Due from Advertising 51 .00 56.00
Furniture and Fixtures 537.77 410.00
Publications on Hand (estimated) 1 ,500.00 2,000.00
♦Investments (cost) 75,945.81 75,945.81
Interest on Investments (accrued) 609.80 607.29
Cash in Northern Trust Company Bank 10,331.23 9,116.79
Cash in Royal Bank of Canada 835.84 235.66
Petty Cash 25.00 25.00
Manuals (on hand) 1,800.00 2,800.00
Trackwork Plans 800.00
Joint Bar Investigation (Due from AAR) .... 430.41
Total $93,370.25 $92,417.91
Liabilities
Members' Dues Paid in Advance $ 5,300.50 $ 5,153.75
Surplus 88,069.75 87,264.16
Total $93,370.25 $92,417.91
• Includes $6,240.00 book value of Rock Island, Arkansas & Louisiana 4}4% bonds due March 1,
1934, not paid, in default.
Also includes St.L.S.W. S% bonds, book value $1,319.31, interest coupons January 1, 1936 and
thereafter in default.
802 Standardization — Signals and Interlocking
Discussion on Standardization
(For Report, see pp. 25-27.)
Vice-President Bond: Owing to the enforced absence of Mr. Nicholson, chairman
of the committee, the report will be presented by Mr. Wilson who represents us through
the Association of American Railroads as a member of the Standards Council of the
American Standards Association. We are much obliged to Mr. Wilson for substituting
in Mr. Nicholson's absence.
A. R. Wilson (Pennsylvania): At the 1940 convention this committee submitted a
tabulation of recommended practices and urged their adoption, insofar as the railroads
could do so. The recommended practices which are adopted annually and .appear in
the Manual are reviewed by this committee and, if found desirable, are sponsored
for national standardization through the American Standards Association. The committee
has no recommendation at this time looking towards the sponsoring of new standards.
One of the duties of this committee is to maintain contact with other standardiza-
tion bodies. The interests of your Association are carefully guarded by the appointment
to these other bodies of representatives from your respective committees. Last year a
complete list was given you as to your representation in these other associations. This
year only changes in that list are noted.
The representation on the American Society for Testing Materials is on the second
page of the report. I wish to call your attention particularly to the activities of two
committees of that society, namely Al on Steel and CI on Cement. The activities of
both of these committees, on which you are ably represented, are of vital interest to
this Association.
This report is presented to you as information.
Vice-President Bond: Thank you, Mr. Wilson. We all appreciate the scope of
the activities of the Committee on Standardization and the difficulties with which they
have to struggle at times. The committee is excused with the thanks of the convention.
Discussion on Signals and Interlocking
(For Report, see pp. 31-36.)
(Vice-President Bond in the chair)
Chairman H. G. Morgan (Illinois Central): The report of Committee 10 covers
two assignments. The first assignment is: Developments in railway signaling. As there
have been no developments, there is no report. The second assignment is: The principal
current activities of the Signal Section, AAR, of which there have been quite a number.
Mr. Post, chairman of the subcommittee, will tell you all about them.
W. M. Post (Pennsylvania): Mr. Morgan has told you that we had no report on
the developments in railway signaling. There have been some developments which
make it possible to remotely control signals and switches over existing telephone wires,
and it is hoped that a report covering them can be presented next year.
Our second assignment is: The principal current activities of the Signal Section, and
your attention is again called to the series of pamphlets on American Railway Signaling
Principles and Practices, prepared for the education of signalmen and others desiring
to study this subject. Members may be asked by young men entering railway service
where books describing railway signaling can be obtained. A letter to the secretary
of this Association or to Mr. R. H. C. Balliet, secretary of the Signal Section, 30 Vesey
street, New York, will produce information on how these pamphlets can be obtained.
Discussion 803
I would also like to call attention to some of the subjects reported on and which
can be found in the Signal Section Proceedings for 1040.
Referring to No. 1 — Costs involved in stopping trains, the Committee on Economics
of Railway Signaling presented in its report curves and formulas to obtain the cost
of fuel and water wasted in stopping a 4,400-ton (gross weight) train of 4S-ton double-
truck cars hauled by a 2-S-4 locomotive on grades up to 0.6 percent ascending and
0.6 percent descending in steps of 0.1 percent for speeds up to 60 m.p.h. Examples
worked out for this train, stopping from 35 m.p.h., indicate that the cost of coal and
water wasted on a 0.1 percent ascending grade was $1.13 and on a 0.1 percent descending
grade was $1.27.
Subject 2 covers costs (other than fuel and water) involved in stopping trains.
In this report is discussed wear on rail and track ; wear on wheels ; wear and tear
on rolling stock; locomotive maintenance and lubrication; wear on brake shoes;
damage to lading; commercial value of delay in delivery; freight train delay hours,
and the cost of regaining lost time. Most of these are intangible savings. However,
they are discussed in this report, and the report is well worth reading.
No. 4 — Economy in signaling construction and maintenance costs by using 78-ft.
rails instead of 39-ft. rails: The saving in costs of bonding rails is reported as $37.20
per mile, and the annual saving in maintenance would be $1.11 per mile.
No. 5 — Economy of slide detector fences: This report contains the costs and annual
savings obtained from several installations of such fences.
No. 7 — Economic value of car retarders: The committee has prepared a form to
be used in assembling the costs and annual savings. This form will be sent to railroads
having car retarder installations with a view to presenting these data at some future
meetings. So if you receive a copy of this form, the Signal Section will appreciate
it very much if you will take the necessary time to supply the data as requested on
that form. We believe some valuable lessons can be learned which will be presented
at some future meeting.
No. 10 — Protection of traffic against slides and rock falls: This report contains
descriptions and drawings showing several types of slide detector fences.
No. 17 — This is a report on devices and methods to control automatic signals
or special signals for the protection of traffic against high water at vulnerable points
and fires at bridges and trestles. If you have any such problems, this report, I think,
will be helpful.
No. 24 — Illumination of crossings: This report describes how flood lights should
be arranged at highway crossings. It calls attention to the fact that flood-lighting does
not take the place of crossing signals and should not be used as a warning of the
approach of trains.
The rest of the report contains l.sts of specifications, requisites, drawings and other
matter which have been submitted to letter ballot.
Chairman Morgan: This concludes the report.
Vice-President Bond: You have heard the report as presented. Any discussion?
L. J. Hughes (Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific): I should like to inquire of the
committee where you get these reports, how do you obtain them and what they cost.
Chairman Morgan: They can be obtained through the secretary of the Signal
Section. The prices vary.
Vice-President Bond: If there is no further discussion, Mr. Morgan, your com-
mittee is excused with the appreciation of the Association for a very informative report.
804 Economics of Railway Location and Operation
Discussion on Economics o£ Railway Location and Operation
(For Report, see pp. 44-86.)
(Vice-President Clarke presiding)
Chairman H. M. Stout (Northern Pacific) : The agenda of this committee the past
year has included 14 assigned subjects. Four of these required collaboration with other
committees of this Association or other divisions of the Association of American Rail-
roads. In addition, collaboration was required of us in the study of three subjects
included in the assignments of other standing committees of this Association. All these
assignments have been accepted, and due consideration has been given them during
the year.
The report of the committee includes progress reports submitted as information
on six of the assigned subjects. Reports were prepared on two additional assignments
but publication has been withheld.
First, Revision of Manual: In our constant scrutiny of the sections of the Manual
relating to economics of railway location and economics of railway operation, for
inaccuracies and opportunities for better statements of principles, the article denoted
The Cost of Stopping and Starting Trains (see Chapter 21, pages 2-S of the Manual)
has been undertaken. Last year some preliminary notes on the cost and effect of
stopping trains were prepared and submitted for discussion and further study and
collaboration with the Signal Section of the Association of American Railroads which
has an interest in the subject. The studies and discussions with the Signal Section
which have ensued have brought out the fact that the results based on last year's
preliminary notes do not agree with those published by the Signal Section. For example,
it was found that our proposed method indicated that the fuel and water wasted on
account of a stop increased as the weight of the train increased, whereas the Signal
Section's method indicated that the fuel and water wasted decreased as the weight of
the train increased. Failure of the two methods to agree in this important particular
casts doubt upon both methods. Hence, a number of attempts have been made to
reconcile the two methods before proceeding with the preparation of a report for
presentation to and consideration of the Association.
The AREA method assumes typical locomotives and bases the speed, tractive
effort and horsepower curves on the normal capacity, in order to simplify the calcula-
tion, because the fuel and water consumptions on this basis are constant. In other
words, it is an easy matter to determine the work done if it is expressed in terms of
horsepower-hours measured by the boiler output which is constant for all speeds above
Vi and proportional to the fuel and water consumptions. Also, on this basis the same
boiler output for a given locomotive can be taken for all weights of trains. Furthermore,
the relation between the boiler output and the driver output varies with trains of different
weights. Consequently, the driver horsepower-hours on the basis of normal capacity are
not a true measure of the boiler output or of the fuel and water consumptions.
It is expected a report on this subject will be developed and made available next
year.
Subject No. 2, Methods for obtaining a more intensive use of existing railway
facilities: This assignment is a most practical topic. The painful memories of the
operating conditions at ports and other railway terminals during the previous World
War period suggested the study of the intensification of use of railway facilities resulting
from the operation of the port control organization set up, in the autumn of 1939,
by the Association of American Railroads, as an addition to the list of projects here-
Discussion 805
tofore reported. As Mr. L. E. Dale, chairman of the subcommittee, is unable to be
present today, the report will be presented by Mr. H. F. Schryver.
(H. F. Schryver, New York Central, read the report on Assignment 2.)
Mr. Schryver: I might add that recently Mr. Budd, transportation commissioner,
stated that the amount of export traffic handled through the North Atlantic ports has
reached the equivalent of the peak movement of 1918. That was as of about the middle
of February. It is possible that by this date that amount of traffic has been exceeded.
Chairman Stout: Subject No. 3, Methods or formulas for the solution of special
problems relating to more economical and efficient railway operation: The report here
offered, under this assignment, is a supplement to the reports to the last two conven-
tions of the Association. The specific topic is. Economic Relation Between Track Struc-
tures and Traffic To Be Handled.
The report as published has brought considerable valuable discussion from a num-
ber of sources, for which we are grateful. The report will be presented by the sub-
committee chairman, Mr. C. H. R. Howe.
C. H. R. Howe (Chesapeake & Ohio) : The present discussion illustrates in a
general way an analytical method of examining the elements that enter into problems
of track and traffic economics. There is no intent whatever of attempting to estabhsh
factual data concerning the physical properties or values of track materials; that is
the function of committees other than this. When such information becomes available
we are very glad to make use of it.
Concerning items of investment, replacements and labor, undoubtedly in any specific
case local interest rates and salvage values would be known and given proper considera-
tion, as they would materially affect annual charges. On the individual railway it should
be possible to break down labor charges for specific tracks, thus avoiding the necessity
of equating. It should also be possible to segregate track laying costs from those of
normal upkeep.
In connection with the labor charges shown in this report, a correction should be
made in the example given at the bottom of page 48 and in Table G. Beginning with
the last sentence of the fourth paragraph on page 48 the text should read:
The increases in labor costs are obtained through the use of the formula evolved
on page 134, Vol. 40 of the Proceedings, namely, 1.00 -f (3.3865 X percent traffic density
increase), and adjustment to terms of the conversion factor of the higher group.
Take for example the 112-lb. rail costs for handling 5,248,898 g.t.m. per mile and
determine the costs of handling the 11,309,126 g.t.m. traffic of the 131-lb. group on
the lighter rail.
Interest remaining the same $1 ,290
Replacement cost increasing in the ratio
11,309,126
-S;^ii;i^^ 2.16X0.05 = 0.108
Investment $25,800 X 0.108 = $2,786
Increased labor cost 1.56 = 1.248 X $614 (from Table F) =$889
1.25
and 1 -1- (0.386 X 1.16) = 1.448 X $889 = $1,109
Total cost for 131-lb. track traffic on 112-lb. track ..$5,185
In Table G the increased labor costs and total costs should be corrected to read:
Increased Labor Cost Total Cost
90 1b $ 630 $3,427
100 lb 622 3,392
112 1b 1,109 5,185
806 Economics of Railway Location and Operation
The percent signs should be omitted from Table G as well as in the example shown
on page 48.
Vice-President Clarke: Is there any discussion? If not, please proceed, Mr. Stout.
Chairman Stout: The next subject is assignment No. 4- — Effect of volume of traffic
on railway operating expenses. The report here presented is the fifth progress report
offered since the subject was assigned. It is included in the committee report as informa-
tion and prehminary to a final report with conclusions. The report will be presented
by Mr. J. F. Pringle, the chairman of the subcommittee.
J. F. Pringle (Canadian National): Determining the effect of volume of traffic
on railway operating expenses is important for two reasons: It enables the results
obtained in any previous period to be scrutinized, with a view to taking action for
improvement, and it enables us to make estimates for future expenditures.
In previous reports the committee has shown by analysis of mass statistical data
the effect of volume of traffic as measured by gross ton-miles, on operating expenses
as a whole. The committee has also submitted a method for determining the effect of
the volume of traffic on maintenance of way and structures expenses, which method has
been adopted by the Association and published in the Manual.
There is also available in a report of the Mechanical Division of the AAR a method
of determining the effect on maintenance of equipment expenses.
This year the committee submits a method for determining the effect of volume of
traffic on transportation expenses.
It will be noted from the table on page SO that transportation expenses account for
some 49 percent of the total operating expenses. Therefore, the importance of this phase
of expenses will be appreciated.
The method as given in detail in the report consists of an analysis of the effect
of volume on the primary accounts of General Account No. 4. It is first necessary
(and a method is shown by which this can be done) to relate volume of traffic as
expressed in earnings to volume of traffic as expressed in operating units, such as net
ton-miles, train-miles, and so on.
Then the primary accounts are grouped in accordance with the service, that is,
station expenses, yard expenses, train and locomotive operation expenses, and so on,
and the effect of fluctuation in volume of traffic on each group is analyzed to arrive
at the percent of variations which may be expected under conditions pertaining to
any particular property.
It must be understood that the percentages shown here will not apply on any
particular property, as the conditions pertaining on that property have to be taken
into consideration, but, once having determined the percentages for any particular
property, they can be used as long as there are no major changes in the conditions.
The committee is of the opinion that this report is of certain practical value in
preparing estimates of operating expenses based on any given volume of traffic. It is
submitted as information, with the recommendation that the subject be continued.
Vice-President Clarke: Is there any discussion of this portion of the report? If
not, it will be accepted as information.
Chairman Stout: The fifth assignment, Effect of inland waterway transportation
on the economics of railway operation: A comprehensive report, the third progress
report of information on this assignment, was prepared, but pubhcation has been
withheld.
The sixth is: Effect of high speed on railway operating expenses. Although some
of the additional costs of operation due to speed are obvious, their measure and a
Discussion 807
complete determination of all the added costs comprise a complicated problem. The
report on this subject, the third progress report, will be given by Mr. M. F. Mannion,
chairman of the subcommittee.
M. F. Mannion (Bessemer & Lake Erie): The report outlines the method for
making a preliminary study of the effect of any increase in maximum speed on power
requirements and fuel and water consumption. Tables 1 and 2 are composite summaries
of six different groups of locomotives and types of trains. These tables are based on
data contained in Chapter 16 of the Manual and on train resistances which are based
on the Davis formula. The tables give the average weight of train for any maximum
speed, the average speed, exclusive of time stopped, for various distances between
stops, and the horsepower-hours per 1,000 tons, traihng weight.
An example determining the increased power and horsepower-hour requirements
for an increase of maximum speed from 45 to 60 miles per hour is shown on page 57.
This increase of 15 m.p.h. in maximum speed would require an increase of over
80 percent in the number of locomotives and approximately 40 percent increase in the
coal and water consumption. The increase in number of locomotives or number of
trains would also result in the same percentage increase in train delays. Wages of
engine crews would increase, as well as equipment and track maintenance.
Pages 58 to 67, inclusive, contain Exhibit A which is a more detailed discussion
of the factors involved and conditions to be considered if a detailed study of the effects
of proposed increased speeds is desired. The same information shown in Tables 1 and 2
is shown in Tables 3 to 13, inclusive, but these tables show separately the information
for each of the six different groups of locomotives.
On page 65 is a chart showing train resistances for passenger and freight cars
based on the Davis formula. On page 66, Tables 14 and 15 show the maximum speeds
for trains of various weights on different grades. The following conclusions are offered:
It will appear from the appHcation of the data contained in these tables that
high speed has a widespread influence not only as regards fuel and water consumption,
crew wages, and way and equipment maintenance, but also as regards capital expenditures.
Actually, the operating expenses and capital expenditures will very likely be greater
than those anticipated, based on the theoretical data presented in this report.
The report is offered as information.
Vice-President Clarke: The effect of high speed on both railway maintenance
and operating expenses is one of the important subjects before us today. Is there any
discussion of this report in which the committee has presented some very interesting
figures and tables? If not, the report will be received as information.
Chairman Stout: We have no report this year to complete .Assignment 7, Effect
of rail lubrication on train operation.
Eighth assignment, Economics of railway location and operation as affected by
railway electrification: The progress reports on this assignment in each of the past
two years are supplemented by a report of information. Present conditions on the
continents east of the Atlantic Ocean render it impossible to cover now the countries
of that hemisphere in our studies of this subject. The present report completes the
survey of the countries of the western continents.
Professor E. E. King, chairman of the subcommittee, is unable to present the
report on account of an affection of his voice, which we trust is only temporary.
Under the circumstances, the report will be presented by Mr. F. N. Nye, a member
of the subcommittee.
808 Economics of Railway Location and Oper a tio n
F. N. Nye (New York Central): Two years ago the subcommittee presented a
report on electrification of steam railroads in Canada and the United States. This
year the subcommittee has brought together data on electrification of steam lines in the
remaining countries of the western hemisphere. These lines include those in Mexico,
Cuba, Costa Rica, the Argentine, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile and Venezuela.
In addition, the report includes electrification of steam lines in Australia and New
Zealand. Table 1 shows the locations of the electrified sections, the gage of the track,
the total number of miles electrified, and gives information concerning tunnels, ruling
grades, systems of electrification, kinds of traffic involved, number and capacity of
motive-power units, energy requirements, and reasons for electrification. As the last
column of the table indicates, some of these lines were electrified on account of tunnel
operation, some on account of heavy grades, some on account of scarcity of fuel, some
on account of density of traffic, and some to bring about general economy in operation.
As you will note in the table, practically all installations are direct current with
overhead distribution systems. The voltages on the d.c. projects vary from 600 to
3,000. The only a.c. installations are on the Pacific Electric Railway in Costa Rica,
where the power is single phase with a voltage of 15,000, and on the Guaqui to La Paz
Railway in Bolivia, where the power is three phase with a voltage of 575. In suburban
service, motor cars are commonly used, but for through freight and passenger service,
locomotives are generally employed.
It has not been found feasible to get statistics from the nations involved in the
present war. It is the hope of the subcommittee that, when economic conditions in
those countries become more stabilized, we can secure data from them that will
enable us to bring our report on electrification of steam railroads throughout the world
up to date.
The subcommittee is grateful for the assistance of the Railway Section, Transporta-
tion Division, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce of the Department of
Commerce of the United States and of the Electrification Committee of the National
Electric Light Association.
This report is presented as information.
Vice-President Clarke: Are there any questions? If not, the report will be accepted
as information.
Chairman Stout: Assignment 9, Effects of speeds in excess of 75 m.p.h. on the
economics of railway location: Three reports treating this subject have been presented
heretofore. The fourth report is not ready for presentation at this time.
Assignment 10, Effect of highway transportation on the economics of railway
operation: Publication of the progress report prepared on this subject also has been
withheld.
Assignment 11, Train resistance of freight trains under various conditions of loading
and speed: This is a new assignment. A first report of information, consisting of the
survey and resume of the more important work which has been done in the establish-
ment of general resistance formulas is offered. Mr. L. K. Sillcox, chairman of the
subcommittee, will present the report.
L. K. Sillcox (New York Air Brake): Subcommittee 11 of Committee 16 was
named and specifically assigned to the investigation of all available data and literature
bearing upon the subject of freight train resistance, evaluating their applicability to
modern, high-speed operation and, if possible, the derivation of a recommended method
of resistance determination, the method to include modifying factors to obtain in
specific conditions.
Discussion 809
Certain train resistance components were designated for special investigation and
study, namely,
1. Effect of rail lubrication upon curve resistance
2. Rail weight and condition
3. Track condition
4. Atmospheric temperature
5. Effect of side winds.
Unfortunately, the literature pertaining to these five important components of the total
resistance value is meager due partly to the but recent recognition of the magnitude of
their effect upon the total, and partly to their increased significance with modern high
operating speeds.
In partial fulfillment of that assignment, an introductory report has been presented
on pages 69 to 86, wherein many general train resistance formulas were reported. Each
of these has had at least limited or local use during some period of years and on one
or more railway systems. The report also includes discussion of the effect of the
various train resistance components, both inherent and incidental. The committee has
deviated from its specific assignment to the extent that factors, derived through the
operation of passenger trains, have been investigated for the reason that much of the
most valuable and reliable data, applicable to freight as well as passenger trains, were
derived by the operation of test passenger trains.
This introductory report further presents the results of the committee's initial
search for data pertinent to items 1, 2 and 3, above, being: First, the data accumulated
by the Denver & Salt Lake Railroad in its investigation of reductions in curve resistance
obtainable by lubrication of flange and rail ; second, those obtained by the Kansas City
Southern Railway during its test of resistance encountered on rail of various weights,
both with new and old contours; and third, the Association of American Railroad's
tests conducted on the tracks of the Pennsylvania, the Chicago & North Western, and
the Union Pacific.
The Davis formulas are generally accepted as being basically sound and as being
stated in a form consistent with known characteristics of the primary components;
journal, flange, vibration and impact, and air resistances. More recent experiments
on current design, as exemplified by the lightweight, streamlined trains, have indicated
to some authorities the desirability of applying modifying factors when the formulas
are employed in the determination of the resistances of such equipment.
Acknowledging the reliability of the Davis formulas, it is now proposed to attempt
the derivation of modifying factors which would compensate for:
1. Effect of track modulus and rail weight
2. Temperature effects
3. Effect of side winds
and, in the case of passenger equipment with a possible important influence in some
freight services, a fourth element, air conditioning or forced air circulation. Since
available test data, bearing upon temperature effects, are limited in scope, and in very
few cases have attempts been made to analyze such data by the railways to permit
general derivations, the possibility of establishing a reasonable guide for the rating of
locomotives under conditions of severe cold, is quite remote. The characteristics of
track modulus and rail weight, as they influence train resistance, may be analytically
examined. Also, it is hoped that the effect of side winds upon flange friction will lend
itself to analytical analysis, using as a base the results of thoughtfully planned and
810 Electricity
carefully executed test programs completed in wind tunnels. Fortunately, several such
programs have been successfully conducted and the results contributed for the
common good.
Vice-President Clarke: While this is a new assignment and this is the first report,
the committee has presented information of great value. Is there any discussion? If
not, the report will be accepted as information.
Chairman Stout: The following three assignments are new: Development of modern
power units and the effects on the economics of railway location and operation; The
general course of the cost of railway transportation and operation over the past 100
years, the principal determining elements and the economic significance; and. The
advantage derived from stiffness of track in improving economics of train operation.
During the past year these subjects have been under active consideration and study,
but we have no reports ready for presentation to this convention.
That completes the report of Committee 16 — Economics of Railway Location and
Operation.
Vice-President Clarke: The economics of railway operation is one of the most
important subjects which we will have to consider. While our primary responsibiUty
is the maintenance of the railroads, it is also our responsibiUty to maintain them so
they can be most economically operated. Is there any general discussion? If not, the
committee is excused with the thanks of the Association. (Applause)
Discussion on Electricity
(For Report, see pp. 28-30.)
(Vice-President Bond presiding)
Chairman H. F. Brown (New York, New Haven & Hartford) : The report of the
Committee on Electricity might read "from microwatts to kilowatts" because I know
of no industry which uses electricity in the breadth of application that the railroads do.
We have in mind microwatts in the use of the smallest amount of current that it is
possible to detect, in amphfying devices, in radio tubes; and kilowatts where we are
moving the heaviest types of freight trains, tonnage trains that are moved on any
railroad in the country today, for example as on the Norfolk & Western and on the
Virginian. Truly it is "from microwatts to kilowatts."
I am not going to try to give you a complete synopsis of the report, as it is
presented in Bulletin 420 which was prepared during my incapacity the past summer
by the vice chairman, Mr. D. B. Thompson. It is there for you to read, and it is
interesting reading.
One has only to look at the exhibits in the current show at the National Railway
Appliances Exhibit this year to see the scope of the application of electricity to the
railroads. It is used in all types of track maintenance. It is used in nearly every de-
partment of railway activity, from the lighting of office buildings to the operation of
shop machinery and the operation of trains.
The year has seen no great, outstanding development of any one phase, but the
use and scope have broadened. Possibly the most noted improvement in the application
has been in illumination. You are all famihar with new types of illuminants which
we now have available in the fluorescent lighting units; great strides are being made.
It is safe to prophesy that within the next ten years our illumination will be of an
entirely different order than it is today. This is making for economy because all of
these devices are operating at higher levels of efficiency, with smaller power consump-
tion and, therefore, lower costs.
Discussion 811
The development of power in itself is becoming cheaper. Newer and more efficient
power plants are being built. Power is cheaper. Power production in connection with
water power, in large concentrated areas, is being continually improved and made.
For example, Boulder dam and Bonneville dam are notable examples of concentrated
water power developments. Ultimately the power developed there will find its applica-
tion on railroads in tributary areas.
The standardization of air conditioning equipment is going forward with particu-
lar reference to the standby equipment necessary in the large terminals for taking
care of parked cars and for cars which are arriving and must lie over for short periods
during their further movement.
The air conditioning development itself is so rapid that no time was available for
much of the standardization required. This is now going forward at a rapid pace.
An interesting example of how electricity can be used to serve almost any purpose
was had this last year at Memphis, Tenn., where Diesel-electric locomotives were parked,
and the current from these locomotives was used to operate the cars parked for a
large convention. The electrical engineer is a man who has to have a great deal of
imagination of how he can best apply all these various tools to new and novel uses.
The report touches on the further development of circuit breakers. The air circuit
breaker is being rapidly developed to supplant oil circuit breakers where the use of
oil presents a fire hazard.
Mr. Post, in his report a few moments ago, told you how supervisory control is
being appUed to signahng. It is a'so being apphed to outlying facilities. The operation
of pumps, the operation of various types of facilities can be controlled very simpl\-
and very economically and easily today over telephone lines by this new development of
supervisory control.
The second assignment of the Committee on Electricity is to review the current
activities of the Electrical Section. The committee reports were published in full in
Bulletin 419 and I will not attempt to go into detail concerning them except to
call your attention to the broad scope covered by the section. It has standing com-
mittees deaUng with power supply, electrolysis, electric heating and welding, the appli-
cation of motors, clearances for third rail and overhead working conductors, track
and third-rail bonds, illumination, high tension cables, and the application of corrosion-
resisting materials to railroad electrical construction.
In mentioning these, I would like to call your attention to the research work
that has been done by the Committee on the Application of Corrosion-Resisting Ma-
terials. This has been referred to each year for the last five years, and the work this
year practically completes the studies which were started some ten years ago to
determine which of a great number of commercial alloys are best adaptable for use
not only on electrified railroads but on any railroad where smoke and the atmospheric
pollution of neighboring industries causes so much damage and loss through the corrosion
of ferrous materials.
That this particular subject has been of great interest is evidenced by the fact
that your secretary has had a great many calls for copies of this report from the
suppliers and manufacturers who are dealing with railroad hardware. This is, I feel,
a real contribution to railway engineering.
I would be entirely lacking in appreciation if I did not add my own personal
word of appreciation to the great help that the Electrical Section has had each year
from the American Railway Engineering Association. It has been my good fortune to
have been in contact with the various presidents of your Association in connection with
812 Waterways and Harbors
my work in the Electrical Section for the past four years, and each year I have found
that the directors and officers of the Engineering Association have been most helpful
to the Electrical Section. I want to add my own tribute to what has been said of
Mr. Fanning this morning. Mr. Fanning, last October, came to our annual meeting
and addressed us, and he gave me personally a great deal of good, sound advice and
help. I sincerely regret as much as anyone in this room his untimely passing. I want
to bespeak for my successor in the Electrical Section the same cooperation that I have
had the past four years from your officers. Thank you.
Vice-President Bond: Any discussion on the report as presented? If there is no
further discussion, Mr. Brown, I want to thank you very much for presenting a
difficult report in a very interesting way, also for the resume of the work of the Electrical
Section. We arc very much indebted to you. (Applause)
Discussion on Waterways and Harbors
(For Report, see pp. 87-93.)
(Vice-President Bond presiding)
Chairman G. P. Palmer (Baltimore & Ohio Chicago Terminal): We have nothing
to report on Revision of Manual.
On subject 2, we completed the report last year with the exception of some defini-
tions which were withheld for certain changes and are now presented for approval and
inclusion in the Manual. The three definitions of words used in the report that was
presented last year you will find at the top of page 88, and I will read them as they
are now submitted.
(Chairman Palmer then read the three definitions at top of page 88.)
Chairman Palmer: I move that these three definitions be adopted for inclusion in
the Manual.
(The motion was seconded, put to a vote and carried.)
Chairman Palmer: The report on Assignment 4 will be submitted by the sub-
committee chairman, Mr. Hyde.
N. D. Hyde (New York Central) : The study of metal and other protective casings
for pier structures under water was first assigned last year. Several types of such
casings are manufactured and on the market. There are experimental installations in
several places on the Atlantic seaboard. None of them has been in use a sufficient
length of time so that conclusions can be reached as to their effectiveness. We therefore
suggest that the subject be kept open for further report.
Vice-President Bond: Accepted as a progress report.
Chairman Palmer: Assignment 6. Seawalls and ocean shore protection, including
wave action and ice: Mr. Smith, the subcommittee chairman, is not present. There-
fore, I will attempt to give the report.
The information contained herein has been obtained from various publications
as shown on page 90, and is really a summary of conclusions reached by various
authorities, including the office of the chief of engineers, U. S. Army, and other
associations.
The conclusions of this report are as follows: Seawalls of various design and
groins may be properly used in protecting shores and beaches after careful studies of
all conditions have been concluded to enable the selection of an adequate design of
seawall or groin or a combination of both.
Discussion 813
No recommendations are made with reference to any effective type of structure
by reason of the great variance in conditions.
This report is submitted as information. However, included in this report we
have a definition for the word "groin" which we recommend for inclusion in the
Manual. It reads as follows:
Groin. — A barrier extending into the water from a beach to arrest traveling sand
and shingle and to give protection against wave-wash or current. A small jetty.
I move that this definition for groin be included in the Manual.
(The motion was seconded, put to a vote and carried.)
Chairman Palmer: Report on assignment 7. Reasonable life of steel casings im-
mersed in sea water: This report will be given by Mr. Faucette, the subcommittee
chairman.
W. D. Faucette (Seaboard Air Line): Those who are close to the coast, who have
to deal with brackish water and sea water may find this report rather educational.
The subject was assigned to this committee some two or three years ago, and after
your subcommittee chairman had considered the question of approach to the subject,
he learned that the War Department, through the office of the chief of engineers and
more particularly through the Beach Erosion Board at Washington, was investigating
at some length a report on steel sheet pihng in various parts of the country and was
carrying this work on in considerable detail and thoroughness. In view of the time
and care that was being devoted to this investigation by the War Department, it was
the opinion of the subcommittee that its study could be pursued to greater advantage,
if it were deferred until the War Department's report was more nearly complete.
I had several conferences with the Beach Erosion Board and with some of the
investigators who are going into this subject in a rather thorough way. It is natural
that a study of this kind must be progressive. But if you are really interested from
an engineering point of view, it will pay you to read, when you get home, pages 90,
91, 92 and 93. The information that is set forth in the pamphlet issued by the Depart-
ment of Scientific and Industrial Research under the title "Deterioration of Structures
in Sea Water" which is designated as the Seventeenth Interim Report of the Committee
of the Institute of Civil Engineers, London, England, printed in 1938, is very inter-
esting. On page 91 are the conclusions, which I wiU not read, but they are worth
your time.
Of course, a good many of you are familiar with Dr. William F. Clapp's work
at Duxbury, to which I allude on page 92.
If you have any problems that touch upon this subject, and think it is worth
while to go to Washington, you will get a very cordial reception on the part of the
War Department at the Beach Erosion Board headquarters. We have recently had
some problems, and we found the board very helpful in discussing the matters with us.
The information on page 93 is given as a progress report with respect to the
annual loss of metal thickness in inches at certain elevations. This is rather illuminating
but is not to be taken as a definite conclusion in any way whatsoever.
Your subcommittee offers these data and this progress report as information to
those who are particularly interested in the subject of the reasonable life of steel
casings immersed in sea water. The committee feels that the subject should be con-
tinued into the next year or two, at least.
Chairman Palmer: This completes the report of Committee 25.
Vice-President Bond: If there is no discussion, the committee will be excused
with the thanks of the Association for its very valuable work. (Applause)
A
814 Highways
Discussion on Highways
(For Report, see pp. 149-153.)
(Vice-President Bond presiding)
Chairman J. G. Brennan (Association of American Railroads): Assignment 1. Revi-
sion of Manual: This is a progress report and it is hardly necessary to read it. The
committee will continue the work during the coming year and hopes to have a report
for the convention next year.
The report on assignment No. 2 — Design and specifications for highway crossings
at grade over railway tracks, both steam and electric, is likewise a progress report,
and it is not necessary to read that.
Assignment No. 3 — Comparative merits of various types of grade crossing pro-
tection: Mr. H. M. Shepard, the chairman of the subcommittee, is not here, so I
am going to ask Mr. G. P. Palmer, who has been very active in this particular work,
to make the report for the committee.
G. P. Palmer (Baltimore & Ohio Chicago Terminal): This is a new subject on
which we are just starting to gather information, collaborating with Committee 10 —
Singals and Interlocking, of the Signal Section, AAR, and the Highway Research
Board.
During the year just passed, we endeavored to assemble data on various types of
reflectorized crossbuck signs now on the market or proposed to be placed on the
market. This report, as information, covers several different types of material being
used. Since this report was written, one of the signs of the Reflecting Metal Corpora-
tion has been installed at 104th street in Chicago, for test. On the Scotchlite sign,
two more signs have been placed at Central avenue near 103rd street, just outside
of Chicago, and two of the signs of the Cuneo Press, which were put up last August
and blown down in the windstorm on November 11, have been replaced and are
again located at 105th and Rockwell streets.
The purpose of these signs is to test them under all weather conditions which
any sign has to stand while it is in service. We of course do not expect to get any
definite conclusion from these tests for some Uttle time, but the committee has in
mind testing other signs at other points in the immediate future.
This report is submitted as information with the recommendation that the subject
be continued.
Vice-President Bond: Any discussion? If not, the report will be accepted as
information.
Chairman Brennan: Assignment No. 4 — Prepare drawings of typical location for
grade crossing signals, for various degrees of crossing angles: Mr. A. P. Button, chair-
man of the subcommittee, will present the report.
(A. P. Button, New York Central, read the report on assignment 4.)
Vice-President Bond: The committee's recommendation as stated in the report will
be duly submitted to the Committee on Outline of Work.
Chairman Brennan: Assignment 7 — Recommend methods of protecting highway
crossings and flangeways against obstructions and damage caused by use or passage
of highway work equipment: Mr. Bernard Blum, chairman of the subcommittee, will
make the report.
Bernard Blum (Northern Pacific): The report was prepared to meet a condition
that has arisen several times in the past few years by serious accidents at highway-
railroad grade crossings where equipment of the highway departments has been struck
Disc u ssion 815
by trains and, in some cases, derailment of trains at highway grade crossings have
occurred because the flangeways became filled up with dirt or gravel or ice in the
course of work of the highway department.
It hardly seems necessary to read the report which is given in the form of instruc-
tions to be issued by the several highway departments to their employees. Several
states have issued instructions in line with these recommendations. One state, I am
advised, has adopted it as submitted and several states in the Northwest have adopted
it substantially in the form it was originally prepared, but with a few corrections.
It is believed it will be of considerable advantage in the work of safety on the
highways and on the railroads.
The other recommendation about submitting it to the American Association of
State Highway Officials will be taken care of in due course.
I move that it be adopted and printed in the Manual.
(The motion was seconded, put to a vote and carried.)
Chairman Brennan: It may be of interest to you gentlemen to know that these
requisites have already been adopted by the State Highway Department of Arkansas.
I was so informed this morning by Mr. R. E. Warden from that state.
This completes the report of Committee 9.
Vice-President Bond: Any further discussion on the report as submitted? If not,
I wish to say that the work of your committee is very much appreciated, and you are
excused with the thanks of the Association. (.Applause)
Discussion on Cooperative Relations with Universities
(For ReiJort, .see pp. 155-171.)
(Vice-President Bond presiding)
Chairman E. T. Howson (Railway Age) : Your Committee on Cooperative Rela-
tions with Universities presents its first report, having been re-created shortly prior
to the last convention. It has devoted its attention up to the present largely to work
of an exploratory character, looking to the development of the scope of the assign-
ments given.
The work of this committee differs from that of other committees of the Associa-
tion in that it is not dealing primarily with materials or detailed i^ractices of working;
neither is it concerned with the immediate present. Rather it is dealing with a problem
of management, the full impact of which will not be felt for some years. Its work is.
however, of fundamental importance to the permanent well being of the railway industry
of which we are all a part.
The railways comprise one of our largest industries. They are an industry whose
maximum efficiency is essential to the industrial life of this country. The railways are
meeting new and increasingly intensive competition from other agencies of transporta-
tion. .'Ml of these conditions place a great responsibility on railway managements, and
they demand that the railways bring into their organizations men of the highest ability
in order that they may be able to cope with and solve these problems as they arise
from year to year in the future.
A far larger proportion of the more promising young men are now enjoying the
privileges of a college education than in any previous generation. It is pertinent, there-
fore, to inquire whether the railways are attracting their due proportion of these
816 Cooperative Relations with Universities
young men of promise. It is pertinent, also, to inquire whether the colleges and uni-
versities are training these young men in matters of education and in point of view
to prepare them best for service in the railway industry.
Railroading has changed greatly in recent years. It is no longer an industry, from
an engineering standpoint, of extensions. It is an industry now of intensive develop-
ment. That requires a different type of engineering, and yet it is a type of engineering
that is of just as high grade, yes, even higher grade than that of the pioneers of a
generation ago. Engineering today requires a more thorough appreciation and knowledge
of economics as applied to transportation, a greater willingness to develop plans and
practices to effect economies in costs and to increase effectiveness in service. In fact,
it requires a far greater degree of exactness.
(At this point Mr. Howson presented the substance of the last three paragraphs
of the Statement of Scope and Purpose appearing on page 157.)
Mr. Howson: Your committee has been instructed by the Board to study, among
other subjects, that of stimulating greater cooperation between railway officials and
officers of universities and colleges in preparing the best courses of instruction to meet
changing railway problems. The committee has this subject under study but has no
report to present at this convention.
The committee was also instructed to call the attention of universities and colleges
to such information and conclusions developed by the Association as would be thought
to be of special interest or value to them. That subject is also in process of develop-
ment, but the committee is not yet prepared to report.
The committee was instructed to develop means of bringing to the attention of
railway managements the value of a technical education as a qualifying factor for
young men desiring to enter railway service with a view to advancement. The com-
mittee has a report of progress to present. Mr. Schwinn, chairman of the subcommittee,
will present the report.
F. S. Schwinn (Missouri Pacific Lines) : Because of the broad scope and importance
of the subject, your committee has undertaken to develop its study progressively. This
year's report deals with the possible opportunities offered by railways to technically
educated and other college men, coupled with the views of several railway executives.
Much of the report is in the form of quotations from men whose opinions are valuable,
although these opinions are not unanimous in every respect.
Without undertaking to read extensively from this report, we wish to direct atten-
tion to the fact that these railway executives were practically unanimous in that they
favored employing college men, that they believed that college men would meet the
requirements of advanced positions more satisfactorily than those without a college
education, all other factors being equal, and that the technical or college man might
be expected to advance more rapidly than a man without such advantages.
A very excellent composite picture of the attitude of railway executives is ex-
pressed in a letter written by Mr. F. E. Williamson, president of the New York Central
System. From this I quote:
(He read the paragraph at the bottom of page 167 and the top of page 168.)
Mr. Schwinn: Those of you who are responsible for the efficient organization of
a department, technical or otherwise, and who are considering not only today but
also tomorrow will find this report interesting and helpful to your managements as
well as to yourselves. I cannot urge too strongly that you bring it to the attention of
your managements.
Discussion 817
The brief review of this report given on page 168 includes your committee's pre-
liminary observations which are introduced for the purpose of stimulating the attention
and concern of railway managements in the young college men, and to indicate to
those men the attributes required for success in the railway industry.
During the coming year it is intended to carefully analyze and report on the
practices followed by other industries in the selection and training of college men, by
which the committee will show the growing importance given to technical education
by these industries.
Chairman Howson: The committee was also asked to stimulate a greater interest
in the science of transportation among university and college students, and create
thereby a greater appreciation of the place of transportation in our national economic
structure. Professor W. C. Sadler, chairman of that subcommittee, will present this
report.
W. C. Sadler (University of Michigan): I think in reading this report I should
call your attention to the fact that the committee thought it was to the interest of
the railroads to concern themselves with university students, not only from the point
of view of potential material for employment but also from the point of view of poten-
tial shippers; particularly in the field of engineering, the railroads had a very vital
interest in university circles.
(Mr. Sadler then read the report on Assignment 4.)
Chairman Howson: The committee has been instructed, also, to develop means
whereby facilities of the universities may be made more directly available for research
work of the Association and the railway industry by cooperative effort between the
staffs of the universities and the committees of the Association. That subcommittee has
a report to present to you. Its chairman is Professor Russell. In his absence, the report
will be presented by Mr. Lem Adams.
Lem Adams (Oxweld Railroad Service): Your committee's first activity has been
to develop, by means of a questionnaire, as complete information as possible regarding
the present facilities, personnel, activities, and interests of the various schools bearing
on railroad problems, as well as a compilation of the subjects already investigated and
the reports that are available for distribution.
Information of this character can be collected most readily from the colleges giving
engineering degrees, of which there are about 145 in the United States. A questionnaire
was sent to 125 of these schools. This questionnaire included the following questions:
(He then read the questions listed on page 170, and gave the substance of the
concluding paragraph of the report.)
Chairman Howson: The committee was instructed to stimulate a greater apprecia-
tion among university and college authorities of the fundamental importance of instruc-
tion in transportation and economics, and of the necessity for assigning men of adequate
ability, experience and fitness for such teaching. The committee has that subject under
way. It has no report to present at this time.
The committee was instructed to cooperate with organizations of university and
college students engaged in study or discussion of engineering or transportation matters
and contribute to their activities in such manner as may be mutually arranged. The
chairman of that subcommittee is Mr. Gault who is unable to be with us because
of illness. Mr. Faucette, a member of the subcommittee, will present the report.
W. D. Faucette (Seaboard Air Line) : It is with much regret that we record Mr.
Gault's sickness and absence from this work and, in his behalf I can no better para-
phrase the assignment than to re-read what it is: "Cooperate with organizations of
818 Cooperative Relations with U niversities
university and college students engaged in study or discussion of engineering or trans-
portation matters and contribute to their activities in such manner as may be mutually
arranged."
The deans of 17 colleges were communicated with, and, as you will note in the
progress report, 14 of them replied. We digested and give you briefly on page 171
the five general headings under which this matter falls in the replies.
This is a progress report. It must be realized by the membership that this com-
mittee, reconstituted only a year ago, must necessarily make its progress with some
deliberation and some care in approaching this very large assignment.
In behalf of the subcommittee and for the committee as a whole, I would like
to say that this cooperation with these universities and colleges may sometimes have
to come solely through railroads with colleges and universities local to those systems.
If those colleges and universities which are local to certain railroad systems do not
receive the cooperation from them, the chance that they will receive it from anybody
else in the railroad field is very remote.
Therefore, although you are not members of this special committee, we urge you
to investigate yourselves what colleges and universities or institutions are local to
your railroad system, and ask you to make a contact with them in such a way as to
indicate that you are cooperatively interested in them, and in the subject of this
assignment.
You must remember that in the progress of this American Railway Engineering
Association, in probably a generation or at least a half generation, the active member-
ship and the active direction and administration of this Association and the railroads
too, will come, not entirely from these men with whom you are going to cooperate
in these colleges and universities, in railroad service, but they will have a very large
representation. So you may be sowing seeds not only for the benefits of the properties
which you represent, and the problems which you may solve in transportation, but
you also may be sowing seeds of interest in which you may raise up the administrators
and workers of this Association who will perpetuate not only the railroad as an instru-
mentality of this nation but will perpetuate the work of this Association (this year
being its forty-second annual meeting). If you were to take the poll now, you would
probably find in this room a very large percentage of men who have had the opportunity
to go to colleges and universities, and, therefore, one generation hence you will find
as much a proportion of those men coming from the institutions, who will carry along
for us.
With that idea from our committee, we therefore impress upon you and ask you
please to review this report with as broad a viewpoint as possible and remember that
you may be the only contact railroad to some institution in this country, because there
may not be any other railroad close to those universities and colleges.
Chairman Howson: That concludes the report of this committee.
Vice-President Bond: Mr. Howson, you and your very able committee are to be
warmly congratulated on the broad lines with which you have begun the study of
continuing and continuous interest, and we are all very much indebted.
It has been brought to my attention that there are about 25 senior engineering
students who are here largely through the instrumentality of the committee now on
the platform. I think I saw most of the engineering students at lunch today, and they
are such a good-looking crowd, I am going to ask them to stand up so that the
convention can also see them. Will the junior members stand up? (Applause)
The committee is excused with the thanks of the Association. (Applause)
Discussion 819
Discussion on Uniform General Contract Forms
(For Report, see pp. 37 43.)
(Vice-President Bond presiding)
Chairman W. G. Nusz (Illinois Central): The committee cannot present its report
to the Association this year without reference to the loss of our fellow committee
member, Past-President James C. Irwin. Mr. Irwin served as vice chairman and chair-
man of this committee, as well as a member from its formation in 1909 to the time of
his death. March 20, 1940. The committee feels deeply the passing of a wise counsel,
always interested in its work and one who endeared himself to all of its members. Both
the committee and the Association have lost a valiant friend whom we will miss
keenly.
The first subject assigned to the committee is Revision of Manual. At the request
of the Electrical Section of the Engineering Division, a subcommittee of Committee 20
has been collaborating with Committee 1- — Power Supply of the Electrical Section in
a comparison of the form of our present agreement for the purchase of electrical
energy, now in the Manual, with a tentative form drawn up by the Committee on
Power Supply. Progress has been made but it is not now deemed desirable to present
it to the convention. The report will probably be made on this subject next year.
The second assignment is: Form of agreement for commercial signs on railway
property. Mr. 0. K. Morgan, chairman of the subcommittee, is absent, and Mr. E. H.
Barnhart will present the report.
E. H. Barnhart (Baltimore and Ohio): The tentative form of this agreement was
submitted at the last convention of the Association. All suggestions received have been
considered, and the committee now presents for adoption the Form of Agreement for
Commercial Signs on Railway Property. If there is no objection, I will read the
subheadings.
Mr. Barnhart: I move the adoption of the Form of Agreement for Commercial
Signs on Railway Property for inclusion in the Manual.
(The motion was seconded, put to a vote and carried.)
Chairman Nusz: The third assignment. Form of lease for air-right development,
has been before the committee a couple of years. No report is made at this time. The
committee has given the subject a great deal of study and has accumulated a number
of documents but it does not seem advisable at this time to present a detailed form for
adoption by the Association.
The fourth assignment. Form of agreement for wire or cable line crossings, collabo-
rating with Committee 3 — Overhead Transmission Line and Catenary Construction,
Electrical Section, was made a year ago. A form of agreement was adopted at the
last convention. I; is reassigned for the purpose of considering revisions which may
be necessary in this form. The committee has nothing to report at this time on this
assignment. Since the last annual convention we have continued negotiations with
the Rural Electrification Authority. Written criticisms have been received, and a redraft
has been made and is being considered.
The form now under consideration, seems to be fairly satisfactory, and it is the
hope that it will be completed in a short time and can be submitted to the convention
next year.
The fifth assignment. Form of agreement for unloading liquelied petroleum and
other gases, will be presented by the sub-chairman, Mr. W. R. Swatosh.
W. R. Swatosh (Erie): Form of agreement for unloading liquefied petroleum and
other gases was prepared about a year ago by a special committee collaborating with
820 Water Service, Fire Protection and Sanitation
the AAR Bureau of Explosives, and the agreement as prepared has the approval of
the Law Department of the AAR and the endorsement of the General Committee of
the Engineering Division.
The agreement is being presented for adoption in the Manual. If there is no objec-
tion, I will read the various subheadings.
(Mr. Swatosh then read paragraph headings one to nine.)
Mr. Swatosh: I move the adoption by the Association for printing in the Manual.
(The motion was seconded.)
W. L. Roller (Chesapeake & Ohio) : Under the second heading. Ownership of
Facilities, should there not be some provision in the form to cover the ownership of
facilities by the unloading concern?
Mr. Swatosh: That was not included in the assignment. The assignment was re-
stricted to the preparation of an agreement to cover ownership of facilities by rail
companies.
(Mr. Swatosh's motion was then put to a vote and carried.)
Chairman Nusz: This concludes the report of Committee 20.
Vice-President Bond: The forms which this committee painstakingly composes from
year to year and presents for inclusion in the Manual are valuable contributions in the
records of our work. I want to thank you, Mr. Nusz. Your committee is now excused
with the thanks of the Association. (Applause)
Discussion on Water Service, Fire Protection and Sanitation
(For Report, see pp. 95-106.)
(Vice-President Bond presiding)
Chairman B. W. DeGeer (Great Northern): The progress report on Subject 1,
Revision of Manual, will be presented by the chairman of the subcomm'ttee, Mr.
E. M. Grime.
E. M. Grime (Northern Pacific) : The committee has but one small change to
submit.
(Mr. Grime then read the report on Assignment 1.)
Mr. Grime: I move the adoption of this change for inclu.sion in the Manual.
(The motion was seconded, put to a vote and carried.)
Chairman DeGeer: The progress report on Subject 2, Cause of and remedy for
pitting and corrosion of locomotive boiler tubes and sheets, with special reference to
status of embrittlement investigations, will be presented by the chairman of the sub-
committee, Mr. R. E. Coughlan.
(R. E. Coughlan, Chicago & North Western, read the first paragraph on assignment
2, on page 96.)
Mr. Coughlan: This report of Dr. Schroeder is directly in line with the informa-
tion obtained by your committee in working with the Bureau of Mines. A brief abstract
of his paper shows that it has now been definitely proven that embrittlement or,
as it is now called, intercrystalline corrosion, is not produced in a boiler by direct
action of the water but by a concentrated solution formed from it in capillary spaces
in rivet seams in a stressed area.
There is no doubt, from the results of the studies up to the present time, that a
boiler constructed to resist embrittlement will need no other protection throughout the
life of such a boiler. Welding of seams, the use of alloy steels and chemical treatment,
control of water supplies, are the three important items under consideration in this
study. Organic inhibitors to prevent intercrystalline corrosion in locomotive boilers already
built have proven of valuable assistance.
Discussion 821
The evidence obtained to date from actual railroad operation indicates that a
combination of good construction and shop practice greatly reduces the possibility of
costly failures from intercrystalline corrosion or cracking.
This report is offered in the line of information.
Chairman DeGeer: Your committee has no report on Subject 3. Value of water
treatment, and 4, Progress being made by federal or state authorities on regulations
pertaining to railway sanitation.
The final report on 5, Cathodic protection for prevention of corrosion of steel
tanks, collaborating with the Electrical Section, Engineering Division, AAR, will be
presented by the subcommittee chairman, Mr. H. E. Silcox.
H. E. Silcox (Chesapeake & Ohio): In the past few years the subject of corrosion
has been widely discussed and various methods have been tried to reduce the deteriora-
tion of steel water tanks. Many methods of preventing corrosion have been found
efficient in their application to the exterior surfaces, but are not proving entirely satis-
factory when applied to the interior surface of the tank shell which is subjected to
corrosive action of water.
Cathodic protection is a recent development in the control of corrosion on the
interior of steel water tanks. The process is based on the principle of an electric cell
in which a continuous current flows in one direction to the steel tank shell which is
protected by a hydrogen film plated on its surface.
In the application, direct electric current is required to provide continuous current
flow. The supply is usually secured from a regular 105-1 20- volt electric lighting circuit
which is connected to a transformer and rectifier changing the power to direct current
at 8 to 27 volts. One or more electrodes of carbon, graphite, stainless steel or other
metals are suspended inside the tank from which the current flows through the water
to the tank shell, depositing an insulating film below the water line, thus excluding
oxygen which is a requisite of corrosion. The electric circuit is completed by a wire
connected to the outside of the tank shell returning to the rectifier.
The cost of installed units ranges from $250 up, depending on area of tank, with
power for operating from 50 cents per month up.
With such installations, it is still necessary to paint the tank shell above the water
line, as protection does not extend to the surface area above the water level. This
type of installation has an advantage, in that it is not necessary to remove the tank
from service for apphcation of the protective coating, as is required in a cleaning and
painting operation.
This report is presented as information.
Chairman DeGeer: The final report on Assignment 6, Effect of lubricating oil
in boilers and methods for correction, will be presented by Mr. R. M. Stimmel in the
absence of the subcommittee chairman, G. E. Durham.
R. M. Stimmel (New York, Chicago & St. Louis) : Condensed steam exhausted
from steam cylinders usually contains lubricating oil. Oil in the feedwater from this
source or from industrial wastes, and so forth, may be detrimental to boilers, depending
on the alkalinity, dissolved solids and floe in the boiler water. Even slightly oily deposits
on boiler heating surfaces have an insulating effect which reduces boiler efficiency. A
discontinuous coating may cause pitting.
Usually the entrance of oil into boiler water can be prevented. In any case,
treatment of water with suitable alkalis and coagulants may be considered an effective
means of correcting boiler troubles due to oil.
The report is submitted as information.
822 Water Service, Fire Protection and Sanitation
Chairman DeGeer: The final report on Assignment 7, Removal of silica from boiler
feedwater, will be presented by Mr. Ray McBrian, chairman of the subcommittee.
Ray McBrian (Denver & Rio Grande Western): Silica in boiler feed water, we
learn, is very undesirable since it may form a hard, dense scale which possesses the
lowest of thermal conductivities. Since the trend is towards locomotives with higher
pressures and to Diesel operations, it is necessary to keep the heating surfaces free
from this type of scale formation, or else there is great danger of overheating. It is
found that there are two fundamental methods which have been used to prevent its
formation.
1. The internal treatment, through suitable physical chemical treatment.
2. The external treatment, which removes the silica before it enters the boiler.
The internal treatments have been found to limit certain types of silica scale
deposits. The typical chemicals which are used are sodium phosphate, iron compounds,
sodium aluminate, and organic compounds such as starches, tannins, lignins, tannic acid,
and the glucosides. The external treatment is more needed, especially with increasing
trends to higher boiler pressures, so as to prevent danger of loss of heat conductivity
by silica scale formation, and it is therefore necessary to remove the silica before it
enters the boiler.
The methods discussed cover the use of ferric sulphate, magnesium compounds,
and aluminum compounds. A description is given of a plant in operation on the
Atlantic Coast Line at Savannah, Ga., where by using sodium aluminate and lime in
an especially designed plant, silica is satisfactorily removed. It is noted that the silica
content of the raw water was 3.8 grains per gallon, and it was reduced to 0.60 grains
per gallon at a cost of $0.0734 per 1,000 gal. of water.
I want to call attention to an error on page 102, paragraph on Internal Treatment.
Line 5 should read .... to precipitate it as a non-adherent sludge .... instead of
.... as a non-adherent scale.
This report is presented as information.
Chairman DeGeer: The report on Assignment 8, The principal current activities
of the Fire Proteciton and Insurance Section, AAR, will be presented by subcommittee
chairman, Mr. G. F. Metzdorf.
(G. F. Metzdorf, New York, Chicago & St. Louis, read the first three paragraphs
on page 106.)
Mr. Metzdorf: There has been a recent change in the names and duties of Com-
mittees 2 and 3 from those shown in the table on page 106. I will read the correct names
of these two committees.
Committee 2 — Protection
Committee 3 — Buildings, Bridges, Piers and Other Structures
(a) Maintenance
(b) Operation
(Mr. Metzdorf then read the balance of the report.)
Chairman DeGeer: Your committee has no report on Subject 9, Use of anti-
foam compounds to reduce road blowing, and no report on Subject 10, Specifications
for welded steel tanks for water service, collaborating with Committee 15 — Iron and
Steel Structures.
This completes the report of Committee 13.
Vice-President Bond: May I congratulate you and your committee for a very
interesting report in all its details. You are now excused with the thanks of the Associa-
tion. (Applause)
Discussion 823
Discussion on Economics of Railway Labor
(Sec Report, see pp. 213-224.)
(Vice-President Bond presiding)
Chairman G. M. O'Rourke (Illinois Central): Committee 22— Economics of Rail-
way Labor reports on four of the ten assigned subjects. The committee reports progress
in study for: 5. Review and revise factors previously established for equating track
values for labor distribution; 6. Labor economies possible though the use of highway
motor vehicles for maintenance forces; 8. Labor economies resulting from periodic spot
welding of rail ends as compared with less frequent out-of-facc welding, and 9. Labor
economies to be derived from keeping vegetation out of ballast.
Subject 2. Analysis of operation of railways that have made marked progress in
the reduction of labor required in maintenance of way work, is one of long standing,
having been reassigned yearly. The report, to be presented by Mr. H. A. Cassil, de-
scribes the methods and effect on the Central of Georgia.
H. A. Cassil (Pere Marquette): The report of the subcommittee relates to the so-
called "flat work" track maintenance, particularly as practiced on the Central of
Georgia Railway. It was made as a result of a trip by a portion of the committee over
that Hne last year. The advantages and disadvantages of the method and the conditions
to which it is adapted are discussed. The conclusions stated in the report are as follows:
(He read the three conclusions on pages 216 and 217.)
Chairman O'Rourke: Subject 3. The relative economy of combined vs. separate
l)ridge and building gangs, was to be presented by Mr. Chumley who was detained in
the South by the beginning of the construction of one of the large defense projects. The
subject will be presented by Mr. Vance. The report he will place before the conven-
tion has been prepared after several years of investigation and study on most of the
railroads of the country and does, we beheve, represent the best practice. Careful
consideration of the conclusions offered for inclusion in the Manual will be appreciated.
W. H. Vance (Missouri Pacific) : As Mr. O'Rourke stated, this subject has been
under consideration for quite some time. In order to determine the prevailing practice,
the committee sent a questionnaire to representative railroads throughout the United
States and Canada. Thirty-eight of the railroads replied, furnishing valuable informa-
tion on this subject. These 38 roads of a combined mileage of approximately 232,202,
with 3,303 miles of steel and masonry bridges, 1,500 miles of timber bridges, with ap-
proximately 80 percent of the buildings and miscellaneous structures of wood. Twenty-
seven of these roads, with 85 percent of the total mileage, 95 percent of the steel and
masonry bridges, and 80 percent of the timber bridges, use combined gangs. Eleven
roads, with 15 percent of the total mileage, 5 percent of the steel and masonry bridges,
and 20 percent of the timber bridges, use so-called separate gangs.
The various railroad maintenance officers set forth the advantages and disadvantages
of the so-called separate gangs. The committee considered all these replies and came
to the following conclusion:
The relative economy of combined or separate gangs for bridge and building work
depends upon the conditions prevailing on individual railroads and, in many cases, on
grand divisions or districts of a single railroad. For railroads in general, with half or
more of their bridges of timber construction and with a large proportion of their
buildings of frame tonstruclion, combiiuil gangs are jjreferable to separate gangs.
We have undertaken to define combined gangs and separate gangs.
(He read the definitions on page 218.)
824 Economics of Railway Labor
Mr. Vance: I neglected to say a moment ago that nearly all of the railroads of
any size do have special gangs for their steel bridge work, and this report has to do
with the ordinary maintenance work rather than the heavy steel work.
The committee recommends that the conclusions be adopted and published in
Chapter 22 of the Manual, following the matter on programming of bridge and building
work, and that the definitions be adopted and published in the Glossary.
I move the adoption of this material.
(The motion was seconded, put to a vote and carried.)
Chairman O'Rourke: Subject 7. Added labor economics resulting from use of
off-track maintenance equipment: The report to be presented by Mr. Armstrong Chinn
is the result of two years' study and contains the most complete information on the
subject available today. It is of growing importance and warrants the serious consid-
eration of every maintenance of way officer.
Armstrong Chinn (Alton) : The gist of the report will be found in the list of
factors at the top of page 222 which, in the opinion of the committee, have brought
about the development and use of off-track equipment, and the list of economies found
at the bottom of page 223 which the committee believes will result from the use of
off-track equipment. I will read these two portions of the report.
(Mr. Chinn read the first paragraph, including subhead paragraphs, on page 222,
and the possible labor economies listed at the bottom of page 223 and concluding on
page 224.)
Mr. Chinn: The report is submitted as information.
Chairman O'Rourke: I unintentionally skipped over the report of a very im-
portant subject, Assignment 4. Labor economies resulting from improvements in drain-
age practices. This assignment, recently given to the Committee on Economics of
Railway Labor, has been handled from a different point of study by the Roadway
committee in the past, and perhaps by others. We have given consideration to the labor
economies resulting from sub-surface drainage. The report will be submitted by Mr.
E. H. Mcllheran.
E. H. Mcllheran (St. Louis Southwestern): The first part of this report of the
subcommittee on this subject states that many reports have previously been made
indicating the necessity for good drainage and the benefits to be derived therefrom,
and shows in what volumes of the Association Proceedings some of this information
may be found.
Questionnaires were sent to 52 railroads to ascertain if possible the monetary
savings in labor resulting from improvements in drainage practices. The figures received
from the 20 railroads that furnished any costs were consolidated and are tabulated
on the bottom of page 219. They show that a very substantial saving in labor has
been secured by installations of the several types of drainage.
At the top of page 220 there is a description of tile drain installed in 1920, accordmg
to AREA recommended practice, on the St. Louis Southwestern Railway a short
distance south of Pine Bluff, Ark., where 8,349 ft. of track was drained at a cost of
$15,162, which resulted in an estimated annual saving in track labor of about $2,620
and improved the track, on which permanent slow orders of 10 or IS miles per hour
had been maintained, so that trains could be safely operated at a speed of 60 miles
per hour.
On the lower part of page 220 there is described a perforated corrugated metal
pipe drain installation on the Illinois Centml Railroad on the Bluford district near
Fulton, Ky., where 4,000 ft. of S-in. perforated corrugated asphalt-coated iron pipe
Discussion 825
was installed at a cost of about $13,000 in a sliding fill to drain water pockets, and
which work has apparently stabilized the fill, resulting in an estimated annual saving
of about $2,250, and the removal of a 466-ft. temporary trestle which had been
maintained for years because of the unstable fill.
(Mr. Mcllheran then read the conclusion on page 221.)
Chairman O'Rourke: Your committee desires to offer as information a special
report on the studies of the subcommittee headed up by the late Robert Faries. The
carriers' Special Committee on Mechanization in the Maintenance of Way Department
presented testimony before the Railroad Carrier Industry Committee in Washington
a year ago. The report shows in detail how advances in hourly rates accelerate the
mechanization of labor operations in maintenance of way. Mr. F. S. Schwinn was a
member of that subcommittee and will present the report.
F. S. Schwinn (Missouri Pacific Lines): This report appears on pages 1 to 25
inclusive of Bulletin 419 (pages 1 to 25 of the monograph section of the Proceedings).
Your attention is directed to an error in the sub-title as the basis of the report was
testimony presented before the Railroad Carrier Industry Committee and not by that
committee. The testimony was presented by the late Robert Faries of Pennsylvania
and was the result of exhaustive studies of the effects of mechanization in maintenance
of way departments of railroads. I was privileged to have the opportunity of being
associated with Mr. Faries when he made these studies, and I therefore greatly
appreciate this opportunity of placing this information before the convention.
Your committee feels that the report contains a large amount of valuable data
in a concise form, and that such data should be of material assistance in meeting
present day conditions and traffic demands. It reflects one of the many outstanding
efforts of Mr. Faries in behalf of the railroad industry.
Chairman O'Rourke: A revision of the Manual was given due consideration,
and no revision was recommended. That concludes the report of Committee 22.
A. A. Miller (Missouri Pacific) : I would like to say before the committee is
excused that, in my opinion, the work that this committee is doing is of such importance,
particularly at this time and possibly in the future, that any assistance that we can
give the members in the way of suggestions or information during the year, I am sure
the chairman and members of the committee would welcome.
To those who have not as yet read the information and suggestions and recom-
mendations made in the bulletins covering this committee's work, I suggest that it
would be well to do so. There is one part of the committee's work that we on the
Missouri Pacific have come in contact with strongly. That feature is the so-called
"flat work" which has been referred to here and covered in a brief report. Several
years ago that thought came out of the South, from the Central of Georgia. It didn't
appeal to me at all at the time, but we took it on. This kind of work is surely effectively
applicable to the so-called light traffic lines, Hght rail lines, or branch lines of doubtful
future.
We undertook some of this work in a test sort of way five or six years ago on
the Missouri Pacific Railroad, and it has grown and grown so that now we have
set it up as program work. I should say that our light traffic lines or lines of doubtful
future (light rail lines), are now 50 percent covered by the flat work process. It is
what might be called line and surface work without the use of very much, if any,
ballast, and is done primarily by section forces and not by extra gangs. It gives some
measure of the work being done in application of man-hours out on these light traffic
lines where, as supervisory officers, we well know wc don't get very often. Wc have
826 Maintenance of Way Work Equipment
been more or less dependent upon asking questions and getting answers, accepting them
but sometimes doubting them with respect to conditions on such lines. But now we
can really have a measure of the application of those man-hours. It would be well in
my opinion for those who have that kind of branch lines to look after, to read the
report of this committee with reference to the so-called "flat work".
Vice-President Bond: This committee is to be congratulated on its very fine work,
and is now excused with the thanks of the Association.
Discussion on Maintenance o£ Way Work Equipment
(For Report, sec pp. 173-212.)
(Vice-President Bond presiding)
Chairman G. R. Westcott (Missouri Pacific): Counting one subject that is divided
and the assignment of Revision of the Manual, Committee 27 had 14 assigned subjects.
We are reporting on seven of them. Of the subjects on which there is no report, I
mention Revision of the Manual, but we are reporting on one small item of Manual
revision in connection with one of the other subjects.
Assignment No. 3 is Lubrication. The report is under way but not ready for this
year. No. 4 is: Self-contained direct-blow gasoline tampers. Owing to lack of develop-
ments in that line we have not found anything warranting a report, but anticipate
developments worthy of report next year.
The other four are as follows:
No. 9 (a) Oxy-acetylene welding: Some progress was made on this but no definite
results were obtained this year. No. 10 is: Automotive equipment used on the rail-
roads. That is a subject that is developing very rapidly, and I think next year we
shall have a report. No. 12 is: Weed burners and extinguisher cars, and No. 13 is:
Safety devices for work equipment. That disposes of one-half of our assignments.
On the other seven subjects we are presenting reports, beginning with subject
No. 2, Standardization of parts and accessories for railway maintenance motor cars.
I will ask Mr. R. K. Johnson to present the report.
(R. K. Johnson, Chesapeake & Ohio, read the report on Assignment 2, page 174.)
Mr. Johnson: I move that Fig. S. — Safety Rails for Light Inspection Motor Car,
shown on page 176, be adopted and pubhshed in the Manual.
(The motion was seconded, put to a vote and carried.)
Chairman Westcott: The next assignment on which we have a report is No. S,
Devices for applying metal preservatives to rail and fastenings. I will ask Mr. Fero
to present the report in the absence of Mr. R. R. Smith, who is chairman of the
subcommittee.
C. L. Fero (Boston & Maine) : This is a rather long report, and I will just skim
over it. You all know the general causes of corrosion to rail and track fastenings, so I
will skip that.
The prevention or control of corrosion is achieved by the simple expedient of
placing a protective coating on the surface of the metal. The most commonly employed
material is an asphalt base oil usually containing 45 to S5 percent asphalt.
Hand application consists of brushing or painting, the use of hand operated one-
man sprayers, and the application of joint packing.
(Mr. Fero then read, beginning with the second paragraph under Hand Operated
Appliances on page 177 and ending with the tenth line on page 180.)
Discussion ^ 827
Mr. Fero: There is available through a manufacturer a self-propelled track oiler
of rather large capacity designed to accomplish all of the oiling on track or roadway.
The machine, consisting of two units, the track oiler and the trailer tank car, is powered
with a 72-hp. gasoline motor for propulsion and the operation of all the mechanical
equipment, such as the air pump, oil pumps, etc.
(Mr. Fero then read the six paragraphs beginning at the top of page 183.)
H. Austin (Terminal Railroad Association of St. Louis) : I would regret very
much to see this subject dropped by the committee. The damage to track by brine
drippings is enormous in this country. This subject is very closely related to that ques-
tion. I believe it should be continued, and the committee should keep up with progress
in the hope of developing some methods of combating the damage caused by brine to
rail bases, spikeheads, tie plates and ground switches.
It may interest the committee that I built a little outfit for spraying the outside
of the track rail, spikeheads and tie plates with regular paint spray equipment, using
a 45 percent asphalt oil. I think you get much better diffusion, much better protection,
than you do by simply applying the oil under pressure. It is hauled by standard motor
cars, covering about 12 miles of track a day. The spray guns are detachable, so that
with sufficient hose one can stop at switches and turnouts in yards to spray them with
the gun, hook it up again and go on down the track.
I will be glad to furnish the committee a plan of that outfit.
Vice-President Bond: The suggestion that this subject be discontinued will be duly
dealt with by the Committee on Outline of Work.
Chairman Westcott: May I make a remark about that particular thing. This
committee is unique in this respect: Our function is to discuss those things that are
available for a given purpose. We are not permitted to discuss their economic features,
particularly. We can tell what they are and what they do and what we hope to get
from them, but we do not design them. We did not know about Mr. Austin's paint
sprayer; we are glad to know about it. But it seemed to the committee in this par-
ticular instance that we had covered the ground, as the situation now stands, pretty
thoroughly, and that it would perhaps be better to discontinue the subject for a year
or two until someone had devised something better than what we now have. That is
not in the way of argument at all but just an explanation as to the view of the
committee.
Subject No. 6 on this assignment is Methods of keeping data on work equipment.
This subject has been before the committee quite a number of years. In the last two
or three years we have tried to clear it up, and we hope this year we have cleared
it up. Mr. N. W. Hutchison will present the report.
N. W. Hutchison (Chesapeake & Ohio): Although there are probably as many
methods of keeping data on work equipment as there are railroads, it is generally agreed
that data of some description should be secured for the following purposes, regardless
of the methods followed:
(He read items 1 to 8 on pages 183 and 184.)
Mr. Hutchison: Study of the assigned subject thoroughly indicates that standardiza-
tion of methods for keeping data on work equipment is difficult, if not impossible.
Standardization of forms for the purpose, however, is not only practical but desirable.
With this in mind, your committee has submitted a series of illustrative forms which
we believe, while not specifically adaptable in each case, will provide for better control
of work equipment.
828 Maintenance of Way Work Equipment
These forms, the use of which is briefly described and on which illustrative but
fictitious data are inserted, are shown on pages 185 to 194, inclusive. This report is
presented as information, with the recommendation that the subject be discontinued.
Chairman Westcott: Assignment 7 is: Pneumatic tired tractor equipment. Mr. R. M.
Leeds will present the report.
R. M. Leeds (Louisville & Nashville) : The report of your subcommittee outhnes
the uses of pneumatic tired equipment as applied to the railroads, the reasons therefor
and the needs for further development. Concerted action by the railroads and manu-
facturers is suggested in order to develop more units suitable for railroad service.
The committee did not confine itself entirely to tractors, as will be shown by some
of the illustrations in the report, as it was thought that it would be well to show some
more of the diversified uses to which pneumatic tired equipment could be put. Continua-
tion of the subject is recommended by the committee.
Chairman Westcott: Assignment 8 is: Impact wrenches, something that we all have
heard of and, I guess as a general rule, do not know very much about. Mr. R. A.
Morrison will present the report.
Mr. R. A. Morrison (Pere Marquette): This report is a simple description of two
types of wrenches that are now on the market and in use by the maintenance of way
department. One is the spring and cam type and the other is a power vane wrench.
One type is shown on page 199, and the other on page 200. I might add that this
impact wrench is used more extensively by the mechanical department in the repairs
of locomotives and cars than possibly in the maintenance of way department. Any one
who has not seen them in operation or who is not familiar with them can get good
information on their operation and use if he will investigate the repair shops of his
road. The mechanical departments use a much larger wrench than we do. It was
possibly because of the use and development of this larger wrench that enough progress
was made to bring forth a much lighter tool for the maintenance department. The big
improvement in the modern wrench is the small recoil action that permits its use in
overhead work, with less scaffolding.
This report is submitted as information, and it is recommended that the subject be
discontinued.
Chairman Westcott: For several years we have had assigned to us the subject of
equipment for track welding, both oxy-acetylene and arc welding. This year, on the
second half of that assignment, which is No. 9 (b), Mr. Morgan, chairman of the
subcommittee, will present a discussion of mountings for arc welding machines.
C. E. Morgan (Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul & Pacific) : The report this year on
arc welding equipment is confined strictly to the mounting of machines for mainte-
nance work. We have not tried to cover in any way a description of the process or
how the arc welding work is done. Because of interest in the manner in which arc
welding machines may be adapted to suit the users' purpose, illustrations of each of
many types in use today are presented in the hope that they may help someone to
solve his particular problem. Believing we can learn a little faster through using pictures
than by reading detailed information, we have included practically every kind of a
mounting in which an arc welding machine is used either in smaller or in more
extensive numbers. There are a few of these which are quite rare but which are so
effective in their application that we feel our responsibility in calling them to your
attention.
On page 201, Fig. 1 shows the standard skid-mounted machine which has been
placed on track wheels, so that it may be moved readily from one place to another.
Discussion 829
Fig. 2 shows a truck-mounted welding generator, in which the welding machine gets
the power from the truck engine through a power take-off.
At the bottom of page 201, Fig. 3, is the pneumatic-tired wheel-mounted machine,
the one that we would ordinarily speak of as almost universal among the various con-
tractors in building work, and in a great many cases in bridge repair and work that
requires it to be towed around by trucks.
On page 202, Figs. 4 and 5 show two views of a machine. Fig. 4 showing it on
the track, and Fig. 5, the same machine, after it has been moved to the position over
the shoulder where it clears the track.
On page 203, Fig. 6, illustrates an ingenious arrangement whereby a machine,
which can be towed around on pneumatic wheels, may also be placed on an under-
slung push car for movement on tracks. Fig. 7 shows the push car with the apron down,
to illustrate how this machine is quickly loaded for moving.
Fig. 8 illustrates a means for meeting the problem of traffic density that does not
permit machines to occupy the track at any time, in which case the welding machine
must remain in the ditch or along the bank. Here we have a crawler mounted machine
that is made narrow for this purpose. The end view is illustrated in Fig. 9.
Turning to page 204, we recognize the front end of a crawler tractor. Crawler
tractors have been used quite extensively in handling arc welding work where either a
small tractor with one arc mounted on it, or the larger machine with two arcs on it,
is employed. These units, of course, are self-propelling off the track, and the only
place where it is necessary for them to occupy the track is where they cross bridges or
trestles.
Fig. 11 shows another mounting with which a machine can be operated on the
track and which also embodies a series of telescoping pipes to connect to a stand
with adjustable legs which are set up as shown in Fig. 12 for moving the machine
horizontally into the clear. Fig. 13 shows the same machine in its place out on the
ballast shoulder.
It is contended by many that the use to which welding is put in the maintenance
work depends on the mobility of the equipment associated with it. To this end, the
mountings described have been designed for a broad field of application.
This report is submitted as information, and it is recommended that the subject
be discontinued.
Vice-President Bond: I agree with Mr. Morgan that these photographs are very
helpful in explaining the subject of his paper. A great deal depends upon the clarity
of the photographs, and on some of them the subcommittee is to be commended —
I am afraid I can only say on some — but they are very helpful. It is a very complete
report. I don't think the subject can be considered as concluded.
Chairman Westcott: One other assignment. No. 11, on our docket is: Off-track
grading equipment. Mr. A. J. Neff will present the report.
A. J. Neff (Denver & Rio Grande Western): The present tendency of railroads
to replace expensive on-track equipment with the latest off-track machines indicates
that greater advantages are being found in the use of crawler machines.
In this report are illustrated crawler tractors with various types of blade, front-
end loaders, carryalls, scrapers, shovels and draglines. Mention is made of the different
types of work they can perform. Three examples of typical application of this type of
equipment are also given.
Members engaged on this assignment have concluded that the use of off-track
grading equipment will expedite work, minimize traffic delays, perform work impossible
to perform with on-track equipment, and effect gratifying returns on investment costs.
8.^0 Wood Preservation
This report has been prrscntod as information, and it is recommended that the
subject be discontinued.
Chairman Westcott: I was a bit surprised that our president did not call attention
to the fact that we also requested this assignment be discontinued. I would like to
make one other comment on this feature. Committee 27 is made up of men who are
good soldiers. If the Committee on Outline of Work says we shall continue a subject,
we will do the best we can with what material is available. If they see eye to eye
with us that, for the present at least, there is not available material on which to work
and for a year or so discontinue the subject, we will be gratified. In either case, we will
do the best that we can.
This concludes the report of Committee 27.
Vice-President Bond: We are very much obliged to you for the very able and
extensive series of reports which you submitted, and your committee is relieved with
the thanks of the Association for your very valuable work and contribution. (Applause)
Discussion on Wood Preservation
(For Report, see pp. 489-514.)
(Vice-President Bond presiding)
Chairman H. R. Duncan (Chicago, Burlington & Quincy): The subcommittees
assigned to Subjects 1, 4, 6, 7, 8 and 9 have made considerable progress and study
of their subjects during the past year but have no reports completed to present at
this time.
Subject 2, Service test records for treated ties, is the usual progress report of tests
on various railroads, revised to include the latest available figures on five roads. The
report also includes special reports on test tracks on a number of railroads. Each year
this particular committee report becomes of more and more value. It gives definite
records on what life is being secured throughout the country where traffic and climatic
conditions are different and where various species and methods of wood preservation
or wood preservatives have been used. The report is submitted as information.
Subject 3, Piling used for marine construction, covers the inspection of long-time
test pieces of piUng in the Canal Zone and other localities under observation. For a
number of years Colonel Atwood has served as chairman of this subcommittee and,
due to his intimate contact with work of this character and close association with
various army and navy officers carrying on research work of this kind, he has been
able to bring to this Association a considerable amount of data that, in our opinion,
are most valuable.
Colonel Atwood has recently advised us that he has resigned from the Association,
and a new chairman will be assigned to this subcommittee, but he has also assured
us that, although he will no longer be a member of our Association, he will continue
to work with the committee, and we will be able to maintain a contract with the army
and navy as we have heretofore. This will insure that we will secure further reports of
the same character.
The report is submitted as information.
Subject 5, Destruction by termites and possible ways of prevention: This report
will be submitted by the subcommittee chairman, Dr. von Schrenk.
Hermann von Schrenk (St. Louis, Mo.): This committee has little to report. The
information in the report is all we have this year. The main thing about the termite
Discussion 831
situation is that it is worse instead of getting better. While I am not an alarmist,
it seems to me they are rapidly getting the best of the human race.
I was in Texas for a little while and had a very interesting visit to several of
the new army posts that are being constructed there, involving hundreds and hundreds
of new buildings. I was very much interested to note with what great efficiency the
U. S. Engineer Corps and the Architectural Department of the army are following the
specifications which have been drawn up and which our Association has in the Manual
for the prevention of termites, particularly the shield construction.
If there is one thing we are emphasizing this year it is that, wherever buildings
are put up, shield construction be used, and that you not be scared off by all sorts
of reports, which are increasing in number from time to time that the shields are no
good. Several cases have been reported in which it was claimed the shields did not
work. The reasons were obvious because the joints were not soldered; they weren't
gripped, so the termites could readily get in behind the adjoining ends.
Chairman Duncan: One of the interesting characteristics of the Doctor is that
he doesn't have any report but he continues to bring us new and valuable information
each time he is on the floor.
That concludes our report.
Vice-President Bond: We thank Mr. Duncan for his very good report and for
the able assistance which he has had from his committee. You are now excused with
the thanks of the Association. (Applause)
Discussion on Roadway and Ballast
(For Report, see pp. S39-S74.)
(Vice-President Bond presiding)
Chairman A. E. Botts (Chesapeake & Ohio): We have 11 subjects subdivided
into 23 assignments, of which we are reporting on 14. Our first assignment, Physical
properties of earth materials will be held for presentation between four and five
o'clock, at which time Mr. Herbert Ensz, in the absence of Mr. Legro, the chairman,
will present the subject, and he has a few slides he will use in connection therewith.*
Our second assignment. Size of waterway openings, formulas, will be presented by
Mr. Rose, chairman of the subcommittee.
L. S. Rose (Erie) : With the exception of two corrections in the formulas found
on page 544, which were called to your attention at the last convention and a few
minor changes made since, this report is the same as that submitted a year ago as infor-
mation. It is now submitted for publication in the Manual. As the report is not
subdivided under headings, unless there are objections, I shall read only the conclusion
found on page 546.
(He read the five lines under the heading Conclusions.)
Mr. Rose: This report is now offered for publication in the Manual, and I so move.
(The motion was seconded, put to a vote and carried.)
Chairman Botts: Our third and fourth assignments. Specifications for vitrified clay
culverts and Specifications for pipe line crossings carrying non-inflammable substances
under pressure, will be presented by Mr. Swartout, chairman of the subcommittee.
W. C. Swartout (Missouri Pacific) : As you recall, last year we presented as infor-
mation a complete specification for triple strength clay culvert pipe as distinguished
• At the close of the afternoon session, Mr. Ensz gave a 30-min. talk on various phases of soil
mechanics which he illustrated with lantern slides. His remarks were received without comment.
832 Roadway and Ballast
from sewer pipe. It was with the firm expectation that this year we would offer that
specification for publication and inclusion in the Manual, but we regret very much
that we find it undesirable to do this, for the following reasons:
1. The strength of any rigid culvert pipe is usually expressed as a factor of the
horizontal diameter in feet per hneal foot of pipe. In Table 1 of the specification,
this factor is 2,000. During the last month, we have learned that the Federal Speci-
fications Executive Committee has been working on a proposed federal specification
for clay sewer pipe including culvert pipe and proposes to use for acceptable crushing
strength for extra strong vitrified clay culvert pipe a factor of 2,200. That is a 10
percent increase. This federal committee specification, when approved, will govern
and no doubt will be used on all federal purchases by departments, agencies and indi-
viduals buying for the government and for government aid projects.
This change affects the most important single requirement in a rigid culvert pipe
specification, that is, strength. Inasmuch as the Public Roads Administration will
undoubtedly use the federal specification, we can see that, as the choice of what is
probably the largest single consumer, that specification will undoubtedly govern the
industry.
The strength requirement for railroad use is unquestionably higher than for
street or highway use, due to loading and impact. Therefore, the strength factor in
the AREA specification should be at least as high as any other.
The industry, speaking through the Clay Products Association, I understand is
not averse to this higher crushing strength, and the question of putting the smaller
producers out of business does not enter into the matter, especially in view of the fact
that this so-called extra strong or triple strength clay pipe is a new product and not
as yet widely produced.
2. The federal specification now being discussed also tightens up a little on some
of the tolerances.
3. We also find that, by rearrangement. Tables 1, 2 and 3 as presented and now
before you can be combined in one table, which will be far simpler and easier of
understanding by the inspector for any purchaser, which will in itself be highly
desirable. If you doubt that statement, just take the dimensions in Table 2 and try to
apply the tolerances as set out in Table 3. Unless you have better luck than Mr. Botts
and I had with some of them, you will be quite confused.
This new table eliminates all the arithmetic which the inspector has to apply. It
simply sets before him the dimensions for each diameter of pipe that are acceptable
and those which are outside of the specification.
For the above reasons and the further fact that we feel that any specification
issued by our Association should be as nearly perfect and complete as we can make it,
the committee desires to retain jurisdiction over this subject for another year for the
purpose of making these essential revisions. In making this request, we feel that we
are pursuing the proper course and are not putting something in the Manual that in
a year or two will have to be revised at considerable expense to the Association.
In 1933 the Association adopted specifications for pipe line crossings under railway
tracks. These were inclusive specifications for pipe lines carrying all substances and
were worked out in collaboration with Committee 20 of this Association and the
American Petroleum Institute after a protracted series of conferences.
These specifications have been found to be very satisfactory except that they
are too rigid for pipe lines carrying non-inflammable substances. The Committee on
Outline of Work therefore gave us the job of preparing a new specification for that
class of crossing.
..^ Discussion 833
We found, however, that the scope of the specification now in the Manual will
have to be revised before we can present a specification for non-inflammable substances.
Therefore, calling attention to page 556, we desire to move for adoption in the
Manual the change indicated at the middle of the page. The present form for the
specification for pipe Unes carrying inflammable substances reads as follows:
"Pipe lines included under these specifications are those installed to carry oil, gas,
gasoline or other inflammable or highly volatile substance, under pressure, [now I
want to call your particular attention to this clause] or any substance which from its
nature or pressure might cause damage if escaping on or in vicinity of railway property.
Gas transmission and distribution lines in city streets, carrying less than 45 pounds
pressure, are not to be considered as coming under these specifications."
That clause to which I called your attention must be deleted from the specification
now in the Manual so that it will read:
"Pipe lines included under these specifications are those installed to carry oil,
gas, gasoUne or other inflammable or highly volatile substance, under pressure. Gas
transmission and distribution lines in city streets, carrying less than 45 pounds pressure,
are not to be considered as coming under these specifications."
The specification for oil pipe line crossings does not have the paragraphs numbered
nor is the subject matter in any way outlined. Therefore, it is further recommended
that to save time in the use of this specification that each paragraph be given headings
as shown in the skeleton form as printed. There has been not the slightest change in
the specification itself for the obvious reason that, if we did that, it would again be
necessary to go to the American Petroleum Institute for approval. This addition of
headings is simply to make the specification easier to use.
I move that the changes in the present specification for pipe line crossings carrying
inflammable substances be revised as I have read.
(The motion was seconded, put to a vote and carried.)
Mr. Swartout: The specification for non-inflammable substances beginning on page
557 is offered this year as information so that the members will have the specification
before them for a year and during that time can give the committee any suggestions
or criticisms or additions which they may think desirable. It is our intention to submit
it next year for inclusion in the Manual.
Chairman Botts: The fifth and sixth assignment? of thi^ committee are Roadway:
Settlement, shrinkage, subsidence, and Placing material in embankments, which will be
presented by Mr. Chipman, chairman of the subcommittee.
Paul Chipman (Pere Marquette) : This report covers two assignments. Assignment
4 (a) involves a revision of material in the Manual relating to shrinkage and subsidence.
(Mr. Chipman read the first paragraph on page 559.)
Mr. Chipman: The present form in the Manual is shown in italics on page 559.
The proposed form is shown on page 560. The subjects of shrinkage and sub.sidence
are considered separately.
(He then read the paragraph headings on page 560.)
Mr. Chipman: Under Subsidence the conclusions are those presented last year
as information. I would like to call attention to an error in printing. Under S (a) the
first word should be "settling" instead of "setting."
I move that this revision of the Manual be made.
(The motion was put to a vote and carried.)
Mr. Chipman: Assignment 4 (b) deals with artificial compaction of embankments.
Until recent years we have depended upon Nature to complete the solidification of
834 Roadway and Ballast
fills, but highway engineers concluded that Nature is too slow and have very generally
adopted methods of compaction by rolling and sprinkling that were primarily developed
for earth dams and reservoir walls. Th.s report discusses the applicability of such
methods to railroad work.
Their justification on railroads depends largely on the nature and extent of the
traffic. Under heavy or fast traffic, surfacing to take up settlement must be done more
frequently and at greater cost than if traffic is light or slow. Where the new fill is to
carry fast or heavy traffic from the start, as in the case of a change of line, special
compaction may well be justified. It is useful for detour tracks around grade separation
projects, where a part of the track is on an old fill and part on the new one, especially
if reduction of speed must be minimized.
That portion of the report ending with and including the bibliography at the top
of page 564 is submitted as information.
Provision for sprinkling or rolling or both, in cases where such treatment is desirable,
calls for the revision of Sections 33 and 34 of the Specifications for the Formation of
the Roadway. The committee recommends that present Sections 3i and 34 be with-
drawn and that they be replaced by new Sections 33 and 34. The present form of
Section 33 is shown in italics on page 564 and the proposed form just below it.
Present Section 34 in regard to Rolling is shown at the bottom of page 564. Pro-
posed form of Section 34 is headed Moisture Content, Rolling. It provides for com-
pacting fills by methods which are in very general use in building highways. Our
specifications have not heretofore provided for such treatment.
I move that the Manual be revised as recommended.
(The motion was seconded, put to a vote and carried.)
(Vice-President Clarke assumed the chair.)
Chairman Botts: The seventh assignment of this committee is tunnel lighting. In
the absence of the subcommittee chairman, Mr. Moore, I will attempt to present the
subject.
(Chairman Botts read the first four paragraphs found at the bottom of page 565.)
Chairman Botts: I recommend and move that the material under 704. Lighting,
at the top of page 566 be adopted for inclusion in the Manual.
(The motion was seconded, put to a vote and carried.)
Chairman Botts: Our eighth, ninth and tenth assignments are: Corrosion-resisting
fence wire. Wood fence posts, and Electrified fences, and will be presented by Mr.
Hillman in the absence of Mr. Jones, the chairman.
F. W. Hillman (Chicago & North Western): Your committee is collaborating with
and receiving reports of the exposure tests of farm field fence, unfabricated wire,
wire strand, barbed wire and chain link fencing of ASTM Committee A-5 on Corrosion
of Iron and Steel. The first report of this committee is published in the ASTM Pro-
ceedings for 1939, Vol. 42, page 156. It indicates the trends as shown in the sub-
committee's report which is offered as information.
Wood Fence Posts, Specifications: This committee has collected a number of
specifications for wood fence posts now in use, and after a thorough study of these,
offers the following specifications as information and invites comments and criticisms
prior to offering them for inclusion in the Manual at the 1942 convention.
Electrified Fences: This committee has collaborated with Committee 3— Overhead
Transmission Line and Catenary Construction of the Electrical Section, Engineering
Division, AAR. The report of the subcommittee includes method of construction,
securing power, and reference to certain codes that it has been able to find. It quotes
Discussion _^ R3S
from the General Orders ot the Industrial Commission of Wisconsin which seem to he
the most complete that we have found so far.
Electric fences are increasing in use for farm fencing. Their application to right-
of-way would require determination in each state as to meet the requirements for
legal right-of-way fence. Policing is necessary to keep vegetation cleared as a possible
cause of short circuits. This type of fencing along the right-of-way would lend itself to
claims for injury to persons and to stock.
The committee is of the opinion that the electric fence is not suitable for general
use as a right-of-way fence.
The report is submitted as information.
Chairman Botts: The eleventh assignment of this committee is: Design of signs.
It will be presented by Mr. Drumeller, chairman of the subcommittee.
L. J. Drumeller (Chesapeake & Ohio): As may be noted from the report, the
committee has prepared a tabulation of answers received from the questionnaire mailed
to a number of roads showing the various types of signs appearing in Manual pages 1-87
and 1-88 under the heading "901. Roadway Signs Required."
Due to the great diversity of signs now in use on the various roads, your committee
is of the opinion it would be impractical to develop a recommended design for road-
way signs. We believe, however, that individual roads could effect some economies by
the reduction in the number of shapes of signs, as suggested in the third paragraph
of this report. This report is offered as information.
Chairman Botts: The twelfth and thirteenth assignments of this committee are
Ballast section design and Adherence to stone specifications, particularly as pertaining
to size. The reports thereon will be presented by Mr. Kennedy, the chairman of the
subcommittee.
A. D. Kennedy (Atchison, Topeka & Sante Fe) : The ballast sections that this com-
mittee is offering for adoption this year are along similar lines to the sections now in
the Manual. They are for materials under 20 percent crushed and for pit run gravel.
They are designed for curves of over three-inch elevation. I move that these sections
be adopted for printing in the Manual.
(The motion was seconded, put to a vote and carried.)
Mr. Kennedy: This committee also reports on the subject. Adherence to stone
ballast specifications, particularly size. In the first place I want to call your attention
to an error at the top of page 574, second line. The dimension "J/o-in." should be
"^-in." to agree with that in the table.
From the replies to the questionnaire that is printed on pages 572 and 573, the com-
mittee learned that 53 percent of the roads using stone ballast adhere to the AREA
specifications as to size. In the replies, 60 percent of them indicated that they wanted
a gradation of smaller size than is now shown in the Manual or in those specifications.
For that reason, and primarily to conform with the Bureau of Standards Simplified
Practice Recommendation R 163-39. the committee recommends that Table 1 showing
the gradation now shown in the specification be withdrawn and replaced with Table 2
shown right below it on page 573. The only difference between the two tables is merely
in the matter of designation and arrangement, and you will note that we add size
No. 57 as indicated in the replies to the questionnaire. I move that this change be made.
(The motion was seconded, put to a vote and carried.)
Chairman Botts: The next assignment is Investigate the use of asphalt in ballast.
Mr. Podmore has a brief progress report.
(J. M. Podmore. New York Central, rearl the report on assignment 10 (c) found
on pages 571 and 572.)
836 Track
Mr. Podmore: I might say that the test section has gone through two winters,
and there has been no heaving of track either winter, and the track at either end of
this test section has heaved. The track is fully tie-plated. In order to bring the track
down at the end of the test section, it was necessary to take off the tie plates. It has
stood up better, I think, this winter than it did last. This is due to the fact, I believe,
that we did a little work on it last summer. It is showing very good results.
Chairman Botts: For our final assignment. Revision of Manual, we have nothing
to offer other than what has already been presented. This concludes the report of this
committee.
Vice-President Clarke: If there is no further discussion, the committee will be
excused with the thanks of the Association. (Applause)
Discussion on Track
(For Report, see pp. 575-638.)
(Vice-President H. R. Clarke presiding.)
Chairman W. G. Am (Illinois Central): The first assignment is Revision of Manual.
Several of the reports which will be submitted by the respective subcommittee chairman
contain revisions of the Manual incident to the work of those subcommittees this year.
In addition, there are several items of revision of the Manual handled by the sub-
committee assigned to that subject. Mr. Zeeman, chairman of that subcommittee, will
submit the report.
M. J. T. Zeeman (Atchison, Topeka & Sante Fe) : The first revision is a little
change in the language in one of the notes in the tie plate specification which pertains
to the question of how much overweight will be paid for. We recommend that the
present paragraph shown as 401 (e) be deleted and in lieu thereof the following
paragraph be inserted:
(e) Tie plates shall be paid for on the basis of actual weight as applied to the
entire order, except that payment shall not be made for any weight in excess of three
percent over the weight calculated from the specified dimensions.
There is no change in the intent. The object is to clarify the meaning. I move
the adoption of this change.
(The motion was seconded, put to a vote and carried.)
Mr. Zeeman: The change just approved was in the specifications for soft and
medium grade of steel tie plates. It is suggested the same paragraph be inserted in
the hot worked high carbon specification on page S-14.2, paragraph 401 (f) in the
Manual, in lieu of the one that is there now. I so move.
(The motion was seconded, put to a vote and carried.)
Mr. Zeeman: The next revision your committee submits is in the design of the
track spike on page 5-16.2. The only change recommended is a slight decrease in the
size of the head which is now shown as 1^ in. square, which it is suggested be reduced
to 1t% in., conforming to the other 5^-in spike in the Manual, which we are not now
considering. The reason for the suggested change is that the manufacturers have found
difficulty in correctly forming the head of the spike as it is now shown in the Manual.
Another reason is that certain railroads object if the specified tolerance now allowed all
falls at the toe end of the spike.
Your committee recommends the adoption of the design submitted in lieu of the
design now in the Manual. I so move.
(The motion was seconded, put to a vote and carried.)
Discussion 83 7
Mr. Zeeman: The next revision submitted is on page 5-34 of the Manual where
a tabulation is shown giving the permissible speed through turnouts. This table is based
on the use of straight switch points. In view of the fact that the ARE.\ now has
recommended practices for curved switch points as well as straight switch points, and
in view of the fact that some of the lengths now shown in the Manual do not conform
to standard recommended switch point lengths in the Manual, your committee recom-
mends the deletion of the present text in the Manual and, in lieu thereof, the adoption
of two paragraphs and the two tables giving the permissible speed through turnouts,
one, turnouts with straight switch points of standard AREA lengths, and another
table showing the permissible speed in miles per hour for turnouts with curved switch
points. The committee also recommends the deletion of Fig. 511. — Speed of Trains
Through Level Turnouts now in the Manual on page 5-35. I move these adoptions be
approved.
(The motion was seconded, put to a vote and carried.)
Mr. Zeeman: The next revision submitted to this convention is on the subject of
tamping. The matter on tamping appearing on page 5-45 was adopted in 1905, and is
quite inadequate for the present day, in view of the changes in practice since that time.
The present Manual specifies a certain distance for tamping inside and outside of the
tie. Since this rule was adopted in 1905, it is quite evident that it was based on the
use of eight-foot ties. As there is practically IS in. from the outside edge of the base of
a 112-lb. rail to the end of an 8-ft. tie, it follows that in order to secure uniform
bearing it would be necessary to specify tamping for a distance of 15 in. inside the tie.
However, Dr. Talbot, in reports of the Special Committee on Stresses in Railroad
Track, has stated that some distance, possibly three, four or maybe five inches from
the end of the tie is ineffective for bearing purposes. We feel that some consideration
should be given to this. If 15 in. is correct for an 8-ft. tie, when a road goes to 9-ft.
ties, to get the increased bearing area, an equal amount should be added for tamping
on the inside of the rail in order to get uniform bearing.
There seems to be quite a difference of opinion on this subject. However, your
committee recommends the deletion of the present text on tamping which is now
shown on page 5-45 and in lieu thereof adopt the text shown on page 579 as a substitute
for the present text. I so move.
(The motion was seconded, put to a vote and carried.)
Mr. Zeeman: The last recommended revision is a little insertion on the page con-
taining the Table of Contents, in order to show clearly where the data for gages and
flangeways can be found. It comprises a reference to the Portfolio of Trackwork Plans.
I so move.
(The motion was seconded, put to a vote and carried.)
Chairman Am: The next assignment of this committee is Fastenings for continuous
welded rail. Mr. Magee is chairman of this subcommittee and will submit a progress
report.
G. M. Magee (Association of .'\merican Railroads): The most important phase
of the work on this assignment has been to inspect and report on the service perform-
ance of installations of continuous welded rail with various types of fastenings. Four
different test installations with four different types of fastenings are included in this
year's report. I am sure you will be interested in knowing there has been nothing in
the service performance to date to indicate the continuous welded rail is not a practical
development, if properly secured to the ties. Broken rails have been reported in this
and previous reports, and the method by which these have been corrected is of general
interest.
838 Track
The committee was also instructed to present a recommended design of screw spike
to secure the tic plate to the tie independently of the rail fastening. There does not
seem to be at this time a trend toward increasing the use of screw spikes for this
purpose.
A description and discussion of the relative advantages and disadvantages of two
kinds of screw spikes which have been used for this purpose are presented as a matter
of information. If you are interested in the use of screw spikes for this purpose, this
information will be of value to you.
Chairman Arn: The next assignment is a subject on which we have been working
for several years and have submitted plans from time to time. We now have further
plans to submit. The subject is: Plans and .specifications for track tools and recom-
mended limits of wear. Mr. Roller, chairman of this subcommittee, will submit the
report.
W. L. Roller (Chesapeake & Ohio): Plan No. 7 — Tie Tongs, which appears in the
Manual on page 5-57, Fig. 519: These tongs were found to be too light and we are
offering a substitute in a heavier design to overcome the fault in this tool and to
present a design that will hold the rivet better. I move the adoption of Plan No. 7-41.
(The motion was seconded, put to a vote and carried.)
Mr. Roller: Plan 27-40 in the Manual, has been revised as Plan No. 27-41 —
Track Level, as to a few dimensions which were overlooked in the original publication.
I move the adoption of this revision.
(The motion was seconded, put to a vote and carried.)
Mr. Roller: Last year the committee offered as information Plan No. 20A-40 as
an alternate to the pipe-connected gage in the form of a wood connected gage. We arc
offering this same plan for adoption this year, with slight revisions.
I so move.
(The motion was seconded, put to a vote and carried.)
Mr. Roller: As Chairman Arn has said, this committee has been assigned a new
subject: Recommended limits of wear of track tools. Considerable discussion arose as
to just who was to be the judge of the amount of wear on the track tools before they
were scrapped. The conclusion was reached that, since this subject was offered by the
Purchases and Stores Division for the matter of reclamation, the plan should be so
devised as to set limits of wear to which a tool could be worn before it was scrapped.
Certain requisites were set up, and I will read the part of our report found on page 587:
It was assumed in pursuing the study of limits of wear for track tools, that a
definite recommendation is desired for each particular tool which would indicate the
minimum limit of reclaimed tools. Only tools which are otherwise sound and service-
able without flaw or physical defect should be considered for reclamation and the
minimum recommended sizes of reclaimed tools are indicated in dashed hnes on original
plans.
You will find these plans on pages 588 to 594, showing in dashed lines the com-
mittee's recommendation as to limits of wear.
(Mr. Roller then read the fourth, fifth and sixth paragraphs under Recommended
Limits of Wear of Track Tools on page 587.)
Mr. Roller: Then follows a description of the manner of reclaiming. There is one
phase of this report to which we want to pay particular emphasis. The committee
has construed the subject to mean that no additional material will be applied to bring
the tool to a desired contour or to restore it to its original shape.
This report is one of information, and the committee recommends its continued
study. We also wish to recommend, in closing, that the assignment in general be continued
Discussion 83Q
as we wish to continue the study of specifications of hickory handles and ash handles
for tools.
Chairman Arn: As you are aware, this committee has been endeavoring to do a
complete overhauling of the Manual of Trackwork Plans. This has been quite an
extensive job and has been under way now for two years. We are submitting the
second group of plans for your approval. Mr. Caruthers, chairman of the subcommittee,
will submit this report.
E. W. Caruthers (Pennsylvania): At the last convention the Association adopted
a number of plans that were presented by the committee as key plans. We reviewed
and selected certain plans that were considered more or less of a key nature, based
on the adoption by the Association, of these plans. Work has been continued on the
balance of the plans, and we now wish to present for adoption a series of plans covering
the various items of trackwork.
(Mr. Caruthers then offered a series of motions submitting for adoption and
publication in the Manual of all of the plans with a suffix " — 41" that are listed on pages
596 to 600, inclusive. All of the motions were seconded, put to a vote and carried.)
Mr. Caruthers: A number of plans are listed that will be revised and reissued,
but the revisions are not material, and it was not thought that it would be necessary
to offer these plans for any action by the Association.
In view of the adoption of the plans that have been presented, there is a group
of plans starting about the middle of page 600 which may now be withdrawn, and
I move the withdrawal of the plans as listed, starting on page 600 and continuing
through to page 605.
(The motion was seconded, put to a vote and carried.)
Chairman .\rn: The next subject assigned to the committee is Corrosion of rail and
fastenings in tunnels. Mr. Perlman, the chairman of this subcommittee, will submit the
report.
A. E. Perlman (Denver & Rio Grande Western): In 1938 a study was begun on
this subject using the Moffat tunnel for a testing ground and using the D. & R. G. W.
laboratory facilities to help in these tests.
Heavy Mallet steam power is used through the Moffat tunnel, which is 6.21 miles
long, and there are as many as 34 train movements a day through the tunnel. The
problem came about through the formation of sulfurous acid gases which attack the
metal, especially where metal touches metal. The shanks of spikes were eaten out to
within 50 percent of the cross-section, and where angle bars touched bolts or where
angle bars touched rail, the problem was greatly aggravated.
As a result, several methods were tried in an attempt to overcome this difficulty.
About 1,000 test pieces with protective coatings of a non-metallic nature were used.
A number of corrosion-resistant alloys were used, and sprayed metal plates and cathodic
protection were attempted, and also the neutralization of the stack gases through the
use of lime in the locomotives.
.\s pointed out, starting on page 605, the committee found no practical, or economical
means of employing a corrosion-resistant alloy, because the materials tested depend
upon a protecting film of corrosion products for their resistance and this protecting
film naturally cannot be maintained on the running surface of the rail.
Then there are a number of other conclusions, namely, that while you can protect
the metal with a metal spray, there is no way of protecting the running surface of the
rail, so a special section would have to be used in which the running surface would be
of greater thickness than would normally be used, and the rest of the metal could be
840 Track ^
protected by a metal spray. The only other way of overcoming the difficulty would
be through the use of Diesel or electric power. Electric power would entirely overcome
the difficulties. There is some sulfur in Diesel oil and while certain oil companies put
out a special Diesel oil with a low sulfur content, even with this there would still be
some sulfurous acid formed.
This report is submitted as information with the recommendation that the subject
be discontinued.
C. H. Blackman (Louisvile & Nashville): May I ask if the committee has tried
ventilation to reduce the corrosion.
Mr. Perlman: A different type of fan was recently installed in the tunnel, which
moves the air through the tunnel twice as quickly as the old fan. We have found it
dries out the rail and ballast section much more rapidly than the old fan, but for
20 min. after a train has gone through the tunnel moisture is formed. This is because
the inside of the tunnel stays at a uniform temperature throughout the year, while it
may be 30 deg. below zero or 80 deg. above outside. We are bound to get condensate
in the tunnel when we have as much water present as is evaporated by a locomotive.
We feel the ventilating system will help a great deal but it will not overcome the
difficulty.
Chairman Am: On the next assignment. Design of tie plates for RE rail sections,
there is no report this year.
The next subject is: Practicability of using "reflex" units for switch lamps and
targets. Mr. Adams, chairman of the subcommittee, will submit this report.
L. L. Adams (Louisville & Nashville) : Your committee did not think it necessary
to send out a questionnaire this year to determine the number of reflex lamps being
used on the various roads. This information was secured in 1939 and reported in the
Proceedings for that year. However, from information that we secured in an informal
way, there is no doubt that the use of reflex light units is being extended and, due
to the saving that can be effected by these units, that use has been substantial and is
well worth considering by any railroad.
We have learned that some states had laws pertaining to the use of switch lamps
on main line turnouts, so we arranged for a check of these laws. We find that nine
states have such laws. Any road operating in those states should give them consideration
before doing away with the oil lamps. However, there are as many as 39 states that
have no law pertaining to this matter. The report is submitted as information.
Chairman Arn: The next assignment is: Welding of manganese castings in special
trackwork. The manganese castings which were submitted for test and are under-
going test have held up so well that there is nothing as yet to report on them.
The next subject is: Bolt tension necessary for proper supporting of rail joints.
Mr. Breed, the chairman of the subcommittee, will submit this report.
C. W. Breed (Chicago, Burlington & Quincy): There is a small correction on page
610. Under Loss of Bolt Tension the date should be October 5, 1938 instead of 1939.
Previous reports of this subcommittee on bolt tension appear in the 1939 and 1940
Proceedings.
This report contains considerable data on the out-to-out measurement of joint bars.
A study of these data for test joints maintained with high, medium and low bolt tension
indicates that there is little difference in the rate of wear of the fishing surface due to
the amount of bolt tension. Fishing wear appears to have some relation to traffic
density, but further data are required to definitely estabhsh this relation.
You will recall that last year's report included a statement of monthly loss of bolt
tension throughout the year which varied from 800 to 1,500 lb. Loss of bolt tension
Discussion 841
per month in the second year appears to be about the same as in the first year. In the
first and second months, after retightening, bolt tension falls away rather rapidly, and
then settles down to a more moderate rate of loss. This loss averages 500 to 1,000 lb.
per month, depending upon the type of spring washer used, the amount of bolt tension
applied at tightening and the traffic density.
For determining the amount of tension to be applied in tightening, it is suggested
that the upper value of 1,000 lb. loss per month be used. For example, if it is desired
that bolt tension should not be less than 5,000 lb., and if tightening is to be done
once a year, then 17,000 lb. per bolt should be applied. If tightening is to be done
at sLx-month intervals, 11,000 lb. per bolt should be applied.
The committee has given much attention to the problem of securing uniformity
of bolt tension in bolt tightening. The test data indicated that power wrenches, when
properly used, will give somewhat better uniformity than hand tightening, but the
improvement is not great. A difficulty with machine tightening is that the machine has
greater tightening capacity than hand tightening and, if improperly handled, is likely
to result in very high bolt tensions. With either hand or machine tightening, values
of bolt tension may be expected to be 5,000 to 10,000 lb. greater or less than the average
obtained. Variation in friction between nut and bolt is principally responsible for this
variation.
To improve this condition, some railroads are getting bolts manufactured to a
specification requiring minimum and maximum values of 5 and 25 lb. at the end of
a 24-in. wrench to turn the nut throughout the threaded length.
Reliable means are needed for adjusting the bolt tension release on power wrenches
to give desired tension. Closer supervision of operators of power wrenches is necessary
to obtain the best performance out of present adjustment.
With hand tightening, a track wrench at least 42 in. long, is desirable to enable
the track man to tighten bolts while standing upright. Tests have shown that with
a wrench of this length, a track man can quite easily tighten bolts to tensions as high
as 35,000 to 40,000 lb. if he is permitted to jerk on the wrench. If the track man is
trained to tighten bolts with a steady pull on the wrench, bolt tensions of 15,000 to
20,000 lb. will be obtained with reasonable uniformity if the nut and bolt friction is
reduced as previously suggested.
The committee acknowledges the invaluable assistance given by Mr. G. M. Magee
who carried out the greater part of the field tests.
This report is submitted as information.
G. R. Westcott (Missouri Pacific) : I am wondering if any survey has been made
by this committee to determine to what extent track bolts with "finger free" threads
are used over the country and to what extent the railroads are still using the wrench-
tight nut. I am thinking particularly of the use of power machines. If you use a power
machine on a wrench-tight nut, an unknown part of the power exerted, of course, is
applied to overcoming the friction in forcing the threads of the nut on the bolt, whereas,
with "finger free" threads on the bolt, there is a closer relation between the torque
apphed by the machine and the tension applied in the bolt.
Mr. Breed: We haven't had a test with a "finger free" nut. We think such a
test is a possibility for obtaining more uniform tension, and we hope to include it in
this year's work.
Mr. Westcott: I think, perhaps, this is something that ought to be considered be-
cause there are a number of railroads in the country that have been using "finger free"
nuts for a number of years, very successfully. I mention my own road as one of them.
842 Track
We changed some five or six years ago, and have never had any thought of going
back to wrench-tight nuts. I recommend that the committee go into that, as suggested
by the subcommittee chairman.
Mr. Breed: Mr. Magee has a few remarks to make about "finger free" nuts on
the Pennsylvania test.
Mr. Magee: I didn't intend to make any remarks on it except to call attention to
the fact that the tests on the Pennsylvania installation were made on "finger free"
nuts, and a somewhat better uniformity was secured in tightening the bolts during
that test, compared to other tests where wrench-tight nuts were used.
Vice-President Clarke: Isn't it the intention of the committee to consider this
matter that has been raised?
Mr. Breed: Yes.
Chairman Arn: The next subject assigned to the Track committee is: Lubrication
of rail on curves. Mr. Hales, chairman of that committee, is unfortunately not able
to be here. The chairman for next year, Mr. Strattman, will submit the report.
C. R. Strattman (Michigan Central) : There have been two previous reports on
this subject, in the Proceedings, Vol. 39, pages 419 to 421, and Vol. 40, pages 575 to
581. I will just read the conclusions of our current report.
(Mr. Strattman read the conclusions on page 628.)
Mr. Strattman: Your committee recommends that these conclusions be adopted and
published in the Manual. I so move.
(The motion was put to a vote and carried.)
Chairman Arn: The next subject is: Prevention of damage due to brine drippings
on tracks and structures. This subject is being considered jointly by this subcommittee
and a committee of the Mechanical Division. Mr. Magee, the chairman of the sub-
committee, will submit the report.
Mr. Magee: If you will recall, past reports of the committee have advised you
of progress made in the laboratory in determining a corrosion inhibitor which could
be added to the salt used in refrigerator cars for the purpose of neutralizing the
corrosive action of the brine drippings in the track, from these cars. You were also
informed that sodium-dichromate and soda ash, when added to the salt, had shown
very promising results in laboratory tests.
An interesting test was conducted this year to determine whether this inhibitor,
sodium-dichromate and soda ash, if used in refrigerator cars, would dissolve at the
same rate as the salt and be contained in uniform concentration in the brine drip
throughout the car trip.
With the assistance of the Santa Fe Refrigerator Dispatch, a car was iced and
salted with salt containing this inhibitor at Los Angeles. A car with a revenue load
destined for the east was selected for this test. Samples were taken of brine drippings
at intervals over a period of eight days. This included the period for pre-icing the
car and also the period during which the car was on the road in making the trip from
Los Angeles to Kansas City. The samples were then analyzed for inhibitor content
by the Denver & Rio Grande Western laboratory. The results of the test were, in
general, satisfactory. A reasonably uniform concentration of inhibitor was found in
the samples of the brine drippings throughout the test period.
Additional tests are now under way to determine the benefit to the tanks and
trucks of the refrigerator cars from use of the inhibitor.
The committee at this time is pleased to report that the progress to date appears
quite encouraging. It should also be noted that the work reported is the result of joint
Discussion 843
investigational work by both the Engineering and Mechanical divisions. This report is
offered as information.
Chairman Arn: The next subject assigned to the Track committee is: Specifica-
tions for laying rails designed to set up the requirements for good workmanship. This
is a subject on which the subcommittee has been working for about three years and on
which it is now ready to submit specifications. Mr. Schram, the chairman, will submit
the report.
I. H. Schram (Erie): The report is substantially the same as last year when it
was submitted as information. Comments and criticisms were requested, a number
were received and some small changes were made. Unfortunately, a few of these
criticisms came after the report was printed in the Bulletin and these late criticisms
were considered at a meeting of the Track committee, at which some of them were
thought worthy of adoption. We therefore wish to make the following changes:
On page 634, the first paragraph under the heading "Unloading" has been changed
by adding a period after the word "base" in the second line, and deleting the rest
of the sentence. The committee took this action after having its attention called to the
fact that practice in the facing of the brand is about equally divided.
On page 635, the second paragraph is changed by substituting the word "multiple"
for "double" in the first line. The committee considers that multiple-track lines require
the same treatment as double-track lines.
On page 636, under the heading "Completion of Work," the first line of the
sixth paragraph "All ties on which the new rail does not have a full bearing," etc., has
been changed by eliminating the word "new" before rail and substituting "newly laid"
so that the sentence reads "All ties on which the newly laid rail does not have a full
bearing shall be tamped and the spikes re-driven ; proper slow orders shall be main-
tained until this is done." This change was made by the committee merely to clarify
the meaning.
The changes that were made during the year were rather small. On page 634, under
"Unloading" the last paragraph was revised to add "that small material shall be left
in the containers until the rail is laid". Under the heading "Laying", the word "imme-
diately" was introduced in the first line of the first paragraph.
On page 635, under the heading "Laying", the paragraph covering application of
rail anchors has been revised to provide for the immediate application of the full quota
of raU anchors.
This covers the changes that were made in the report of this committee following
the consideration of a number of suggestions received by the committee. I move that
this specification be adopted and published in the Manual.
(The motion was seconded, put to a vote and carried.)
Chairman Arn: The final subject for the past year's work is: Spirals for high
speed operation. Mr. Baldridge, the chairman, will submit this report.
C. W. Baldridge (Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe) : The subcommittee on Spirals
for high speed operation endeavored this year to complete the work that was not
finished last year, and we have the following to report:
From the time, more than one hundred years ago, when the first railroad was built
in America, to the present time, the methods of construction and the kinds of material
used both in roadway and equipment have been undergoing improvement to increase
effectiveness and safety.
One of the incidents of the opening of the first American railway, was a race between
the famous locomotive Tom Thumb and a horse-drawn vehicle, in which the horse
844 Track
was the winner. At that time and for several years thereafter, curves in railway tracks
called for but little more attention than was required by tangent track. As weights
and speeds of railway trains increased, more and more improvements in track construc-
tion and maintenance have become necessary. The first improvement in the alinement
of curves and the nature of easements at the ends of the curves was accomplished by
beginning with a short length of low degree curve, usually a two-degree curve, and
continuing by two-degree increments until the degree of the main curve was reached,
the leaving end of the curve being made in the same manner in reverse. It has not
been very long since the curve records of some railways still showed curves of this
nature to be in use. It was but natural that this early form of easement should be
displaced by spiral curves beginning with very small variation from the tangent and
continuing an increasing degree of curvature up to the degree of the central part of
the curve.
When the high speed trains of the present era came into operation it soon become
evident that longer and more accurately located spirals are necessary for safety and
comfortable riding trains. The revision of the matter in the Manual as submitted last
year was intended to be an outline of the method for calculating and staking a ten-
chord spiral by deflections, given step-by-step so that it could be more readily under-
stood by the man in the field who is the one who must use it.
This year's report is intended to outline the staking of the same kind of spiral
by offsets, followed by a method of staking a spiral of somewhat different ratio of
curvature wherein the offsets are calculated for such points along the curve as are
desired. In the second method the values of X for each of the desired points are
assumed and the offsets calculated for each point assumed.
Beginning on page 636 you will find under the subheading Staking Spirals by Offsets:
(Mr. Baldridge then read the material under Staking Spirals by Offsets on pages
636 and 637, calHng attention to an error in the next to the last line on page 636,
that "chord and point" should be changed to "chord end point".)
Mr. Baldridge: The formulas are given on page 637, and I will not read them.
The table given on page 637 is, in fact, a two-column table, the word Elevation having
been omitted above the word Inches in the first column. The third and fourth column
and fifth and sixth columns are actually a continuation of the first but are put in
the present position to save space in printing.
The use of this method does not give identically the same curve as the curve that
was given last year, and the two methods are not interchangeable in the same piece of
work, but each one will give very nearly the same result finally.
The committee recommends that the matter now in the Manual, page S-26 begin-
ning with "Staking Spirals by Offsets" and ending on page S-27 with "Staking Spirals
by Deflections" be withdrawn and that the matter which I have just read to you, be
adopted for inclusion in the Manual and inserted following the matter which is now
on page 5-28.
I move that this deletion and substitution be made.
(The motion was seconded, put to a vote and carried.)
Chairman Am: That concludes the report.
Vice-President Clarke: I know personally this is one of the hard working com-
mittees of the Association. It has presented a comprehensive and excellent report. If
there is no discussion, the committee is excused with the thanks of the Association.
Discussion 845
Discussion on Ties
(For Report, see pp. 485-487.)
(Vice-President Clarke in the chair.)
Chairman John Foley (Pennsylvania); Committee 3 presents no statements in
reference to Assignments 1, 3 and 6. For your information only there are presented
statements on the other assignments.
In connection with Assignment 2, your attention is called to statements in a recent
address by a railroad executive, who, after citing "features of maintenance which
contribute to a maximum life for crossties and to substantial economies in tie renewals
and other maintenance costs", said "all of these efforts would have only limited value
unless we can use the best obtainable material", and "here we meet the question of
inspection. I am sorry to say that this question does not always receive the preferred
consideration which it merits." He continued that on his railroad "inspection is inspection
and in the full meaning of that word."
The general adoption of that attitude toward the acceptance of ties has been the
hope of the Committee on Ties during 16 years of commenting on adherence to AREA
specifications. We realize that absolute accuracy is impossible in the inspection of
ties. We expect only that all railroads adhere to the standard as successfully as so
many have proved they can. We are glad to acclaim those of you who have brought
about the betterment in the quality and size of ties generally by your accepting as
constructive the critical comments of the Committee on Ties and bringing your speci-
fications and inspection into conformance with AREA recommended practice.
Our observations have made clear that adherence to the specifications on paper
does not assure suitable ties. Mere adoption of the standard is not enough. The
results of the application of the specification for crossties in actual practice were sought
by your committee in order to point out possible improvements.
A summary of the committee observations to date will be presented by Mr. W. D.
Simpson, chairman of the subcommittee on Assignment 2, who will also comment on
the 1940 statement.
W. D. Simpson (Seaboard Air Line); Observations to determine the extent of
adherence to the specifications for crossties began in 1925. They have been made
annually since, except in 1927, 1931, 1932 and 1933. During the 13 years of field work,
20 trips have been made to 37 points where 42 seasoning yards are located. Return
trips have been made to 14 of these yards. The ties observed have belonged to 43
railroads, 15 of which were visited more than once. The number of ties observed
total 33,500,000. The producing territories represented by the ties looked at extend
from Maine to Minnesota, inclusive, south to the Gulf of Mexico, plus Oklahoma
and Texas.
On its first inspection trip (1925), which covered 3,000,000 ties of 15 railroads, the
committee found and informed you that ties conforming fully to the Association's
specifications were being produced in quantity, and that on some railroads all ties
fully, or satisfactorily, met the requirements of the AREA standards, but that on some
railroads such was not the case.
That report also said that "interest in the character of the ties delivered on the
part of those responsible for their use would correct much of the fault in the procure-
ment of ties." Evidence of increased interest in ties is found in the subsequent reports,
which generally record improvement in conditions as a whole. The committee gets
considerable satisfaction from the evidence of the better inspection noted on return
846 Ties
visits to some yards, and derives real pleasure from seeing a lot of excellent ties in a
yard where housekeeping approximates what it should be.
Where there is laxity in inspection it is usually characterized by:
1. Oversizing: In that case we pay for a size we do not get.
2. Accepting decay and excessive split: In that case, the deterioration of the tie
has started before we buy it at the price for a solid, sound tie; and
3. Improper storage: In that case we prevent satisfactory seasoning, promote decay,
increase splitting, and induce conditions which result in the loss of many years of
tie life.
The committee repeats its suggestion of 15 years ago, that you inquire into the
quality of the inspection of the ties on your property. If you find it good, commend
those responsible for it; if not, do something toward securing full adherence to AREA
standards.
The record of our 1940 observations is marred only by the fact that one railroad
accepted substandard ties and another permitted substandard stacking, as you will see
by reference to the report on page 485, which also points out that the wider spacing
of seasoning ties which is practiced in some yards does not cause more splitting than the
closer spacing commonly used.
This report is offered as information.
Chairman Foley: The report on Assignment 4, Tie averages and costs per main-
tained mile, was pubHshed in the June-July Bulletin and is not repeated in full. You
will find the detailed figures in that bulletin.
The last statement we wish to make is on Assignment 5, Investigate and report
on the dimensions of ties, and bring up to date the information in the 1924 and 1932
Proceedings. The committee is launching a recommendation that warrants very full
consideration and discussion. The facts in connection with it will be presented by the
chairman of the subcommittee, Mr. W. J. Burton.
W. J. Burton (Missouri Pacific) : For several years the subject of tie dimensions
has been assigned to your committee and special attention has been given to tie length.
Previous reports have shown the desirability of longer ties and have presented informa-
tion as to what was involved in making a change.
Realizing the importance of the change in a standard so long in effect, your
committee is presenting proposed recommendations for further discussion during the
ensuing year, with the idea that, unless this discussion brings up some unexpected
objections, the recommendations will be offered for adoption next year.
The committee expects to recommend the following for adoption and publication
in the Manual:
(a) The adoption of nine-foot ties and the discontinuance of the purchase of
eight-foot ties as rapidly as practicable and economical.
(b) The use of nine-foot ties at least for lines of heavy traffic.
(c) The adoption of the nine-foot length whenever change is made from the
eight-foot length.
These recommendations are based on the studies of the committee as reported in
recent years. I will briefly review the considerations justifying them.
It is a fact that the economically best dimensions for a crosstie cannot be deter-
mined solely by a consideration of stresses; in other words, a tie cannot be designed
in the sense that a bridge beam may be designed to carry a given load. But it is
necessary to have standard dimensions for ties even though there is wide variation
from tie to tie in the strength of the wood and in the character and amount of support.
D i s c u s si o n 847
The observed results in track, therefore, become of great importance in selecting the
most suitable dimensions.
It is well known that if ties are tamped for their full length, the track tends
to become center-bound, and, in order to avoid center-bound track it is the universal
practice not to tamp a portion of the ties at the center of the track.
This tendency of track to become center-bound is an indication that with ties
of usual length, there is more support inside than outside of the rails or, in other words,
that the ties are too short. The untamped portions of the ties, and the ballast under
these portions, are therefore wasted as far as furnishing support is concerned.
If each part of the length of a tie were equally effective in transmitting load to
the ballast, the proper action might be secured by making the tie length twice the
center-to-center of rail distance, so as to have as much support outside of the rails
as between them. However, it was shown by Dr. Talbot, early in the work of the
Stresses in Track committee, that under the vibratory conditions of actual service
in track, it is not possible to maintain effective ballast tamping at the ends of the ties
or for several inches in from the ends. If the ineffective length is taken at four inches
at each end, the required tie length for standard gage and 131 -lb. rail figures out
10 ft. 7 in. Assuming that a tie of this length had sufficient beam stiffness, it might be
tamped for its entire length without danger of center-bound track.
At this point the questions of cost and practicability must be considered. An
increase in length of lYz ft. over present practice is out of the question for reasons not
necessary to develop here. Your committee, however, has considered the practicability
of increasing tie length to nine feet and it should be pointed out again that a given
increase in tie length allows double that increase in the permissible tamped length of the
tie. Thus, increasing the length of the tie 6 in. adds 12 in. to the effective support.
Observations over a considerable period of years, supplemented by opinions secured
from tie producers and from national forest supervisors support the conclusion that
relatively few trees as now cut for crossties, would not make as many ties six inches or
a foot longer as they now make of the shorter lengths. Also, many of the elements
going to make up complete tie costs are either unaffected, or only slightly affected by
the proposed changes in length.
These conclusions are supported, at least partly, by a study of the present regional
practices as to length as reported in our 1940 report. There it was shown that the
choice as between 8-ft. and 8J^-ft. ties was apparently a matter of precedent in the
particular region. It is a fact that in a region where the standard length is 8 ft. 6 in.
a premium will be asked for 8-ft. ties. The most important elements of cost, affected
by length increase, are freight, due to increased weight, preservative and cost of treat-
ment. The increase in amount of preservative is somewhat less than that proportional
to increased length due to a greater absorption and retention near the ends of the ties.
The increased cost of treating is largely due to fewer trams, usually one, which can be
placed in a cylinder for treatment.
In comparing costs of different lengths of ties it is, of course, proper to compare
total cost in track rather than merely first cost of the tie. We have previously reported
that the increased cost of V/z-W.. ties over 8-ft. ties may be as much as S percent of
the total cost in track and a similar figure would apply to the change from 8J^-ft. to
9-ft. ties. However, such percentages would apply only where most or all of the tie
buyers in a given region made the change at the same time.
It is because of the great desirability of concerted action on the part of all rail-
roads that we are proposing adoption of these recommendations. As we have previously
S48 Stresses in Railroad Track
pointed out, more additional track support can be purchased through increased tie
length than through other means.
It is expected that during the ensuing year this subject of tie length and the proposed
Manual recommendation will be subjected to full discussion and criticism. The change
is not only very important to the railroads but one in which concerted action is most
desirable. It is for this reason that we are inviting a full year of discussion and criticism
before Manual action.
The committee invites discussion orally at this time and in writing during the year.
Vice-President Clarke: The report at the present time will be accepted as infor-
mation.
Chairman Foley: That completes the report.
Vice-President Clarke: This committee is doing very constructive work and is to be
complimented. If there is no discussion, the committee will be excused with the thanks of
the Association. (Applause)
Discussion on Stresses in Railroad Track
(For Report, see pp. 7S3-7S7 and 759)
Vice-President Clarke (in the chair) : Dr. Talbot, we wish to convey to you our
appreciation for the many years of invaluable service which you have rendered this
Association, the railroads of the continent and, in fact, of the world in advancing our
knowledge in regard to the behavior of railroad tracks under load.
Past President Yager has had the privilege of serving with Dr. Talbot for a number
of years on this important committee, as vice-chairman, and I will ask him to express,
better than I can, our appreciation of Dr. Talbot's work.
Louis Yager (Northern Pacific) : We believe it is fitting that we pause in the
convention deliberations to recognize the passing of another milepost in the progress of
our Association affairs.
It is with regret that it is necessary to announce that this has been the last formal
appearance of Dr. Talbot before this body as chairman of the Committee on Stresses
in Track which he created and directed with such great distinction for a period of more
than a quarter of a century. That fact has given the officers of your Association con-
siderable concern. It is with some degree of assurance that we proceed, because of the
fact that Dr. Talbot will be available to the committee and offer his advice in delibera-
tions of that group of men who will continue the work from here on.
The fact that Dr. Talbot is retiring from the carrying of his weighty duties in
the manner in which he has, is an illustration of the true, democratic character of our
Association. We assume these duties voluntarily, and we relinquish them, likewise, volun-
tarily when we believe we have served our purpose.
The unselfish devotion of such men as Dr. Talbot, serving without monetary com-
pensation, is one of the outstanding examples of professional service in the pubhc inter-
est, which represents the voluntary contributions of time and talent by gifted men and
women trained in the physical and social sciences to create and sustain our cherished
ideals of American democracy.
The intellectual attainments and the quality of service rendered in the engineering
profession have been an inspiration to those of our members who are fortunate enough
to have been, during the more impressionable periods of hfe, students under Dr. Talbot
at the University of Illinois. We, who have been privileged to have contact with Dr.
Talbot in his great contribution to the research aspects of railway engineering, are proud
Discussion 849
to arknowIedRf our student relationship to him in what we have perhaps hoastfully
regarded as the post-graduate phase of our professional development. Men of the type
of Dr. Talbot, in collaboration with the engineers engaged in the railroad industry early
in the career of our Association, set up those standards of accomplishment which have
given professional standing to our Association.
The work of the Stresses in Track Committee afforded the first, unqualified recog-
nition of the fact that the Association, by reason of talent and professional outlook
was qualified to undertake and prosecute research work of the highest order.
If we are mindful of the fact that there is no immediate or distinct line of demar-
cation between the periods which I shall mention, then it may be correctly said that
in the 42 years of existence of our Association, Dr. Talbot has served three generations.
The first generation, comprising the founders and the pioneers who have passed beyond
or have retired from active duty, were those men of our profession who recognized
early that there were many problems facing our group which were beyond the possi-
bility of solution through the usual analytical approach and, therefore, required the
application of scientific laboratory methods. The leaders and officers of our Association
at that time, in looking about for someone to undertake the work of finding a rational
solution for many of our track problems, selected Dr. Talbot because of the fact that by
that time he had already made a name for himself through original work in the appli-
cation of laboratory methods and the development of those lines of investigation
approach which have become, in more recent years, commonly accepted as research
work.
Now, then the second generation, to which we belong, perhaps have been the greatest
beneficiaries of the work of Dr. Talbot, and it is to us that he has opened up and
expanded the horizon of what is still possible of accomplishment in this field in which
he has done such great pioneering work.
Then we come to that third generation of younger men who, some of them I
know, with awe and respect, have stood on the sidelines and have attempted to appraise
the work that is represented by the contributions made by Dr. Talbot. That group of
men have, to some extent, and are still serving an apprenticeship and will soon take
our places and carry on.
The several engineering professions, including our own, the scientific associations
and the teaching profession have already given acknowledgment to Dr. Talbot through
the election to high office and through formal public recognition of his high standing
and accomplishments as a scientist, an engineer and a research director and, last but
not least, as an outstanding educator wherein the high order of personal character has
been an inspiring influence to students and co-workers alike.
It has been particularly gratifying to us that it has been possible to make these
public acknowledgments throughout the long and useful career and to add an expres-
sion of our affectionate regard while the recipient was still engaged in productive effort,
and in the possession of full mental vigor.
Dr. Talbot has created for himself in this outstanding research work an enduring
memorial to be found in the records of all scientific libraries, to serve as a guide to
the succeeding generations of research workers in this field.
So, we are not proposing to duplicate the former public recognition of those ac-
complishments but, rather, to make this particular occasion the starting point of another
type of appreciation.
It therefore seems highly appropriate to acknowledge in a formal manner the closing
of the unique period of the first and only Chairman of the Stresses in Track Committee
850 Rail
extending over a period of 21 years, through providing an appropriate, permanent
tribute at Dr. Talbot's Alma Mater where he labored for so many years to bring about
those professional achievements, which we are pleased to proclaim.
It therefore gives us a great sense of satisfaction to be able to announce to you
at this time that, in view of the fact that Dr. Talbot has resigned his commission,
arrangements are being made for a suitable permanent tribute expressing the apprecia-
tion of the Association, and that we are the donors and the University of Illinois will
be the custodian of that perpetual tribute. This tribute is to be located in the Arthur
Newell Talbot Laboratory at the University of Illinois. At a later time we will announce
to you the date and the character of the ceremonial arrangements which will complete
the dedication of that permanent tribute. (Applause)
Vice-President Clarke: Dr. Talbot and members of the Committee on Stresses in
Railroad Track: In excusing the committee for the last time I again wish to express
to you our depth of gratitude for the great piece of work which you have done. The
committee is excused with the thanks of the Association.
Discussion on Rail
(For Report, see pp. 639-679.)
(Vice-President Clarke presiding)
Chairman W. H. Penfield (Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul & Pacific): During 1940
the committee lost three of its members. Chairman John V. Neubert who died June 4,
1940; Vice-Chairman Robert Faries who died on September 8, 1940, and former Vice-
Chairman August F. Blaess on February 19, 1940. The loss of these members is keenly
felt by the committee, and resolutions showing the respect in which these members
were held by their associates appear on page 640.
Eight subjects were assigned to the committee for 1940. Under the Revision of
Manual we are offering two recommended changes. Reports of all other subjects are
presented as information only.
Late in the season a ninth subject was assigned: Corrugated rail, causes and remedy.
Effect upon riding qualities of tracks and upon the costs of track and equipment main-
tenance. We are perfecting an organization for this study but have no report to make
at this time.
I will now ask Mr. C. B. Bronson, our vice-chairman, to present our recommendations
for revision in the Manual.
C. B. Bronson (New York Central): Revisions are requested this year in the
forms for reporting rail failures and transverse fissure rail failures. It is recognized there
is certain non-essential information in those two forms. To bring them up to date, they
and also the instructions that go with them have been revised.
We recommend the adoption of these revised forms and their substitution for
those now in the Manual. I so move.
(The motion was seconded, put to a vote and carried.)
Chairman Penfield: Our second assignment covers: Further research, including details
of mill practice and manufacture as they affect rail quality and rail failures, giving special
attention to transverse fissure failures and other defects in the head, web and base,
collaborating with Rail Manufacturers' Technical Committee. Mr. H. F. Moore, research
professor of engineering materials at the University of Illinois, who base been in charge
of the investigations, has compiled a seventh progress report of the Joint Investigation
of Fissures in Railroad Rails, giving a resume of the work and accomplishments to date.
This is published in full beginning with page 681.
Discussion 851
This investigation was started January 1, 1931 and has established the following
facts:
Shatter cracks in rails developed during manufacture are the major cause of
interior transverse fissures.
Heavy wheel impacts are an important factor in causing shatter cracks to develop
into fissures. Laboratory studies show that fissures can be developed in shatter-cracked
rails under repeated wheel loads of 40,000 lb. or more.
Field checks indicate that at equivalent wheel loads of this magnitude fissures are
developed by one wheel in 500 to 600.
Shatter cracks can be prevented by thermal treatment of rails after rolling, and as
a result of this investigation thermal treated rails are now commercially produced. A few
fissures have been found in thermal treated rail, but in all cases these have been shown
to have developed from inclusions and not from shatter cracks.
At the close of Committee 4 report, Professor Moore will give an oral presentation
of the work of the Rails Investigation party.
Assignment 3, Compilation of statistics: Mr. W. C. Barnes, engineer of tests, is
chairman of the subcommittee, and I will ask him to present the report.
W. C. Barnes (American Railway Engineering Association) : The rail failure sta-
tistics, page 645, were prepared in the same manner as those presented last year. The
rail tonnages reported exceed those of last year by over 213,000 tons. Your attention is
called to Table 1 which shows that the 1934 rollings, which five-year period of obser-
vations is now concluded, had a failure rate of 100 track miles of 35.8, which is the
lowest on record, the nearest approach to that being a rate of 60 for the 1930 rollings.
The returns so far recorded for the 1935 to 1938 rollings, which have not yet,
of course, completed the five-year period, indicate that they will also give a good
performance record.
Fig. 2 on page 647 shows that each mill contributed in establishing this record.
The remainder of the report requires no special comment, and the statistics are presented
as information. ,^ *»»^'liiM
Transverse Fissure Failures: Transverse fissure statistics for the year ended Decem-
ber 31, 1939 are shown on page 650. The increase in fissure failures in 1939 over 1938
is an unwelcome though not unexpected development. Despite the removal of 1,398 more
detected fissured rails in track in 1939 than in 1938, there were 1,575 more service
failures. As will be seen from Fig. 1 on page 652, the 1939 service failures were exceeded
only in 1936 and 1937. These statistics are presented as information.
Controlled-cooled and Brunorized rail: Data are being accumulated to assist in
determining the performance in service of controlled-cooled and Brunorized rail rolled
under contract. The total tonnages now under consideration are 3,022,206 of controlled-
cooled rail and 123,873 of Brunorized. The failures, classified as to type, appear on
Table 2.
As Mr. Penfield said a few moments ago, no transverse fissure failures originating
from shatter cracks, which these special processes are intended to prevent, have occurred
in controlled-cooled rail nor in Brunorized rail rolled by the revised process.
This report is presented as information.
Chairman Penfield: Our assignment No. 4 is: Study the cause and prevention of
rail battering and methods of reconditioning rail ends. Mr. F. M. Graham, assistant
engineer of standards, Pennsylvania Railroad, the subcommittee chairman will present
the report.
.A[
852 Rail
(F. M. Graham, Pennsylvania, read the report on Assignment 4 on page 658,
calling attention to the fact that the first line should read "Subcommittee 4" in place
of "Subcommittee 6".)
Mr. Graham: I might add that since this was prepared, the committee has selected
a site on the R. F. & P. Railroad. Of course, anyone caring to visit the installation of this
test can do so. It will start on May 5, 1941 and continue through that week.
This is submitted as a progress report, and it is recommended that the subject be
continued.
Chairman Penficld: Assignment 5 is: Economic value of different sizes of rail.
Mr. J. M. Farrin, special engineer, Illinois Central Railroad, is the subcommittee chair-
man and will present the report.
J. M. Farrin (Illinois Central): The work, of this subcommittee during the past
year has been directed towards the confirmation of the accuracy of the expense ratios
of the different sizes of rail that were established in preceding years by means of their
mathematical properties that affect track performance.
The theory of the expense ratio method is predicated on the assumption that the
minimum size of rail is to be determined from viewpoint of safety. With the minimum
size known and expense ratios of the different sizes of rails established and costs known
for any particular size of rail in a given location, then the cost of any other weight of
rail can be quickly determined for the same location and the traffic density by means
of the simple proportion of their ratios. This result can then be used as a guide in forming
a conclusion as to what size of rail best suits the location being considered.
As one of the means of checking the accuracy of the ratios tentatively established,
the subcommittee each year checks the maintenance ratio with the actual performance
of the test sections totaling about 40 miles in length established by the Kan.sas City
Southern Railway, the result for the years 1938 and 1939 being shown on page 659. The
apparent discrepancy for the 127-lb. rail in 1939 is probably due to the fact that the
amount of money spent has not been used up, and, consequently, has not been averaged
over a long enough time. Otherwise the ratios give comparable results.
Also opportunity was had to make a comparison between 100-lb. and 131-lb. rail
by means of testimony presented before a congressional committee by the late Robert
Faries of the Pennsylvania Railroad. The occasion of this testimony was to show what
the railroads could do in event section labor wages were increased, the material presented
being the result of the consolidated judgment of the maintenance officers of about 100
railroads. It is to be noted that the tentative ratios are in fair agreement with the
testimony.
A questionnaire was sent out to all members of the rail committee requesting their
experience in tonnage life in the first location of the various sizes of rail, together with
man-hours of section labor expended in track laying and surfacing. These replies were
plotted and found on the average to produce curves approximately parallel to those
developed in the tentative report, thus indicating the approximate correctness of the
ratios tentatively established.
This report is presented as information with the recommendation that the subject
be continued.
Chairman Penfield: Assignment 6 is: Continuous welding of rail, collaborating with
Committee 5 — Track and Special Committee on Stresses in Railroad Track. Mr. J. C.
Patterson, chief engineer, maintenance of way of the Erie Railroad is the subcommittee
chairman and will present the report.
(J. C. Patterson, Erie, read the first three paragraphs under Assignment 6 on
page 660.)
Discussion 853
Mr. Patterson: The report is submitted as information with the recommendation
that the subject be continued.
I think Professor Moore has a few remartcs he would like to make.
H. F. Moore (University of IlUnois) : Laboratory experiments reported in certain
progress reports have been carried on, and we have a more complete report of the
strength of various welded joints.
At present we may say, in a general way, the electric flash weld, the oxy-acetylene
heat pressure weld, based upon resistance to wheel load, show results equal and, in
some cases, superior to the original rail. Based upon bending moment, they show
values coming around 90 percent of the original rail. The thermit welds show values
about equal to those of carefully applied joint bars in our laboratory tests. Great care
was given that the bolt tension was not too high, and that it was kept constant. The two
fusion weld processes show results far below joint bars.
Chairman Penfield: Our next assignment, No. 7, is: Service tests of various types
of joint bars. Mr. Ray McBrian, engineer of tests, Denver & Rio Grande Western Rail-
road is the subcommittee chairman and will present the report.
Ray McBrian (Denver & Rio Grande Western): The report is a record of the
observations made during the past year of the service tests of the various types of
joint bars in the, test track on the Santa Fe and Pennsylvania railroads. It is to be noted
that details as to rail surface profile, joint camber, bolt tension, rail gap and out-to-out
measurements are given. On the question of comparison of types of bars installed in the
test tracks, it may be said, except for one design of bar, the bars have not been in
track long enough to determine their relative values.
The report is presented as information with the recommendation that the subject
be continued.
Chairman Penfield: Our next assignment. No. 8, is: Investigate joint bar failures
and give consideration to the revision of design and specifications. Mr. Ray McBrian
is also the subcommittee chairman of that subject and will present the report. I would
like to announce, however, that at the close of Mr. McBrian's report, Mr. Walter B.
Leaf, research technician of the Denver & Rio Grande Western Railroad, will present
an ilustrated monograph on photoelastic investigations of the design of joint bars,
which I am sure you will all find interesting.*
Mr. McBrian: The report of the subcommittee continues the study from last year
and interprets the assignment to include the study of cracks which may not lead to
ultimate breakage. Through observation of tests in progress and the study of failures,
data were obtained bearing on some of the theories as to cause of failure. It is noted
that the data were obtained from actual service tests, full size fatigue tests and labora-
tory studies as possible means to eliminate cracking. Possible means studied were:
(1) Improving physical properties;
(2) Photoelastic studies as to effect of design and bolt tension;
(3) Fatigue tests, using full size bars in assembled joints;
(4) Observation as to effect of saw swelling of the rail end.
Details were given as to manner in which these tests are being conducted. The
report is offered as information, with the recommendation that the subject be continued.
Chairman Penfield: Mr. Leaf, are you ready to proceed?
(W. B. Leaf, Denver & Rio Grande Western, gave an illustrated talk. See page 672.)
Chairman Penfield: Mr. Leaf, the committee is very much indebted to you, and
we would like to thank you for this demonstration.
See monograph by Mr. Leaf on page 672 of the committee's report.
854 Yards and Terminals
Professor Moore will now close the committee work with his summarj' of the more
recent activities in connection with the rails investigation.
(For Professor Moore's formal report for the year, see the Seventh Progress Re-
port of the Investigation of Fissures in Railroad Rails, page 681.)
Vice-President Clarke: The work being done by the Rail committee is of great
importance, and none of it is more important than the work being done by Professor
Moore's committee. We appreciate very much the report which he has just presented.
If there is no discussion, the committee is discharged with the thanks of the Asso-
ciation.
Discussion on Yards and Terminals
(For Report, see pp. 107-148.)
(Vice-President Bond presiding)
Chairman C. H. Mottier (Illinois Central): The report of the Yards and Terminals
committee embraces reports on all nine assignments. The first assignment is Revision
of Manual and will be presented by the subcommittee chairman, Mr. Lyford.
L. L. Lyford (Illinois Central) : This year's report on Revision of Manual is in
three parts: First, definitions; second, change in Manual material covering freight
terminals, and, third, change in specifications for weighbeams and accessories for the
four-section, knife-edge railway track scales, the two-section, knife-edge railway track
scales, and the motor truck, built-in, self-contained and portable scales for railway
service.
(Mr. Lyford read the paragraphs under Glossary found on page 108.)
Mr. Lyford: The reason for this change is because the Manual did not have a
definition for a siding, and that word is used in the Standard Code of Operating Rules.
I move that this material be approved for inclusion in the Manual.
(The motion was seconded, put to a vote and carried.)
Mr. Lyford: Under the second portion, Freight Terminals, it is proposed to delete
paragraph 322 (e), page 14-21 and insert in its place the following paragraph.
(Mr. Lyford then read the proposed new paragraph (e), ending with the text under
Departure Tracks.)
Mr. Lyford: The purpose of these changes is to emphasize the desirability of
operating trains, wherever possible, direct from the classification yard tracks. There is a
saving in the handhng of cars and a consequent saving in the cost of operation.
I move that this new material be approved for inclusion in the Manual.
(The motion was seconded, put to a vote and carried.)
Mr. Lyford: The remaining material has to do with the design of notches and
pawls or latches on the different types of scales covered by the specifications. It is
proposed in each case, that is, for the three types of scales, to delete the present
paragraphs on Notches or Pawl and insert in their place the following paragraphs:
(Mr. Lyford then read the new material on Notches and Pawl or Latch on page
109.)
Mr. Lyford: The purpose of this change is not to specify with a great degree of
exactness just how these notches shall be made but, rather, to state in general terms
that they shall be made so that accurate positioning of the poise will automaticallv result
at any graduation.
I move that these changes in the Manual, which are the same for the three types
of scales, be adopted for inclusion in the Manual.
(The motion was seconded, put to a vote and carried.)
Discussion 855
Chairman Mottier: Report on Assignment 2, General requirements in terminal
facilities for various later types of equipment, will be presented by the subcommittee
chairman, Mr. Giles.
W. H. Giles (Missouri Pacific) : For the purpose of this report later types of equip-
ment are considered to be the so-called streamline passenger cars. Some highlights of the
study are set forth, with the conclusions of your committee as outlined on page 111.
The report is submitted as information.
Chairman Mottier: Report on Assignment 3, Terminal facilities required for servic-
ing electrical and air conditioning equipment in passenger cars, is to be presented by
the subcommittee chairman, Mr. Hedley.
W. J. Hedley (Wabash): This report deals with facilities for passenger stations and
coach yards for electrical and air conditioning equipment. It involves two closely
related subjects. In fact, they are so closely related, they can't very well be separated
because there is a great deal of air conditioning equipment that requires electric
current for standby use while it is idle at the passenger station and also while it is
in the coach yard.
This report shows a tabulation on page 113 of Bulletin 421 of the number of
passenger cars equipped with the various types of air conditioning systems during the
past few years. The tabulation ends with the year 1938 because a tabulation of the
cars equipped with these systems for the years 1939 and 1940 has not been compiled.
However, the AAR compilation of air conditioned passenger cars in operation as of
January 1, 1941 shows that Class I railroads had 6,961 cars, which was an increase of
365 over the previous January 1, 1940, report. The Pullman Company had 5,239 air
conditioned cars in operation, which was an increase of 120, making a total for Class I
railroads and the Pullman Company of 12,200 cars, an increase of 485.
You will note that most of the air conditioning of passenger cars was done during
the years 1935, '36 and '37, although some was done prior to that, and there has been
some since.
The first consideration for one who is to decide what facilities should be provided
for servicing air conditioning equipment, particularly, is to determine what type of
air conditioning is in use in the cars that arc to use the terminal.
Then the next consideration is, what is the trend in the use of the air conditioning
systems. Some railroads are gradually changing from one type or system to another,
so it is important to know what types of air conditioning equipment are coming into the
passenger terminals and also what types may be expected during the next few years.
For servicing electrical equipment, the primary need is for a method of charging
storage batteries. That is necessary usually in the passenger station as well as in the
coach yard. For charging batteries, it is necessary to use direct current. The matter
resolves itself into a question of whether to provide direct-current outlets at all the
places that you will need them, or whether to use portable charging units which arc
commonly known as buggies, which will operate from 220-volt three-phase a.c. circuits,
converting that into the necessary voltage of direct current.
The committee proposes to continue its study of this matter, and next year to
determine the most desirable and economical spacing of electrical outlets to be used
for both air conditioning and electrical equipment. This will be done in conjunction
with the committee of the Electrical Section, as the report for this year was worked out.
This report is submitted as information.
Chairman Mottier: The report on Assignment No. 4, Scales used in railway
service, appearing on page 114, will be presented by the subcommittee chairman, Mr.
Harrison.
856 Yards and Terminals __^_
M. J. J. Harrison (Pennsylvania): In presenting this year's report under this par-
ticular subject, your committee has been informally asked how it happened that it
apparently departed from the type of scale which was ordinarily thought of as being
used in railway service. By way of explanation, I might point out that this particular
report is prepared in response to an assignment which came to your committee from
the AAR. The reason for the interest of the AAR in this particular matter is that, as
a matter of fact, in terminal grain markets, not only the buying and seUing of the
grain is determined on scales of the type contemplated by the material presented
here, but also the charges made for its transportation from point of origin to the
terminal market and sometimes from one terminal market to another.
The material submitted at this time is set forth purely as a tentative proposal.
It has, since the bulletin was printed, been submitted to other organizations and groups
that have a very vital interest in the subject. It has been discussed with representatives
of those groups. Unless there be objection, your committee proposes to continue that
discussion and, when possible, to report further with regard to any alterations or amend-
ments which may be indicated as being desirable in the light of all of the discussions
which may eventuate with the other parties concerned in this matter.
Your committee would be particularly happy to have written discussions on any
of the detail covered by this report from anybody who is interested in it, and particu-
larly solicits criticisms of its material.
At this time the report is submitted as information, with the request that it be
so received.
Chairman Mottier: Report on Assignment S, Terminal facihties required for the
care of Diesel locomotive equipment, will be presented by the subcommittee chairman,
Mr. Lorenz.
H. C. Lorenz (Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St. Louis) : In this report the
committee has assembled information regarding the manner in which the railroads are
meeting the problem of providing facilities for servicing and repairing Diesel-electric
locomotives. More definitely, the following subjects are treated: General requirements
for ordinary servicing; facilities for light or running repairs; shops for heavy repairs;
truck and wheel removing equipment, with a resume of what the railroads are doing
in particular, in the way of adapting and supplementing existing facilities and the con-
struction of new facilities and an outline of requirements in Diesel-electric locomotive
details to facilitate repairs under given circumstances.
This report is offered as information.
Chairman Mottier: Report on Assignment 6, Classification yards, will be reported
by the subcommittee chairman, Mr. George Hand.
G. F. Hand (New York, New Haven & Hartford) : This year the subcommittee
has studied the departure end of the classification yard. The principal purpose was to
consider the design of classification tracks and of the departure tracks in relation to
the method of operation, with the object of expediting freight and, at the same time,
reducing the cost as far as possible.
The point of principal interest in the findings in this study is contained in para-
graph 3 on page 134. This has been covered by the subcommittee on change in Manual,
and the essence of that will be included in the Manual.
The main thing to emphasize is that, with the necessity fur quick dispatch of trains
at a minimum cost, it has become more and more the practice to make up and dispatch
trains from the classification tracks themselves. The need for departure tracks is set out
in a later paragraph on that same page.
Discussion 857
We believe, after the very careful canvass we have made of all the principal yards
in the country through direct contact with operating men as well as with our own
engineers, that under existing conditions the seven points listed on the bottom of pages
133 and 134 represent good practice. The report is submitted as information.
Chairman Mottier: Report on Assignment 7, Terminal facilities required for the
washing of passenger cars mechanically: Unfortunately, Mr. Metcalf is not with us to
present the report. In recent years bus, street car and interurban companies have been
using mechanical equipment to wash their cars. Buses have been doing it very success-
fully and economically, which fact suggested this assignment. So far as we have been
able to learn, there are only two railroads in this country that have adopted mechanical
washing of cars, though others in foreign countries are doing so. One American road
has two installations; the other has one. They appear to be very well pleased with
their performance and the resulting economies.
The equipment used in washing cars consists primarily of revolving cylindrical
brushes which bear against the side of the cars and are subject to tipping, so they
will conform to the profile of the car. Water is sprayed onto the car while it is being
moved rather slowly through the washer. In the modern installations equipment is
moved through at the rate of about one car per minute. If the cars can be moved
through these washers without extra switch-engine expense they have considerable
promise in the reduction of labor .costs.
Quite a number of studies have been made by railroads to install this equipment,
but it is rather difficult to do so in an old layout. It is almost necessary to design
a yard with this equipment in mind to get the full advantage of it. The washer should
be placed on a tangent track where cars can be washed as they are moved in a normal
movement between the station and the yard. The new equipment can wash cars
moving in either direction.
At the bottom of page 135 the committee cites certain advantages claimed for
mechanical car washers. These washers are made principally by two American com-
panies. They have many installations for buses and street cars. Several desirable features
to be incorporated in installations for mechanical washing of passenger equipment are
also presented.
This report is presented as information and, incidentally, is a final report on the
assignment.
The report on Assignment 8, Terminal facilities required for the handling of high-
way trucks and trailers on and off railroad cars will be presented by the subcommittee
chairman, Mr. Ripley.
H. L. Ripley (New York, New Haven & Hartford) : Looking at me now, it would
be hard for you to believe that I was once a student, but I remember being taught,
in connection with the study of philosophy, that man is a selfish animal. Of course,
there are exceptions to that but, speaking of mankind in general, it was true then and
it is true now. So, if you want to find a way to get back onto the rails some of the
business that has been lost to rubber, the surest way to do it is to find something that
is of benefit to both.
That is what a few railroads have attempted in connection with this subject.
There is nothing in it for the Manual, and perhaps, after you read it, you will think
I should have said there is nothing in it, but the committee is hopeful that it may
offer some help to some railroad and be of interest and perhaps of advantage to it
and to the railroads in general in making a study of the subject from the angle
suggested.
858 Records and Accounts
Chairman Mottier: The report on Assignment 9, Bibliography on subjects per-
taining to yards and terminals, appearing in current periodicals, will be presented by
the subcommittee chairman, Mr. Tratman, who, incidentally, is the patriarch of our
committee and, outside of the chairman, is the most modest and hardest working man
on the committee He does not think it necessary for him to present the report,
which demonstrates that he is modest. The report is presented as information and covers
eight pages of references and required a great deal of work. We appreciate Mr. Trat-
man's effort.
Mr. Chairman, that concludes the report of the Yards and Terminals Committee.
Vice-President Bond: Is there any discussion? If not, the committee is excused
with the thanks of the Association. (Applause)
Discussion on Records and Accounts
(For Report, see pp. 369-392.)
(Vice-President Bond presiding)
Chairman C. A. Knowles (Chesapeake & Ohio): Records and Accounts: This is
not the dry subject those words would seem to denote. Records used in the conduct
of a business undertaking, telling the story of success or failure, are vibrant with life.
This is especially true of the railroad industry, with properties extending over hundreds
and thousands of miles, with daily transactions, multitudinous daily transactions with
the public and with each other. It does not seem too much to say that the present stage
of efficiency of our industry has been reached, to a great extent, through the prepara-
tion and study of records that indicate to proceed with caution or stop.
It was called to my attention a short time ago that a man had said, "I am a
forward-looking man. I am not concerned with things of the past." I don't think he really
meant that because no man could successfully chart his future course without con-
sideration of the past, no more than a vessel could steam towards the port without the
rudder traihng in the wind or without the benefit of the logs of navigators long since
gone.
A striking example of this is the magnificent accompHshment of Matthew Fontaine
Maury, he who, through the study of the logs of the captains of sailing vessels, discovered
to the lasting benefit of future navigators that the currents of the sea follow fixed
paths. Now, in its practical consideration, are the railroads today about to save over
half a million dollars through the recent discovery of records, some of which were made
seventy-five years ago. It is safe to say that the makers of those records had no idea
of the beneficial use to which they would be put today, and neither do we know what
use our successors may make of the records we are now preparing. It is our duty and
our privilege to so prepare the records that they clearly and fully state the facts.
No doubt many of you have a question in your mind as to why I am making
these remarks. The purpose is an attempt to engage your interest and to invite dis-
cussion on the subcommittee's reports which are to follow.
The report on Assignment No. 1, Revision of Manual, will be given by Mr. Field,
chairman of the subcommittee.
D. E. Field (Columbus & Greenville): It has just been said that records and
accounts are far removed from the grave, but I still suggest that this particular subject
might be called the desert surrounding the oases formed by our other subcommittee
reports. But it is the purpose of our subcommittee that the Manual shall not be a
burial ground for conclusions of the Association which have become obsolete through
changed conditions.
Discussion 859
The brief paragraphs printed on page 370 only partially indicate the amount of
time and thought given by the committee during the past year to a review of the
material in the Manual, contained on 125 of its pages.
The necessity for a somewhat extensive revision of much of the material in Chapter
11 has become increasingly evident. During the coming year the committee expects to
offer for your approval a rearrangement of the subject matter, consisting, among other
things, of a revision of forms, specifications and definitions to conform to modern
practice.
In preparing any proposed revisions, the committee will not neglect to consider
whether the expense to the Association is justified.
Chairman Knowles: The report on Assignment 2 will be given by Mr. Braden,
chairman of the subcommittee.
E. V. Braden (Pittsburgh, Chartiers & Youghiogheny) : What could be drier than
a bibliography on a dry subject? Fortunately for the work of this committee, our chair-
man, Mr. Knowles, has made clear that, instead of being a dry subject, records and
accounts is a very live subject, vibrant, in fact, with that something, that experience,
shall we say, orderly recorded, a knowledge of which is essential to the intelligent
steering of the good ship Transportation through the turbulent waters of today.
Subcommittee 2 has compiled from many sources the bibliography on pages 371
and 372. We believe the list to be useful to one seeking such information, not only as
a casual interest but particularly to one who from duty must keep informed on the trend
of thought and practice in railroad valuation, taxation, financing and accounting.
Because of the number of American railroads in bankruptcy and the number of
railroads now undergoing reorganization in the hope of avoiding bankruptcy, your
attention is called to an item on the list of subjects, of widest general interest and
importance at this time. I refer to the publication of Duke University Law School,
of a symposium of thirteen articles on railroad reorganization. Here the intricacies of
the law, finance and economic problems are brought together with the interests of
organized labor and ownership, and they are discussed by men particularly competent
in their respective fields of railroad administration, large financing operations, corpora-
tion law, organized labor and organized ownership.
The potential consequences of the policies that are being developed through the
solution of these problems will certainly be vital to the future of American railroads.
The bibliography is, as usual, submitted as information.
Chairman Knowles: The report on Assignment 3, Office and drafting room practices,
will be given by Mr. Teal, the chairman of the subcommittee.
D. C. Teal (Chesapeake & Ohio): This report presents discussion on five subjects.
The reports on three topics are submitted as information while the other two offer
material recommended for inclusion in the Manual.
Under the heading Drafting Equipment and Tools it is noted that the subject was
reported last year as information. This year, after reviewing for possible Manual ma-
terial, your committee recommends that the subject be discontinued.
The report on Specifications of material to be used for drawings and drafting,
discusses the various factors that influence the selection of drawing materials and
describes present common practices of ordering them. The conclusions are that the
present methods of selecting and ordering are quite satisfactory and that spec.fications
would be unnecessary. The report is presented as information, with the recommenda-
tion that the subject be discontinued.
The report on Standard system for filing drawings, describes the various methods
and equipment used by railroad offices. The conclusions are that standardization of
860 Records and Accounts
methods would be impractical because of the diffcrenics in individual requirements. The
report is presented as information.
The subject Welding symbols is brought before the Association at this time because
of certain late developments. The American Welding Society has recently adopted a
new code of symbols. Recognizing their authority in such matters, it is believed desir-
able to have their symbols available for railway drafting room use. However, in order
to avoid having material in the Manual that would be subjected to revisions by
another organization and, so, might soon be out of date, it is proposed to pubUsh
only the reference to them as indicated in the second paragraph on page 379. This reads:
"It is recommended that the symbols of the American Welding Society be used. These
symbols, together with instructions for their use, are pubUshed in bulletin form and
may be obtained from the American Welding Society."
I move that this information on Welding Symbols be published in the Manual.
(The motion was seconded.)
H. M. Stout (Northern Pacific) : I would like to inquire of the chairman of the
subcommittee how extensive a bulletin that document is to which he refers.
Mr. Teal: The bulletin in its present form is 32 pages of standard letterhead, 8J/2
by 11, and, besides the symbols themselves, it embodies quite a bit of detailed instruc-
tions for their use. The symbols would be useless without the instructions. It would
require the entire publication.
Mr. Stout: The idea of the subcommittee is that the symbols, as they are presented
now, are not fixed, that is, they vary from time to time?
Mr. Teal: They have been revised two or three times in the last two years, to
my knowledge, and they will be subject to further revision without any knowledge on
our part.
Mr. Stout: Under the circumstances, Mr. Chairman, I think the subcommittee's
recommendation is a wise one, not to try to publish it themselves because they couldn't
keep up with the procession, probably.
Mr. Teal: That was the thought. The bulletins cost, I think, 15 cents, if you apply
to the proper authority, the secretary of the American Welding Society.
(Mr. Teal's motion was then put to a vote and carried.)
Mr. Teal: Your committee has also reviewed the report entitled "Style To Be Used
in the Preparation of Reports and Specifications" which was originally submitted in
1938 as information, but with the understanding that it would later be considered for
inclusion in the Manual. Believing it worthy, your committee recommends its publi-
cation.
I move that the report on "Style To Be Used in the Preparation of Reports and
Specifications" now appearing in Vol. 39, pages 661 to 669 of the Proceedings, be
published in the Manual.
(The motion was seconded.)
Secretary Lacher: I would hke to call attention to the fact that many of the
abbreviations recommended are not the same as those used in the present Manual. For
example, in the first part, on abbreviations, it specifies the same standard that we use
in our other publications, namely, to abbreviate units of measure such as inches, feet,
pounds, and so forth, when used with numerals and to spell them out when used with
numbers spelled out.
I agree with the committee that that is the best system but the fact remains that
the editor of the Manual, presumably with the support of the Manual committee,
decided that feet, inches, pounds and other units of measure were to be spelled out in
Discussion 861
all cases. Consequently, if what the committee now submits is to he adopted, either
we must rewrite a large part of the Manual or we must have the Manual carry out
a style which is not in conformity with what is now submitted.
Vice-President Bond: That is an important point that the secretary has brought to
our notice, to the effect that, while the substance of the matter may be in order, its
set-up is subject to further revision insofar as abbreviations, to make it consistent with
what is already in the Manual.
Mr. Teal: Perhaps in view of the non-conformity we had better withdraw our
motion and attempt to get together, before presenting it for inclusion.
Secretary Lacher: I would like to suggest that this be brought to the attention of
the Manual Committee of the Board with a view to arriving at some agreement as to the
best policy to pursue.
(The motion was withdrawn with the consent of the seconder.)
Mr. Teal: This concludes the report of the subcommittee.
Chairman Knowles: The report on Assignment 4 will be given by Mr. Restall,
chairman of the subcommittee.
H. L. Restall (Boston & Maine): The report of Subcommittee 4 is one of progress.
It has recently been demonstrated by floods, hurricanes and operating emergencies arising
from other occasions that many carriers do not have readily available sufficient infor-
mation to facilitate the immediate replacement of certain electrical equipment.
The demand for this kind of information being obvious, this subcommittee has
undertaken the study of the conditions for the purpose of calUng attention to such
deficiencies of records and recommending a system whereby the information may be
collected and perpetuated.
Under this specific assignment the committee found itself confined to property
coming under the jurisdiction of the maintenance of way department. Realizing that
some railroad organizations place the responsibility for electrical equipment in other
departments, it has requested that the scope of the assignment be enlarged to include
all such electrical equipment, regardless of what department may be responsible therefor.
The study further indicated the probable desirability of including, in addition to
electrical equipment, such items as motor cars, machinery and roadway tools. Permis-
sion has now been granted, with the proper collaboration, to include these features in
the committee's study and it proposes to proceed along these lines for the ensuing year.
The report of this subcommittee is offered as a progress report.
Chairman Knowles: Assignment No. 5 is: Construction reports and records. The
committee has no report to offer at this time. A study has been in progress during the
year, and the committee e.xpects to offer some recommendations at the convention next
year. The report on Assignment 6, Valuation, will be given by Mr. Barnhart, chairman
of the subcommittee.
S. H. Barnhart (Norfolk & Western): The first assigned subject is: Resume of
developments of the current year in connection with regulatory bodies and the courts.
We have recorded the developments, under this assignment, and I shall not take your
time to attempt to reiterate the items of the report, other than to say that there is
nothing of major importance that should be called to the attention of the convention.
The second assigned subject, ICC valuation orders, reports and records: First
under this assignment we present a form for a record of ballast changes, with the
recommendation that it be included in the Manual.
The second is a study of Valuation Order No. 3 reports and records to determine
if further simplifications are possible. While the committee recognizes that there are
862 Records and Accounts
many things that we would like to do in connection with these reports and records
of property changes or valuation work, we have nothing of major importance to report
this year.
There have been a number of items that have come to the attention of the com-
mittee. They have been handled, and some results have been obtained.
The last subject assigned is: Form of Order No. 3 reports in connection with joint
projects, federal-railroad. Our report shows we have been unable to reach a conclu-
sion in connection with this matter, largely because we find difficulty between several
departments of the Bureau of Valuation as to how these matters are to be handled.
We are hopeful that in another year this subject may be concluded.
The report is offered as information except Exhibit I, which I move be adopted for
inclusion in the Manual.
(The motion was seconded, put to a vote and carried.)
Chairman Knowles: The report on Assignment 7 will be given by Mr. Barnes,
chairman of the subcommittee.
H. D. Barnes (Chicago & North Western) : As in previous years, the committee
has reviewed a number of proposed accounting case rulings or orders submitted to
Mr. Bunnell, vice-president, Association of American Railroads, by the Bureau of Ac-
counts of the Interstate Commerce Commission. These subjects are described in the first
part of the report.
Lists of the orders modifying the accounting classifications and accounting rulings
and interpretations issued by the Interstate Commerce Commission are shown in the
latter part of the report.
It is obvious that the accounting classifications are undergoing a gradual revision
and this procedure is of great importance to the railways. As stated in presenting this
committee's report for 1939, informal arrangements are effective with Mr. Bunnell
whereby proposed accounting orders or rulings pertaining to the accounting for property
changes or maintenance of roadway and structures are referred to this committee for
consideration. Representatives of the Bureau of Accounts have indicated an apprecia-
tion of our comments. We would like to have every member of this Association who
is interested in the changes that are being made in the accounting classification feel
that he is afforded an opportunity for expressing his opinions in regard to these im-
portant questions through any member of this committee.
This report is submitted as information with the recommendation that the subject
be continued.
Chairman Knowles: The report on Subject 8 will be given by Mr. Baldwin, chair-
man of the subcommittee.
F. B. Baldwin (Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe) : The assignment is: Methods of
avoiding duplication of reports and for simplifying and coordinating work under the
requirements of the ICC and other public authorities. Duplication of reports is some-
thing that grows like many things in nature. Reports are hke thistles or dandelions.
The first one is no problem but in a few years it is found that where one plant is
allowed to grow, hundreds have come into existence and have sapped the vigor of the
more useful plant life. Once the growth has started, the seed gets into the soil, and
a constant war must be waged to enable the useful plant life to exist.
When a business organization is small, no reports are necessary because the boss
sees all and knows all that is going on. As the organization grows larger, departments
are created. One man can no longer oversee the entire workings, and department heads
are required to make periodic reports. Thus the thing starts. As the organization con-
tinues to grow, departments create branches. The branch heads make reports to de-
Discussion 863
partment heads, and department heads condense these reports into reports to the
superintendent.
Ev-entually the organization becomes quite complex. Cost studies have to be made,
and numerous other factors have to be given consideration, all of which require reports
and more reports. It becomes necessary to create a department for making reports.
This department, in order to justify its existence, must be fed with reports upon which
to base its own reports. There seems to be no end.
Public interest in the growth of an industry demands regulation by a public authority.
A governmental bureau gets started, and there is created a further demand for reports
by this higher authority. This demand goes to the officials of the industry. Additional
reports are required of the record department, and this extends on down into the very
roots of the plant.
Until public regulation came into the picture, the industry had some chance to
curtail this growth of reports within its own organization. Where reports no longer
served any useful purpose, or duplicates were found, they could be discontinued. The
management could simply say "Stop" and the employees could turn to more useful
work. Even at that the weeding out of unnecessary reports was usually incomplete.
E.xperience shows that many reports once started continue automatically, long after
there is any real demand for them. Demand by governmental authorities cannot be
easily decreased. One bureau finds needs for certain information ; other bureaus need
reports from other points of view. Duplication is a natural result. One bureau does not
always inquire what information the other bureaus have.
In recent years the growth of bureaus has followed the same expanding pattern.
As indicated in the first paragraph of the subcommittee's report, the Association of
American Railroads has an organization helping to fight this growth of reports. Recently
that organization has, to some extent, been able to curtail this growth of demands for
additional reports and, to a small degree, has been able to lessen the burden of existing
demands.
In the second paragraph of the report, the subcommittee calls attention to two
instances where expanding bureaucratic activities have increased the burden on railroads.
The subcommittee finds a certain amount of hesitancy on the part of railroad repre-
sentatives to join in concerted action in this matter. The interests of various depart-
ments are involved, and the benefits to be derived from the existence of a particular
report and its effect upon the good relations with pubUc officials must be weighed against
its cost.
Each railroad has its experiences not only with the requirements of the bureaus of
the federal government but also with the requirements of the commissions of the
various states. The subcommittee calls attention in the fourth and fifth paragraphs of the
report to two instances where the requirements of the commissions of individual states
were sub.stantial duplications of reports furnished to a federal bureau. In these instances
considerable saving in expense appears to have been accomplished by prevailing upon
the state commissions to accept a copy of the report to the federal bureau in Ueu of its
own requirements.
The subcommittee has not been able to get many definite suggestions for improve-
ment of the situation. Is it possible that this condition is hke the weather problem,
where everybody complains and nobody can do anything about it? Complaining is not
effective unless you have some solution to offer.
As stated, the Association of American Railroads is working on this problem and
I am sure will gladly give consideration to any suggestions an individual railroad may
have.
864 Rules and Organization
The subcommittee calls attention to another feature in this year's report. This should
be of special interest to many railroad engineers. The inside workings of the Interstate
Commerce Commission may be familiar to lawyers and, to some extent, to the account-
ants but to many engineers this great regulatory body is pretty much of a mystery.
Attached to our report on pages 386 and 3^2 in Exhibit 2 we have included in the
Proceedings, where it would be readily available to all members of the Association, the
latest organization schedule and assignment of work and functions of the commission.
This should give anyone interested a general idea of how the commission operates.
While this information does not directly relate to the subcommittee assignment, it is
considered useful and, in some respects, is not entirely foreign to the assignment.
The subcommittee's report is offered as information.
Chairman Knowles: The subject of Assignment 9 is: Records of property leased
and available for lease. This is a somewhat new subject. The committee is studying
it but has no report to offer you at this time.
This concludes the report of Committee 11.
E. M. Hastings (Richmond, Fredericksburg & Potomac) : I don't think we ought
to pass this report without some comment on the splendid presentation that has been
made by Mr. Knowles and his committee. They have departed somewhat, in fact con-
siderably, from the usual stereotyped form of presenting subcommittee reports and
have made a most splendid presentation. The report contains information which is of
great value to all of us. I personally want to say this word of commendation of the
committee.
Vice-President Bond: The presentation has certainly been done in a very inter-
esting way, and I am very glad to hear the remarks from the floor to that effect.
The committee is excused with the thanks of the Association.
Discussion on Rules and Organization
(For Report, see pp. 515-538.)
(Vice-President Bond presiding)
Chairman W. T. Dorrance (New York, New Haven & Hartford) : The first subject
assigned to this committee, as to all committees, is Revision of Manual. The committee
finds the situation somewhat peculiar in this respect as the present Manual contains no
subject matter for this committee, but the 1929 Manual and supplements thereto contain
matter that has been approved by the Association at various times.
In order to carry out the intent of the assignment for revision of the Manual, the
committee felt that it was necessary to go back to the old material. In order to present
new, revised material, the committee recommends the elimination of all material hitherto
adopted by the Association on the recommendation of Committee 12 and published in
the 1929 Manual and supplements thereto but withheld from publication in the present
Manual by order of the Board of Direction.
I move the adoption of this recommendation.
(The motion was seconded.)
H. L. Browne (Chicago): I was a member of this committee, previous to 1938,
for 20 years. I have been a member of the Association 30 years. During that period I
said two sentences from the platform but never spoke from the floor. You are a
Canadian. I am a great nephew of George Browne whose statue is on the left hand
as you go into the parliament of your home town. I am no public speaker, very poorly
equipped. I don't want to offend anybody. I don't want to use personalities, but I have
Discussion 865
probably attended more committee meetings than any other member of the Rules
and Organization committee.
There has been a great variance of opinion. We have gone before the Board of
Direction and the Committee on Outline of Work time and time again. We never held
an opinion opposite to any other committee, where we could get them together. We
were a conciliation committee. I think in a five-year period I read every word of 107
rule books. I don't claim to be any authority, either. I haven't had time to think over
all the rules in this book, but one of the striking things of this book was that the
superior officer was relieved of his responsibility. In one place it says the employee
shall provide himself with a rule book. About page 90 it rules that the superior should
provide that. Sears, Roebuck won't sell a rule book.
Vice-President Bond: Mr. Browne, may I ask if you arc speaking to the motion
that is now before the house?
Mr. Browne: Am I out of order?
Vice-President Bond: I think some of the remarks are somewhat foreign to the
motion.
Mr. Browne: Here is what I want to say: I don't think that this committee has
existed long enough to go into one-tenth of the responsibilities and realities connected
with this thing. I don't believe anyone has had time enough to consider these rules,
and I don't believe the various committees that are concerned have had time to consider
these rules.
Vice-President Bond: Will you kindly repeat the motion?
Chairman Dorrance: The motion is that the committee recommends the elimina-
tion of all material heretofore adopted by the Association on the recommendation of
Committee 12, and published in the 1929 Manual and supplements thereto but withheld
from publication in the present Manual by order of the Board of Direction.
Vice-President Bond: The motion is to withdraw what has already been published —
Chairman Dorrance: What has been published in the 1929 Manual, pages 789 to 871 ;
Bulletin 337, pages 82 to 85; Bulletin 347, pages 26 to 30; Bulletin 356, page 52; Bulle-
tin 367, pages 106 and 107; and Bulletin 378, pages 57 to 62.
Mr. Browne: I want to say one thing more. Mr. A. R. Wilson came before our com-
mittee in 1938 and said he was authorized by the Board of Direction to publish every-
thing that had been passed by the convention up to that time and had previously
passed. I want the Board of Direction to do that — either do it or don't do it. I don't
see Mr. Wilson around here but he can verify that. He asked permission, and I said
I would ask the committee if they would permit him to speak, and he appeared there
and, after quite a long discussion, I think he was 100 percent for the committee. He
came back and said they would publish it. Therefore, I think the Board of Direction
should be responsible to the membership. I want that promise kept. That is what I am
after, Mr. Bond.
I have worked a great many years, and I don't think that this committee in two
years even scratched the surface.
(Chairman Dorrance's motion was then put to a vote and carried.)
Chairman Dorrance: Subject No. 2 instructed the committee to prepare rules and
regulations for the guidance of employees of the maintenance of way department,
collaborating with appropriate standing committees.
The committee offers at this time as a substitute for the matter which has now
been deleted the new matter, which appears in the committee's report. This represents
the work of two years of rather intensive study, with careful review of books of
rules of various railroads. The proposed rules arc intended to be general rules and wc
866
Rules and Organization
attempted to eliminate from these general rules specific instructions which might come
under the head of specifications for carrying out detailed work which we believe prop-
erly belong to the several standing committees handling those special subjects.
E. M. Hastings (Richmond, Fredericksburg & Potomac): We have another chair-
man here who is a modest chap. He is beckoning to me to do some talking. I didn't
expect to do any on this particular matter this morning. You will notice that the
chairman has rather adroitly worded the sentence which he just read to you. I am
going to be very frank and give you my opinion. The material presented represents
a considerable amount of intensive work on the part of the committee. It is not my
view that it is Manual material. My view is that the Manual of the American Railway
Engineering Association should not contain material such as has been promulgated
by this committee at this time. Therefore, I am offering a motion that it be received
as information.
(The motion was seconded.)
Chairman Dorrance: Mr. Hastings moved that the report be received as information
to give an opportunity for any further study and comments that might be made during
the next year. The committee is willing to accept that.
Vice-President Bond: I think the committee can offer that statement without a
motion, Mr. Dorrance.
C. H. Mottier (Illinois Central) : Mr. Browne made only one specific criticism of
these rules. As I had a small part in the preparation of the rule criticized, I would like
the privilege of answering his criticism. His criticism was directed at Rule 30 on page
516. That Rule 30 appears under Responsibilities and Restrictions and reads as follows:
"Employees whose duties are prescribed by these rules and regulations must provide
themselves with copies. They must familiarize themselves with the rules and regulations
affecting their duties, whether or not they appear under the head of their specific duties,
and must be prepared to pass an examination on them at any time. If in doubt as to
the exact meaning of any rule or regulation they must apply to the proper authority for
explanation."
I understood Mr. Browne's criticism to be that the responsibility should rest on
the supervisory officer and not be unloaded, if you please, on the employee.
The basis on which these rules have been prepared should be explained. They are
grouped under certain functional subjects; that is trackmen rules are grouped together;
bridge men's rules are grouped together, etc. In the first section are grouped general rules
applicable to all employees, so as to avoid repeating the same rule several times, as is
dorte in many books of rules.
If you turn to page 519 you will find the heading "Supervisory Officers and Fore-
men." All such general rules applicable, we will say, to a section foreman, a bridge
foreman or any supervisory officer, are grouped under this heading and should be read
and observed by them. If a rule is applicable to all foremen, it will be found in this
one section, not in five or six different places. Then if there is a rule applicable to a
section foreman and to no other foreman, that rule should appear under the Track sec-
tion. Listen to rule No. 90 on page 519. "Books of Rules and Regulations. — Supervisory
employees must be fully conversant with the rules and regulations, must see that
subordinates who should have copies are supplied, and see that they are receipted for,
understood and complied with by those under them."
This answers Mr. Browne's criticism.
W. C. Barrett (Lehigh Valley): I think now that the question has come up it
is only fair to have the members of the Association— I am not sure but perhaps I am
Discussion 867
giving you some information >ou already have, understand what the problem is that
this committee is facing. It is really a question of whether or not this Association wants
to have printed in the Manual any rules whatever for the conduct of maintenance of
way work. That is the question which I think should be in the minds of all of the
members of this Association between the end of this convention and the convention
next year, because the committee will bring before you next year these same rules
which have been printed in the bulletin this year, with the request that they be
approved for printing in the Manual. I just wanted to present that as clearly as I
know how, so you could keep that in mind between now and next year, because next
year you will have to decide whether or not you want this committee to do anything.
W. G. Arn (Illinois Central) : There are one or two points I would like to mention.
I am glad that this is being carried over at least for another year because there are
some parts that pertain to various other committees, that should be studied by those
committees. I am wondering whether the Association, if it should publish this ulti-
mately in the Manual or merely in the Proceedings, will want to go on record as en-
dorsing a rule which is not now enforced on most of the railroads, will not be enforced
and probably cannot be enforced. I think, therefore, that the committee should give
further consideration to the wording, and whether or not there should be such a rule
as Rule 22 on page 516, which reads as follows:
Use of Intoxicants and Narcotics. — The use of intoxicants or narcotics is prohibited.
There is no limitation whatever on that. If one of the largest railroad companies
in the country can't discharge a locomotive engineer who is drunk on his locomotive
so he can't do his duty, I doubt if such a rule could be enforced, even if it were put in.
Chairman Dorrance: This is reprinted from the standard code of the AAR.
Colonel Arn: That is a good point but I don't think that should be binding on
this Association. If it is binding, it might be taken up with the proper authority to
see if that shouldn't be changed. We shouldn't stultify ourselves.
There is another point to which I think the committee should give consideration.
It has recommended on page 532, under First Aid to Injured: See "First Aid Instruc-
tions for Railroad Employees," approved and pubhshed by Operating-Transportation
Division, Association of American Railroads.
This, I understand, was prepared by the Medical and Surgical Section of the AAR,
and that should govern in this Association, but I think that this committee should go
over those rules carefully to see if it has any suggestions as to changes before we
adopt them. Possibly we might have changes to suggest that would be acceptable to the
Medical and Surgical Section.
Chairman Dorrance: The committee has gone over these rules and makes the
recommendation as it stands.
Mr. Browne: There are many matters I could touch on in that report. We only
got it lately, and I have been busy. I only used one instance. I have had twenty years
on the committee, and I have an idea of what it is about. I have met all these various
committees at times, and it is pretty hard to get them to go along. I am in favor of
what Mr. Barrett said.
I am not opposing the rules but I think they should be fine-tooth combed by every
committee, and their criticisms and reports and everything should be published, so the
membership could be informed. After that I am in favor of having these rules published.
I am 100 percent for that. I looked through the rules as published here, and in my
opinion there is one rule which my own committee approved, but which I didn't think
should be approved, and that is the one I referred to.
868 Wood Bridges and Trestles
What I would suggest is that all the various committees study these rules and
inform someone of their views. The next year those rules should be presented as infor-
mation, and, after they go through that, the third year they should be adopted, that is,
either adopted or rejected.
Chairman Dorrance: The committee will welcome any criticisms from any mem-
bers or any other committees during the next year.
Vice-President Bond: If there is no further discussion, the report is received with
the thanks of the Association and the committee is excused. (Applause)
[At a meeting on March 18, 1941, just after the conclusion of the convention, the
Board of Direction, by a unanimous vote of those present, discontinued the Committee
on Rules and Organization — Secretary J
Discussion on Wood Bridges and Trestles
(For Report, see pp. 247-293.)
(Vice-President Bond presiding)
Chairman H. M. Church (Chesapeake & Ohio) : The committee presents reports on
subjects 1, 2, 4, 6, and 8, and reports progress on subjects 3, 7, 9, and 10. The committee
has in the courso of preparation, under Subject 7, plans for revision of the designs for
trestles that are now in the Manual.
Subjects 1 and 2 have been handled together and are being treated as a revision to
the Manual. Mr. L. W. Smith, who has taken very active part in the handling of this
matter in connection with the American Lumber Standards, will present the report.
L. W. Smith (National Lumber Manufacturers' Association) : In the revision of those
sections of the Manual, pages 7-11 to 7-1 S of the present Manual, which pertain to the
Specifications of Lumber and Timbers, the wording of the Manual material and the Amer-
ican Lumber Standards were brought into agreement. Most of the revisions of the Manual
are editorial. The arrangement also has been changed, resulting, we believe, in a more
logical organization of the material. It will be necessary to make a few additional changes
that are not shown in the report, but they are merely editorial and involve no particular
difficulty.
The major changes that have been made, which are not of an editorial nature are,
first, those pertaining to paragraphs 135 and 140 in which the permissible sum of sizes of
knots in joists and planks, beams and stringers is defined. In the former specifications,
the sum of the size of all knots within the middle half of the Jength of a joist, for ex-
ample, was limited to four times the size of the largest knot admitted, without regard to
the length of the piece. Therefore more severe knot restrictions were placed on long joists
than on short ones.
The new specification defines the sum of the sizes of all knots as a variable depending
on the length of the piece, with due safeguards against closely spaced knots. It is believed
the new specifications provide a more equitable limitation of knots and, at the same
time, provide adequately for the desired quality.
Second, in paragraph 106 in the former specification, slope of grain was not limited
to posts and timbers. In the revision, such limitation is provided.
Third, paragraph 860, specifications for shingles are very much simplified and con-
densed. Fourth, sections pertaining to factory and shop lumber have been eliminated.
Fifth, definitions have been improved by cross references. In the former specifications
some terms were defined in the body of the text but not in the definitions. In the revi-
sion, proper cross references have been made.
Discussion 869
This report is presented for adoption as Manual material, and I move its adoption.
(The motion was seconded, put to a vote and carried.)
Chairman Church: Under subject 4 we offer tentative specifications for the design of
wood bridges and trestles. This matter has been handled by Mr. Hart, and he will present
the report.
R. P. Hart (Missouri Pacific) : We have been building wood bridges and trestles for
a long time, and it looks as if we ought to have specifications for doing it. This specifica-
tion is not new to many of you, and a large part of it you will note has been taken from
the Manual, page 7-107 under the heading "Notes on the Use of Stress Grades." Those
notes were prepared sometime ago, after extensive tests in the Forest Products Laboratory
at Madison and, we feel, form a sound basis for this specification.
Some paragraphs have been added to cover loads to be considered and the method
of treating those loads. Those paragraphs that have been added follow very closely the
material in the Manual under masonry and steel bridges. In other words, we proposed to
have our wood bridges and trestles designed fully as efficiently and effectively as any
other type of structure. We realize that there arc some features concerning the application
of load which need a little further study. We propose to give the specification that further
study during the coming year. We will welcome any suggestions that you have to offer
as to the application of those specification requirements.
I would like to call to your attention one correction in particular in Section lOlS on
page 276. The formula under sub-section (d) is incorrect in that there has been deleted
the factor 9L from the denominator. That should appear immediately below the factor
lOP in the numerator.
This report is submitted as information with the thought that, after further study,
we may be able to present to you for adoption as Manual material in another year a
specification acceptable to you.
F. R. Smith (Union Railroad) : In connection with the design of timber structures,
and particularly bridge ties on open decks, the question of longitudinal shear in timbers
under beam action has always been a problem. I have discussed the subject with men in
the design field, and no one seems to know just exactly how to handle the problem eco-
nomically. We figure the maximum longitudinal shear at the points of support from the
theory of mechanics, which perhaps does not hold true because we assume a plane section
before bending remains a plane section after bending, and at these points this assumption
probably is not true.
Then the other feature that complicates the problem is the amount of tie or beam
existing beyond the point of support, where there is no theoretical horizontal shear. I
would appreciate knowing whether or not the chairman has made any tests or knows of
anyone who has made tests pertaining to the subject of longitudinal shear resulting from
bending under the conditions mentioned.
Mr. Hart: I do not know of any tests in that particular form but there have, of
course, been numerous tests on beams at the Forest Products Laboratory to determine
the value in shear, and that is the basis of this specification 1015. You will find under
section (a) and (d) basic formulas which we propose to use. Under (d) the formula is a
modification based on the latest tests made at the Forest Products Laboratory and it al-
lows a little more leeway than the older formula found in sub-section (a). You will be
able to secure through Mr. John A. Newlin, in charge of Section on Timber Mechanics
at Madison, copies of tests on the beams, which may give you thi- information that you
desire.
Mr. Smith: I have one more question. Do you feel that a timber tie can initially
fail from longitudinal shear? In my opinion, it is quite difficult to conceive of initial
failure in longitudinal shear.
870 Wood Bridges and Trestles
Mr. Hart: I not only believe they can fail in longitudinal shear, I know they can
fail, because I have seen them fail. That is a feature which must be particularly watched
in timbers. Douglas fir timbers will not take the stress in longitudinal shear that certain
other timbers will take. Of course, Douglas fir has its advantages in other ways. You will
find in the section now in the Manual on stress grades that the shear values vary with
different kinds of timber, and it is just as important to consider the shear in timber as in
any other material. In fact, longitudinal shear stresses are governing in certain classes
of timber.
A. B. Chapman (Chicago, Milwaukee, St. Paul & Pacific): Under Section 1009, in
the last paragraph, the effect of centrifugal force, and so forth — may we disregard if
the track is superelevated to compensate for curvature? Do you consider that all tracks
should be compensated for theoretical curvature, or should it be proportional?
Mr. Hart: My thought is that that is a matter which the designer will have to con-
sider with judgment, knowing the speeds that will obtain and the conditions under which
he will get the maximum load condition. If the track is fully superelevated for maximum
load condition, then your resultant load will be applied normally to your stringers and
your longitudinal effect will be relieved.
Mr. Chapman: Will we have any trouble if we slope the cap and the floor of a
ballasted deck with the ballast moving out to the low side?
Mr. Hart: You may if the superelevation is more than four or five inches. I have
known of some complaint where a superelevation of five to six inches was used in the
floor, and trouble was experienced with the ballast crowding downgrade.
Mr. Chapman: But up to that height you haven't found any difficulties?
Mr. Hart: Not so much up to that height.
Chairman Church: Subject 5, Bearing power of wood piles and Subject 6, Recom-
mended relationships between the energy of hammer and the weight or mass of pile for
proper pile driving, have been handled under one subject. The chairman of this sub-
mittee, Mr. Heinlen, will present the report.
H. C. Heinlen (Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe) : A report was made on this subject
last year in general terms, referring only to the energy of steam hammers. We find, after
further study and consideration, that it is desirable to place some additional limitations
on pile driving equipment and we have revised the material under the heading of Steam
Hammers accordingly. You will note especially the limitations of unit energy and total
energy required in the hammer and that we have limited the size of the concrete pile
to that which can be handled by standard pile driving equipment on the market.
We have also placed a lower limit on the weight of the ram and we have limited
the speed of the hammer. This is to prevent a contractor from trying to substitute equip-
ment and telUng us he can get the required foot-pounds energy with a light hammer
operated at high speed. With these lower limits placed on the ram and limiting the
speed to the normal rate of operation, we feel that we have a recommendation that will
protect the engineer, and serve as a guide for the selection of pile driving equipment.
The latter part of the assignment is a series of tables made up to show the support-
ing capacity of piles driven by various weights and types of hammers in common use.
These tables are self-explanatory and are corrected to take into account the efficiency of
the hammer. The committee is aware, of course, that we cannot depend entirely upon a
formula for computing the capacity of piles, but they do serve to give a general idea of
what may be expected, and they also serve the further purpose of bringing out some
interest and discussion of the subject.
One person has already reported that he has made a comparison of the tables in this
bulletin with some actual pile driving data and tests, and has found they agree quite
Discussion 871
closely. The committee would appreciate it if the members of the AREA who are driving
test piles and have complete drivinp; a..d test loading data, would cooperate with the
committee by furnishing copies of such data to the chairman so that after a period of
years we will have a definite check on the value of the formulas now in common use.
This revision or redraft of material and additional material is presented as information.
Chairman Church: Subject 8, Fireproofing wood bridges and trestles including the
placing of fire stops is submitted in final form. Due to the fact that none of the mem-
bers of the committee is present, Mr. Oliver will explain the report.
W. A. Oliver (University of Illinois) : The sub-committee, after enumerating ways
of decreasing the fire hazards in wooden trestles, which it recognizes exists, recommends
that paragraphs 2, 5 and 6, now in the Manual under the heading Best Method of Fire-
proofing Wood Bridges and Trestles be changed in accordance with the material which
is presented at the bottom of page 291 of the report.
A reference to the Manual will show that these changes in every case consist of added
material. No changes have been made to the material which at present is in the Manual.
As the committee recommends, I move that these changes be accepted for inclusion in the
Manual.
(The motion was seconded, put to a vote and carried.)
Chairman Church: This completes the report of Committee 7.
Vice-President Bond: The committee is excused with the thanks of the Association.
(Applause)
Discussion on Impact
(For Report, see pp. 393-^83.)
(Vice-President Bond presiding)
Chairman J. B. Hunley (New York Central): Due to the lack of necessary equip-
ment for making additional tests, it was not possible to report any definite progress on
the special assignments of this committee. However, due to the generosity of the Asso-
ciation of American Railroads, which provided certain funds, and the Pennsylvania
Railroad which provided us with the test data which has been obtained on some very
interesting tests at Chester, Pa., the committee was able to analyze those tests and, I
think, submit certain data which will be of interest to the Association. It certainly
is a contribution to the whole subject of impact.
These tests were very carefully made. It is the first time that we have had, as far
as I know, tests in which both electric and steam locomotives were operated at very
high speeds.
This report embraces a description and analysis of tests made on two plate girder
spans 55 ft. 10 in. and 122 ft. long. Stresses, vertical deflections, and lateral deflections
were measured at the center of each span under four different types of locomotives,
running at speeds ranging from approximately five m.p.h., which may be considered
static loading, up to maximum speeds of 105 m.p.h. for the two types of electric loco-
motives, 80 m.p.h. for the freight type steam locomotive, and 90 m.p.h. for the passenger
type steam locomotive.
The electrical measuring equipment consisted of electrical deflectometers, accel-
erometers which were used for measuring lateral deflections and about 20 magnetic strain
gages, which were recorded on four six-element oscillographs. In other words, 24 simul-
taneous readings on stresses and deflections were obtained. In addition to this, we had
the mechanical deflectometers which were used in the Big Four tests, as reported in
Bulletin 380.
872 Impact
The results of these tests are of particular interest to railway engineers generally,
for two reasons: First because the higher speeds, which are considerably higher than
in any previous test, give information of value with respect to present-day speeds of
operation and, second, because comparison is afforded between the effects of locomotives
with and without the so-called hammer blow resulting from the overbalance in the
driving wheels of steam locomotives.
The total impact effect produced by each of these locomotives, in percent of stress
measured at a speed of approximately five miles per hour, that is at static loading, is
shown in Figs. 45 to 51, and so on.
In the digest of the report there is a comparison of the impact effect from the va-
rious locomotives at high speeds on both spans, and it will be noted from the tabulation
and figures that there was no marked reduction of impact with the electric locomotives
even though they had no unbalanced counterweight. This perhaps may seem a little
strange, but it can be explained by the fact that the two types of steam locomotives
used were especially well counterbalanced. That is, if those locomotives had had the
amount of overbalance provided for in our design specifications, or the large over-
balance that a great many locomotives now in service have, the comparative impact from
the electric locomotives would have been far more favorable.
In addition to the total dynamic effects, data were also analyzed for the purpose of
studying the magnitude of the individual impact effects which make up the total impact
effect. These individual effects, expressed in percentage of static stress as found in the
study, are as follows:
No. 1 : A definite increase due to speed and termed speed effect was found throughout
the tests, and this was entirely distinct from the vibration that was developed by the
moving load. The probable explanation of this speed effect is the centrifugal force
developed by the locomotive while following the path of the deflected span.
This raises the famous old questions of "why do we have a camber", and "is camber
necessary?" While camber is usually provided, it is customary to frame it out in the
deck. This speed effect is due to the span deflection, and in addition to the centrifugal
force of the load following the deflected path, there is present the inertia of the masses
of the span and live load falling through that distance. When there is no camber in
the span, perhaps it will become the practice to provide for it in the deck framing, how-
ever offensive to the eyes of the track men this may be.
If I may refer you to Figs. 28 to 35 on pages 457 to 463, you will note that these
speed effects increase, as they should, with the square of the speed. They are somewhat
higher than the theoretical curves based on an approximate formula and, in some
instances as much as 10 to 15 percent. This has not been taken into account in any
impact formula. While it did occur to a marked extent on these two spans, it is some-
thing which we need to investigate a httle further.
No. 2: The effect of roll was found as in other tests, and the results are shown on
the diagrams on pages 457 to 464. I need only say here that the roll effect generally
is less than the design specification or the rating rules call for. On the 55-ft. span, the
girders are only five feet apart, or directly under the rail, where maximum effect
would occur.
No. 3: With the electric locomotives we had a very good chance to segregate the
track effect from the total impact effect because there were no unbalanced parts on these
locomotives. This track effect can be due to out-of-round wheels or flat spots on wheels
or track irregularities. Supposedly, the track effect should increase with the square of
the speed, but it will be noticed, from Figs. 36 to 39, inclusive, that it reaches a maximum
Discussion 873
at speeds of 30 or 40 or SO miles, with little or no increase at higher speeds. Possibly
the rating rules, which provide for track effect increasing with the square of the speed,
can later be revised. This would be fortunate as the track effect is quite an important
factor in the total impact on short spans.
It might be of interest to know that Professor Ingliss, who is probably the fore-
most authority in England on this subject, told me, when he was in my office about a
year and one-half ago, that, from a theoretical analysis and tests which he had made
at Cambridge University, he is convinced that the maximum effect occurs at between
20 and 30 m.p.h. I questioned this at that time but it has been verified, to a certain
extent, by these tests.
No. 4: Combined track and hammer blow effect of the steam locomotive: These
effects could not be separated, due to the presence of overbalance, but they were found
to be about what could be e.xpected and were lower than provided for in the design
specifications.
As in former tests, locomotive spring damping was apparent. I would like to refer
to Figs. 42 and 43 on pages 471 and 472. You will note in Fig. 42, on either diagram,
at a speed of about three revolutions per second, or about 42 m.p.h. the oscillations,
instead of following the upper curve as we would expect when the springs remained
locked, suddenly decreased in magnitude and later increased, approaching a second
peak. This is due solely to spring damping. As soon as the sprung weight of the locomo-
tive is set in motion, the spring friction damps out the primary oscillations, but at
higher speeds a second critical frequency maj' occur.
You will note as represented by the dotted line, that the oscillations do increase,
but they never reach the magnitude that would have been expected if the springs remained
locked. The same effect is shown in Fig. 43 on page 472.
These tests gave some information as to two other dynamic effects about which
little is known. From the lateral deflection of the spans as determined by the acceler-
ometers it was possible to compute the lateral force which would be necessary to produce
that deflection, and this force was probably due largely to nosing of the locomotives.
In the various tables given on pages 477 to 480 it is found that, assuming the
force was concentrated at the center or distributed over other points on the span, the
lateral forces necessary to produce the measured deflections were quite high. In Table
35 values as high as 46,000 lb. are found. It is interesting to note that the maximum
force does not always occur at the maximum speed. In some instances they are quite
as high at 40 m.p.h., as at 80 and 90 m.p.h. Both the design and the rating rules provide
for this nosing effect, but whether the amount provided for at present is large enough
it is impossible to say.
Another thing which is mentioned in the report but for which no values are given,
is the action of the web at the end of the spans. Magnetic strain gages were placed on
the web plate, for the purpose of measuring dynamic shear. It was found that the
web vibrated laterally at very high frequencies, so that it was impossible to determine the
shear. The total stress was quite high; and was a combination of direct shear and a
lateral bending of the web. These webs are not especially thin. On the short span they
were t's in. thick and on the long span ^ in. It may be desirable to give some considera-
tion to this lateral bending in webs, in addition to the shearing stresses.
The report bristles with tables which may appear uninteresting, but they contain a
great deal of interesting information. However, for the sake of easy interpretation, the
results have been shown in the various diagrams. After careful consideration of these
data, the committee has reached these conclusions:
(Chairman Hunley then read the conclusions on page 482.)
874 Iron and Steel Structures
Chairman Hunley. That concludes the report of the Committee on Impact.
Vice-President Bond: If there is no discussion, the committee is excused with the
thanks of the Association. (Applause)
Discussion on Iron and Steel Structures
(For Report, see pp. 3SS-368.)
(Vice-President Bond presiding)
Chairman R. A. Van Ness (Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe) : Your committee has no
report to offer this year on Assignments 2, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8. Assignment 1, Revision of
Manual, will be presented by Mr. O. E. Selby, chairman of that subcommittee.
O. E. Selby (Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St. Louis) : The revisions of the
Manual are confined mostly to revisions of the Specifications for Steel Railway Bridges.
On page 356, article 301 (b) : Delete the words "Shoes and Pedestals" in the first line.
Article 425: Add a paragraph to read: For stringers, the gage of the outstanding
legs of the connection angles over the top one-third of the stringer depth shall be not
less than the quantity: square root of It over eight.
/ = length of stringer span, in inches.
t = thickness of angle, in inches.
The length of stringer span in inches is correct, as read, and not in feet, as printed.
In addition the letter L as printed under the radical and in the nomenclature, should be
a lower case / instead of capital L.
The revision of 432 as proposed on page 356 has been withdrawn by the com-
mittee. That is: Stiffeners at Points of Bearing, article 432 — everything to the bottom
of the page.
On page 357, articles 504, 505 and 506 are revised, and I will read the subtitles.
These three numbers were submitted last year for revision but were withdrawn before
being acted upon because the committee was not satisfied with the wording. We have
gone over them again and now think that the wording expresses what we mean. There
is no intention to change the meaning of the specifications; it is merely to make the
intended meaning clearer.
(Mr. Selby then read the paragraph headings on pages 357 and 358 down to 1611,
page 15-48.)
Mr. Selby: In addition, I offer a similar change on page 15-27 of the Manual. Change
the serial designation A141-33 to A141-39, with a similar change in Article 825.
(Mr. Selby then read the revision on Welding.)
Mr. Selby: I move the adoption and insertion in the Manual of the revisions of
the Specifications for Steel Railway Bridges which have been read and referred to.
(The motion was seconded, put to a vote and carried.)
Mr. Selby: The following revision of the Rules for Rating Existing Iron and Steel
Bridges is recommended:
108: Under (c) Hammer Blow Effect, Clause 3, substitute the numeral 5 for the
quantity w," in the denominator of the last term in both formulas (a) and (b).
This is merely to clear up and simplify the formula without any substantial change
in its meaning or results. There is a typographical error on page 358. The expression
n' should read nj^.
I move the adoption of the revision.
(The motion was seconded, put to a vote and carried.)
Discussion 875
Mr. Selby: Instructions for the Maintenance Inspection of Steel Bridges. These in-
structions were thrown back on this committee. They constitute a revision of similar
instructions that formerly appeared in Chapter 12 of the Manual, and are now offered
for insertion in the Manual.
(Mr. Selby then read the paragraph numbers on pages 358 to 363, calling attention
to the fact that the word "very" in the sixth line from the bottom of page 362 should
be deleted.)
Mr. Selby: I move the adoption and insertion in the Manual of the Instructions
for the Maintenance Inspection of Steel Bridges which have just been read by reference.
(The motion was seconded, put to a vote and carried).
Chairman Van Ness: Assignment 3, Non-ballast type metal floor steel bridges:
The report will be presented by Mr. Haggander.
G. A. Haggander (Chicago, Burlington & Quincy) : In our investigation we found
that, while a large number of these structures had been constructed early in this century,
not many are being built at the present time, and much of the development has been
along the lines of altering and improving the earlier structures. New developments such
as corrosion-resisting steel, use of rubber products for insulation and reducing noise,
will no doubt overcome many of the present objections to this type.
Because of the briefness of the report, it will be desirable to read it rather than to
try to summarize it.
(Mr. Haggander then read the report on Assignment 3, pages 363 to 365.)
Mr. Haggander: This report is presented as information.
Chairman Van Ness: This completes the report of Committee 15.
Vice-President Bond: The committee is excused with the thanks of the Association
for this very fine presentation. (Applause)
Discussion on Buildings
(For Report, see pp. 22S-245.)
(Vice-President Bond presiding)
Chairman L. H. Laffoley (Canadian Pacific): Although our report this year may
appear more brief than is our usual custom, I think some of the subject matter found
therein will be pertinent to anyone in the transportation industry, particularly the second
report which we are to make.
Of the six assignments, we are reporting this year only on two. Assignments 1
and 2, namely. Revision of Manual and Preparation of specifications for railway build-
ings, are permanent assignments for this committee. A certain amount of work was
done, but we have nothing to report on those two assignments at this time.
Subject 3, Requirements and design of garage buildings for railway service. We
are making a final report on this subject at this time. I will ask Mr. J. P. Gallagher,
chairman of the subcommittee, to present this report.
(J. P. Gallagher, New York Central, read the report on Assignment 3.)
G. C. Crites (Baltimore & Ohio): At a time when we take our family automobile
into our own home, I wonder why, under Location, it says: "Garages, whether small
or large, should be isolated from other structures in order to reduce to a minimum the
hazard of exposure from fire". Just what does the word "isolated" mean? Considerably
removed or fireproofed away from them ?
Mr. Gallagher: The word "isolated" is used in a broad sense. It may be isolated
in the structure, depending upon the risk to the plant or the location. In your home
876 Buildings
you actually have your garage isolated from the rest of the building by cement, plaster,
or what-not — cut off from it.
Chairman Laffoley: On Subject No. 4, we make no report at this time.
Subject No. 5: This subject has been before Committee 6 for some time, and we
now have what I think is a very thorough report on this subject, Methods of deter-
mining the protective value of paints. There is probably no material which we all
have to deal with, that is in more common use than paint, and without any reflection
on anybody I venture to state it is a subject that most of us know least about. You
know that it is paint, but when you come down to finally finding out what it is, or
how to find out what you are getting, you begin to appreciate that it is a considerable
problem. It is our sincere hope that this report may answer a few of the questions on
that subject. I think it is worthy of your attention. I will ask Mr. Angel, chairman
of the subcommittee, to present this report.
C. M. Angel (Chesapeake & Ohio) : The introduction of the report gives a summary
of a survey of 39 railroads to ascertain the manner in which various railroads purchase
paints and what tests are made of the paint product before use. Attention is called
to the importance of the paint manufacturers' research to develop better paints, and
standardized methods of paint test by the railroads to ascertain the comparative quali-
ties of the paints before application. The paint testing procedure explains the care that
must be exercised to conduct tests under conditions similar to those to which the paint
will be subjected after application.
From the middle of page 229 to page 235 a description is given of various paint
failures and the causes. Also, photographs are included illustrating the failures described.
Starting with the Physical Characteristics on the bottom of page 235 and ending
at the top of page 242 a suggested test of paints is described, explaining how the physical
characteristics of the paint in the beginning determine whether it is even worth while
to make extensive tests. The text also outlines and describes the chemical analysis,
accelerated weathering tests, outside exposure tests, and various special tests.
In connection with the accelerated weathering tests of paints, it has been called
to the committee's attention that the word "weatherometer" used in the report is a
trade name for a machine to conduct accelerated weathering tests. Therefore, the word
"weatherometer" where used in the report should be changed to "accelerated weathering
machine".
The report in conclusion gives a general description of paint testing equipment and
staff required should a railroad desire to conduct tests of paints; also, a suggested plan
for the correlation of test data accumulated and a suggested method of paint purchases.
The tests outlined are offered as suggested means through which paint can be
tested to ascertain their comparative qualities, and this report has been presented by
your committee primarily as a guide for those who use paints.
The report is presented as information.
Mr. Crites: I notice that the caption under the illustration on page 235 states that
"Puddles of water were formed in the basement, because tree roots clogged the sewer."
I wonder if that had anything to do with the failure of the paint.
Mr. Angel: I think that failure was caused by the moisture arising from the base-
ment and saturating the wood. That would be the explanation I would offer to that.
Mr. Crites: That is, water came from the sewer and went up into the second story?
Mr. Angel: No, I would say that the moisture traveled up through the wood, into
the paint, behind it. I think that the moisture could easily have gone up between the
outside boarding and the inside wall of the structure.
Discussion 877
Chairman Laffoley: As no report is being made at this time on Assignment No. 6,
this concludes the report of Committee 6.
Vice-President Bond: If there is no further discussion, the committee will be
excused with the thanks of the Association.
Discussion on Waterproofing of Railway Structures
(For Report, see p. 353.)
(Vice-President Bond presiding)
Chairman J. A. Lahmer (Missouri Pacific): As indicated in the printed report on
page 353, we recommend changes in two sections of the Manual. These changes do not
involve any change in practice or in the intent of the specifications. They are as follows:
Change heading of Section 203 from "Asphalt for Mopping Below Ground" to
"Asphalt for Saturant and Mopping Below Ground." Immediately after the heading, add
the following paragraph:
Asphalt for saturant below ground shall meet the requirements of Section 202.
In other words, the same asphalt is used for saturant above ground and for saturant
below ground.
The other change is in the first paragraph of Section 207 relating to fabric, which
is to be changed to read as follows:
Fabric shall consist of high-grade cotton cloth saturated thoroughly and uniformly
with asphalt specified in Section 202 or either type of coal tar pitch specified in
Section 204.
These changes are for clarification and I move their adoption.
(The motion was seconded, put to a vote and carried.)
Chairman Lahmer: The other subject assigned is: Waterproofing of railway struc-
tures. Under that we report that we are continuing the comparative study of ASTM
specifications for waterproofing materials and corresponding requirements in our specifi-
cations for membrane waterproofing. We have suggested that the ASTM make certain
changes in its specifications and have also asked for further information about the de-
tails of some of the present requirements in those specifications.
Representatives of ASTM have indicated that they would like to continue the nego-
tiations with a view of ultimately agreeing on specifications for waterproofing materials
which will be satisfactory to the ASTM, the American Association of State Highway
Officials. Federal Specifications Board and the AREA.
That concludes our report.
Vice-President Bond: We are much obliged to you for a very comprehensive report,
and this last portion will be accepted as progress and for information.
Chairman Lahmer: I would like to say one thing further. We have recently been
informed by several producers and dealers that they are not able to furnish a five-ounce
fabric for membrane waterproofing such as is stipulated in our specifications. AREA
specifications also include requirements for a four-ounce fabric. The committee would be
glad to know whether any of the members of the Association are interested in the use of
five-ounce fabric for purposes that would not be served by the four-ounce fabric. As a
matter of information. I will say that our requirements for four-ounce fabric are very
similar to the ASTM requirements which include a minimum weight of three and one-
half ounces instead of four.
Vice-President Bond: You and your committee are excused with the thanks of the
Association. (Applause)
878 Masonry
Discussion on Masonry
(For Report, see pp. 295-352.)
(Vice-President Clarke presiding)
Chairman J. F. Leonard (Pennsylvania): The report of Committee 8 — Masonry
covers 15 assignments. The first report is on Revision of Manual. It embraces minor
revisions in the Specifications for Portland Cement Concrete and the Specifications for
Shotcrete. Mr. G. E. Boyd, chairman of this committee, will present the report.
G. E. Boyd (Railway Age) : The report of the subcommittee is made up almost
entirely of editorial revisions. There are two types: One embraces revisions that are
necessary to bring our specifications, where we refer to the specifications of the
American Society For Testing Materials, up to date; the others are purely editorial.
(Mr. Boyd then read the revisions to Article 102.1, on pages 296 and 297.)
Mr. Boyd: I move the adoption of these revisions.
(The motion was seconded, put to a vote and carried.)
(Mr. Boyd then read the recommended changes in Article 104 and deletion of
separate references to steel for bridges and buildings.)
Mr. Boyd: I move the approval of these revisions.
(The motion was seconded, put to a vote and carried.)
(Mr. Boyd then read the recommended revisions for High Early Strength Cement
down to and including the deletion of footnote on page 8-7.)
Mr. Boyd: I move the approval of these revisions.
(The motion was seconded, put to a vote and carried.)
(Mr. Boyd then read the substitution for Section 5 of the Specification for Shot-
crete.)
Mr. Boyd: I move the adoption of this revision.
(The motion was seconded, put to a vote and carried.)
Chairman Leonard: Assignment No. 2, Specifications and principles of design of
plain and reinforced concrete for use in railway bridges, building and culverts, collaborat-
ing with Committees 1 — Roadway and Ballast, S — ^Track, 6 — Buildings, 7 — Wood Bridges
and Trestles, 13 — Water Service, Fire Protection and Sanitation, and 15 — Iron and
Steel Structures: In the case of the first of these subjects. Composite columns and pipe
columns, the committee has a report to present which involves, incidental to its presenta-
tion, certain revisions in the Manual, but since it is also substantially an adoption of
certain subject matter in the joint committee report, it is being presented here for action.
In the case of the other two subjects, we have progress to report. Mr. A. N. Laird,
chairman of assignment 2, Design of columns, will present this report.
A. N. Laird (Grand Trunk Western) : This committee has had the assignment
of composite columns and pipe columns for several years. A previous final report on the
subject has not been made because the matter was under consideration in great detail
by the Joint Committee on Standard Specifications for Concrete and Reinforced Con-
crete, on which the American Railway Engineering Association was represented by
members of the Masonry committee.
The Joint Committee report was published in AREA Bulletin 419 for September-
October, 1940,* and the subject matter which is indicated, extending from the middle
of page 298 to the middle of page 305 is substantially identical with the material in
the joint committee report, with only such editorial changes as are necessary to coordi-
nate it with the subject matter now in the Manual.
See page 27 of the monograph section of this issue of the Proceedings.
Discussion 879
The committee recommends that subject matter of Section 307. Design of Columns,
of the Specifications for Portland Cement Concrete, Plain and Reinforced, be withdrawn
and that it be replaced by new Section 307, Design of Columns.
The present form has not been printed in this committee report because of its
length and because there is such a substantial change in form as to make direct compari-
son by paragraphs impractical.
I would hke to read a portion of the first article under the proposed section because
it gives a very clear picture of the viewpoint of the Joint committee and of the
Masonry committee in its approach to this column design. It involves a substantial
change in some respects, particularly with relation to spiral reinforced columns.
(Mr. Laird then read paragraphs (a) and (b) on pages 298 and 299.)
Mr. Laird: In view of the length of this subject matter, unless there is some ob-
jection, I will just read the headings.
(Mr. Laird then read the paragraph headings on pages 299 to 305.)
Mr. Laird: I move the deletion of Section 307 in the present Manual and the
substitution of the proposed form.
(The motion was seconded, put to a vote and carried.)
Chairman Leonard: Assignment No. 3 carries the general heading, Progress in science
and art of concrete manufacture. One of the specific assignments under this general
heading, which this committee has carried for several years past, is entitled, Needed
adjustments in field practice to use present day cements to best advantage. This subject
was assigned to this committee at its own request and, after it accepted the assignment,
it found that it had quite a problem on its hands to present the matter in detail. The
committee is not now presuming to state that what it is now presenting is a complete
handling of the subject.
However, it so happens that Committee C-1 of the ASTM during the past year
adopted tentative specifications for five types of Portland cement, and since no doubt
it intends to progress those to final specifications in due time, it was felt that under this
assignment it was now the proper time for us to bring up to date, so far as we could,
those things incidental to the subject that developed in connection with these five types
of cement now being given a great deal of publicity. The report is for information
purposes. It appears on page 305. The chairman of this committee, Mr. C. P. Marsh,
was unable to be present at the meeting. We, however, are very fortunate in having
with us today Mr. L. W. Walter who served very ably for many years as chairman of
this same subcommittee until relinquishing the job within the last year due to his
retirement. He will present the report.
L. W. Walter (Jersey City, N. J.): Our chairman, Mr. Leonard, has covered the
subject about as fully as I had in mind attempting to do, so that what few remarks
I have to make may, to some extent, be a repetition of what he has already said.
At the time of our last annual convention it was reported that ASTM Committee
C-1 on Concrete was developing specifications intended to apply to five different types
of Portland Cement. Those specifications were presented to that society at its June
1940, annual convention and were approved by the society as tentative specifications
bearing the serial designation C-1 50-40.
Mr. Leonard has said, in deahng with the problem of needed adjustments in field
practice to use present day cements to best advantage, the subcommittee has limited
its studies and this report to the five types of Portland cement and to the new tentative
specifications for them.
Since these are tentative specifications, they do not set aside the present standard
specifications for Portland cement and high early strength Portland cement. However,
X80 Masonry
it seems probable that during this calendar year the present tentative specifications for
the five types of cement, with such minor revisions as may seem desirable, may be
advanced to standard specifications, thereby and then superseding the present standard
specifications for Portland cement and for high early strength Portland cement now
listed under serial designation C9-38 and C74-39.
The report is presented as information.
Chairman Leonard: The next subject is No. 4 entitled Maintain contact with Joint
Committee on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete. The chairman of this committee, Mr.
Hirschthal, is unable to be here, but since the speaker was also a member of the joint
committee, he will present the report. The report of the joint committee was published
as information in Bulletin 419, Part 1 for September-October, 1940 and will appear on
page 27 in the monograph section of the Proceedings for 1941.
As a matter of information I will read the foreword prepared by Committee 8 in
presenting this report.
(Chairman Leonard then read the foreword of the Joint Committee report.)
Chairman Leonard: The next assignment is No. 5, Specifications for foundations,
including excavation, cofferdam, piling, etc., collaborating with Committee 1 — Roadway
and Ballast on soil mechanics, and with Committee 7 — ^Wood Bridges and Trestles on
bearing power of wood piles and pile driving. The committee has no report to present
at this time since the activity on the subject of foundation was concentrated in another
report on the subject of test borings which you will receive later.
Assignment 6. Methods and practices of lining and relining tunnels, collaborating
with Committee 1 — Roadway and Ballast: The chairman of this committee, Mr. I. L.
Pyle, is unable to be present, and most of the other members of this committee who
have been for some time past active on the committee are also not present. Therefore
I will present the report.
The report is in two parts. The first part is entitled Specifications for Lining Rail-
way Tunnels with Metal Liner Plates and Shotcrete. You will note that while it is entitled
Specifications, it is submitted at the present time as information, with the object of
presenting it later for adoption and publication in the Manual, with the expectation that
the members during the current year will have an opportunity to review the subject
matter and give Committee 8 the benefit of any criticisms which they have to offer.
Therefore I will not attempt to read the report. I will refer you to the descriptive
matter on page 308, with the plate showing the drawing of the recommended type of
such construction. This is submitted as information.
The second part of this report is in the form of a revision of the Manual and is
shown on page 309.
(Chairman Leonard read the first paragraph under Revision of the Manual on
page 309.)
Chairman Leonard: Therefore, that which follows is an addition and a revision
of the existing Manual material to give the Association the benefit of this alternate type
of tunnel floor which is now in use, and very successfully, in some recent construction.
(Chairman Leonard then read the matter from the change in title of Section 202
on page 309 down to the end of that page.)
Chairman Leonard: You will note the section referred to at the top of page
310 entitled Supplement to Figures 835 and 836. You will note the other descriptive
matter which is merely a word description of the construction dimensions as shown on
the sketch plan accompanying the proposed form.
I move the revision of the Manual accordingly.
(The motion was seconded.)
Discussion 881
J. B. Hunlcy (New York Central) : In the figure on page 310 for the double-track
section, you would have only I'V in. of, let us say, "toehold" of the tie for the inner
rail. On the curved track, it states that the tie block shall be thickened for super-
elevation. Is the committee convinced that this tk-in. encasement at the end of that
tie would be sufficient to take the horizontal thrust due to the centrifugal force?
Chairman Leonard: That -fs in. is at the center and not at the end of the tie.
The amount of concrete at the end of the tie will be increased by the slope of the
concrete between the center and the end of the tie.
Mr. Hunley: On the one end of the tie you show a five-inch depression of the con-
crete. That would give about three inches at the gage end of the tie. You are sloping
down from that, to 7ii in. at the center. It would be more than fs in. at the outer
end of that tie, but certainly not over 34 in. Are you convinced that that is enough
for the outer rail of a curve?
Chairman Leonard: The slope is }^ in. in 12 in., and the distance from the center
to the end of the tie is 2 ft. 9 in. so that is about 2 in. plus iV in., which would be
the thickness of the concrete shoulder on the inner end of the tie.
Mr. Hunley: You think that would be enough?
Chairman Leonard: That was our conclusion. Naturally we adopted that from
certain practice which has been constructed and which, up to the present time, we are
advised, has worked most satisfactorily. I regret very much that Mr. Pyle isn't here
because Mr. Pyle himself is one of the pioneers in the adoption of this type of floor
for tunnel work.
Mr. Hunley: I suspect the C. & O. has curves in tunnels, so it is probably all right
for such tracks. In many cases it is desirable, of course, to keep it to a minimum, but
two inches looks pretty thin to me. I will have to leave that to the judgment of the
committee.
Vice-President Clarke: Is your question answered?
Mr. Hunley: In a way. I think that experience is really the best answer. If they
have been in serv-ice long enough in these tunnels and where they are running at a
balanced speed, it is probably all right, but it does look small to me. I am just asking
for information.
(Chairman Leonard's motion was then put to a vote and carried.)
Chairman Leonard: The next assignment is: Review specifications for overhead
highway bridges of the American Association of State Highway Officials, insofar as
they relate to masonry, conferring with that association, and Committee IS — Iron and
Steel Structures. We have no report. We were unable to obtain any collaboration with
the AASHO until late in the fall when we were furnished by that body with an advanced
copy of a proposed new specification which, since that time, we have had under study.
However, lack of time precluded the inclusion of any comment thereon as a part of
this report since it had to go to press the first of December.
The next subject is No. 8. Progress in cement manufacture and testing. This is
a factual report, as information, describing the five types of Portland cement recently
adopted by the ASTM as tentative. You will note that this report gives the facts of
the physical and chemical provisions of these five types of cement. Mr. C. P. Marsh,
chairman of this committee, is unable to be present, and Mr. F. W. Capp who is an
active member of this committee will present this report.
F. W. Capp (Portland Cement Association): The background of this report has
already been given by the chairman and by Mr. Walter on Assignment No. 3. I would
call attention to the paragraph in small type at the top of page 311.
(Mr. Capp then read the note at the top of page 311.)
882 Masonry
Mr. Capp: In Tables I and II on page 312, the physical and chemical characteristics
of these various types of cement are given. I understand these are to be changed in
minor detail for presentation to the ASTM convention in June of this year.
In the matter of testing you will note that the autoclave test is included. A
specification for fineness determined by the turbidimeter tests for types I, II, IV and V
are given, and the compressive test on mortars is to be continued as it has been
heretofore.
(Mr. Capp read the second and third paragraphs on page 313.)
Mr. Capp: The remaining material in this report is taken from a paper by L. A.
Wagner, chief research chemist, Missouri Portland Cement Company, presented at the
meeting of ASTM Committee Cl on Cement held on March 18 and 19, 1940.
The use of additions of this sort is being actively investigated at the present time,
and some rather striking results have been obtained both in the laboratory and on
field installations. During the coming year we expect to receive performance reports on
a number of these installations, and we hope to be able, if these are available, to present
a digest of them in our next report. This is given as information.
Chairman Leonard: The next subject is: Specifications for culvert pipe. The speci-
fications for placement which were submitted last year as information are now proposed
for inclusion in the Manual. The chairman, Mr. Doll, is unable to be present, and I am
asking Professor Vawter, a member of this committee, to present this report.
Jamison Vawter (University of Illinois) : As Mr. Leonard said, these specifications
were presented last year as information, and they are now offered for publication in
the Manual. They cover specifications, also, for jacking pipe through fills and placing
in tunnels, and some sketches of different methods of bedding and for filling in backfill,
are given on pages 316, 317 and 318. I will merely read the article headings.
(Mr. Vawter then read the paragraph headings on pages 315 to 319.)
Mr. Vawter: I move that these Specifications for the Placement of Concrete Culvert
Pipe be adopted and published in the Manual.
(The motion was seconded, put to a vote and carried.)
Chairman Leonard: Incidental to the assignment just reported on, your committee
has to recommend that the subject be continued under the following designation: Main-
tain contact with ASTM Committee C-13 on Concrete Pipe. In other words, it is felt
that the purpose which this committee set out to accomplish has now been accomplished
with the exception of maintaining contact through representation on Committee C-13,
so that we may keep in touch with any further developments in this field.
The next subject is No. 10. Bibliography and review of current engineering litera-
ture pertaining to railroad masonry work. While the committee within itself did con-
siderable work on this subject, there is nothing which we have to report at the present
time.
The next assignment is No. 11. Pressure grouting. Specifications for Solidification of
Masonry Structures by Pressure Grouting are submitted as information. Mr. Ray, who
is chairman of this committee, will present this report.
W. M. Ray (Baltimore & Ohio) : Last year this subcommittee on pressure grouting
submitted as information illustrations of various applications of pressure grouting and
descriptions of the application of this method to various purposes. We are now presenting
a specification which is confined to the solidification of masonry structures, and it is
presented as information this year with the intention of recommending its adoption and
publication in the Manual next year. I will read the titles of the paragraphs.
(Mr. Ray then read the paragraph headings on pages 319 and 320.)
Discussion 883
Chairman Leonard: The next subject is: Specifications for concrete and reinforced
concrete railroad bridges and other structures. This is the biggest assignment Committee 8
has and there is a brief report on page 321. I am going to ask Mr. Splitstone, who is
chairman of this committee, to read this brief report with the idea that, if the members
have any suggestions incidental to this undertaking, we would be glad to hear from
them now or in writing during the coming year.
(C. H. Splitstone, Erie, read the report on assignment 12, on page 321.)
Mr. Splitstone: I might add the committee has continued activity since the sub-
mission of this report for publication.
Chairman Leonard: The next is 13. Specifications for test borings, collaborating
with Committee 1 — Roadway and Ballast. Mr. Wilson, chairman of this subcommittee,
will present this report.
W. R. Wilson (Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe) : Your committee, in addition to
preparing specifications for test borings, decided it should present considerable support-
ing data. The steel, concrete or timber entering into a structure is subjected to numerous
tests to determine its properties. No engineer would think of building a structure without
knowing the strength of the material going into it, but in many cases this same struc-
ture is placed upon a foundation material about which httle is known and, in some cases,
nothing is known until the excavation is made. This is equivalent to designing a bridge
without knowing the material of which it is to be built.
Test borings and the identification and classification of the soil serve a similar
purpose for the foundation material as do the usual tests for other structural ma-
terials. The results of such sub-surface investigation play a very important part in the
determination of the most economical and stable structure for a given site.
In many cases where test borings are made, the records are not adequate and the
field identification of the soils is inaccurate. It is a waste of money to make test borings
without proper identification of the soil encountered and the keeping of adequate
records. In fact, such a procedure might be dangerous, in that it would give a false
picture of sub-surface conditions which could lead to the design of an inadequate or
even an unsafe foundation.
To help correct this situation, your committee is presenting as information a brief
description of the usual ways of making test borings and a table showing the various
methods of underground exploration, with their approximate cost. It is intended to
introduce the table as Manual material next year.
The various agencies interested in soil mechanics and foundation design arc
especially anxious to standardize the field classification and identification of soils so
that all concerned will be speaking the same language. An example of this is quick-
sand. Many people think of quicksand as a type of soil, and it is often so shown on
sounding data. However, quicksand is a natural phenomenon in which any fine,
granular soil, with grains of nearly uniform size, is subjected to a flow of water through
it in such a manner as to cause each particle to be suspended in the water.
To help advance the cause of standardization, a description of the various types of
soils and methods of identifying them, in line with the latest practices, is presented as
information.
The best of test borings are useless unless records are kept which will enable
the engineer designing the foundation to visualize the actual existing conditions. The
need for comprehensive and accurate test borings cannot be too highly stressed. A list
of the data needed and a sample page of such test boring data is presented as information
The specification for test borings is .submitted at this time as information. It is
intended to present it next year for publication in the Manual. This draft of (he
884 Masonry
specification has been reviewed by several engineers who are actively engaged in sub-
surface exploration and is in line with the latest developments of test boring procedure.
It necessarily covers a variety of methods for sub-surface exploration but only those
methods consistent with the information it is desired to obtain, should be used on any
particular job.
The committee requests comments from members of this Association during the
"-oming year, with the object of clarifying any point which may be open to discussion,
before it is presented as Manual material next year.
Chairman Leonard: The next subject is No. 14. Specifications for concrete placed
under water. Since we have certain matter now in the Manual, on this subject, this
report takes the form of a replacement of present Manual matter by the new matter as
indicated in the report. Mr. T. L. Condron, who is chairman of this committee, is
unable to be present, due to an accident. I will quote Mr. Condron's own words by
telephone a few moments ago. Committee 8 extended our sympathy to Mr. Condron
for having broken his leg. Mr. Condron replied: "Not at all. The man who drove the
other car is the man who broke my leg."
Due to Mr. Condron's absence, Mr. Boyd will present this report.
Mr. Boyd: The specification which is presented for adoption and publication in the
Manual is partly a revision of the material now appearing in the Manual and, to a small
extent, is an addition to that material.
(Mr. Boyd read paragraphs two to four on page 332.)
Mr. Boyd: The specification, as the committee presents it, is made up of a number
of articles, the headings of which I will read.
(Mr. Boyd then read the paragraph headings of Section 306 on pages 332 to 334.)
Mr. Boyd: I move the adoption of this specification for publication in the Manual.
(The motion was seconded, put to a vote and carried.)
Chairman Leonard: The report just presented involved a great deal of work on Mr.
Condron's part. I know he canvassed the entire country for his matter.
The next and last subject is: Durability of Concrete, which is presented as a progress
report and is submitted as information. Mr. L. M. Morris, chairman of this subcommit-
tee, is unable to be present since he is now Major Morris of the U. S. Engineers. Mr.
Maurice Coburn will present this report for Mr. Morris.
Maurice Coburn (Indianapolis, Ind.): The report is rather long, and it is worth
study in detail. The aggregate comprises the major portion of concrete, and its sound-
ness is essential to durable concrete. Recently an extended investigation of the durability
of highway concrete has brought out the fact that the older pavements that have stood
up well were those that did not have too much of the larger aggregate. Consideration is
being given to grading of the sizes of cement. The modern cements, with their tendency
toward early strength, increasing the amount of lime, fine grinding, and warehousing
have not improved the tendency toward durability. The cement paste is the part of the
concrete from which we can expect trouble as to durability, and, therefore, it should be
kept to the minimum. Neat cement is not as durable as concrete. The quality of the gel
is primarily dependent upon the water-cement ratio, and the voids in it are a function
of the water-cement ratio.
There is more interest right now in the subject of admixtures, and this report has
some information on that subject.
The deterioration of concrete occurs primarily because of the action of water and
materials which it carries. Concrete grows with the deposit of material brought by water
which enters it, but water also dissolves the constituents of the concrete, and if water
Discussion 885
runs through concrete continuously, it will destroy it completely. The action of con-
stituents of the water entering the concrete sometimes is serious from the mechanical
action of the materials deposited rather than from the solution of the constituents of the
cement.
Chairman Leonard: I commend Major Morris and his committee on this report on
durability. It was an enormous undertaking. I suggest that the membership give partic-
ular attention to F. Conclusion, on page 351, particularly to the bottom of this page in
which five items are indicated as the high points in the procedure to obtain durable con-
crete. I would add, also, that these items are not listed in order of importance, since all
five of them really belong first.
That completes the report of Committee 8.
Vice-President Clarke: If there is no discussion, the committee is excused with the
thanks of the Association. (Applause)
MONOGRAPHS
Mechanization in the Maintenance of Way Department
Special Report Prepared by a Subcommittee of Committee 22 — Economics
of Railway Labor on Testimony Presented by the Railroad
Carrier Industry Committee at Hearings on the
Fair Labor Standards Act
F. S. Schwinn (chairman, subcommittee), Lem Adams, F. J. Bishop, W. H. Brameld,
Armstrong Chinn, W. E. Cornell, E. A. Craft, G. H. Harris, W. E. Heimerdinger,
W.'H. Hillis, E. T. Howson, T. Z. Krumm, J. M. Miller, G. M. O'Rourke, H. M.
Stout, R. R. Strother, J. C. Wallace, W. H. Woodbury.
In accordance with the provisions of the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938, public
hearings were held during the early months of 1940 by the Railroad Carrier Industry
committee (Committee No. 9) for the purpose of investigating conditions in the railroad
industry and recommending the highest minimum wage rate (up to 40 cents per hour)
which might be made effective at this time without substantially curtailing employment.
The carriers realized that any advance in the hourly earnings of labor would accelerate
the mechanization of labor operations, especially in maintenance of way departments
and have a particular effect upon track labor.
The carriers' special committee appointed a subcommittee under the chairmanship
of Robert Faries,* assistant chief engineer — maintenance, Pennsylvania Railroad, and
including L. H. Bond, chief engineer— maintenance of way, Illinois Central System;
G. M. O'Rourke, district engineer, Illinois Central Railroad; and F. S. Schwinn, assistant
chief engineer, Missouri Pacific Lines, for the purpose of exploring the possible extent of
further mechanization, measuring the increasing economic justification of such mechaniza-
tion at increasing hourly earnings, and reviewing other means by which offsetting labor
economies might be effected through capital expenditures for heavier rail, roadbed
stabihzation and similar improvements. The results of this subcommittee's studies were
presented by Mr. Faries in the form of testimony and statements at the public hearings
referred to. Frequent reference was made to the reports of AREA Committee 22 as
published in the Proceedings.
Your committee has undertaken to review Mr. Faries' testimony and quote such
portions thereof which deal directly with labor economics and the curtailment in labor
resulting from mechanization and other causes. The statements included show com-
parable hand and machine organizations, annual costs based on hourly labor rates vary-
ing from 30 cents to 40 cents per hour, and both force and expenditure curtailments
resulting from mechanization. The excerpts from the testimony follow.
I wish to present for your consideration certain facts and information relating
to the effect of increased labor costs upon employment in the maintenance of way
department of the railroad industry. I have confined this study to track mainte-
nance forces, principally to clarify it, and also because this class is affected to the
greatest extent in these proceedings. However, I wish to state that under pressure
of increased costs the railroad industry must, of necessity, consider all fields for
curtailment of expenses in all departments, and the same principles with which I will
deal here apply to all railroad employment. . . .
As wage costs rise the railroad industry, faced with a ceiling of rates for the
services which it performs and, therefore, having a fixed gross revenue varying
* Mr. Faries died September 8, 1940.
Mechanization in Maintenance of Way
only with the amount of business offered, is forced in a struggle for existence to
resort to all possible means to avoid increasing current unit costs. The effects of
the economic depression, and increasing losses of traffic to subsidized competitors,
have intensified this problem.
Allotments for maintenance must not and do not exceed a definite or fixed
portion of the total operating revenues, which for some years past has been approxi-
mately eleven percent. There is a definite relationship between labor and material
used and financed under these maintenance allotments, and the allowance for labor
will be found to be a definite proportion of the maintenance allotment. There is,
therefore, only a certain amount of money that can be spent for labor, so that
when the hourly wage is increased it is plain that less man-hours can be utilized,
thus curtailing employment. The railroads must find a way to accomplish main-
tenance work with the reduced number of man-hours available. They are forced to
use mechanical aids and to make capital expenditures for heavier rail, better ballast,
treated ties and track drainage and stabilization projects, all of which result in a
more permanent roadbed and track.
With a diminishing power to employ, and the necessity of providing adequate
maintenance, it becomes necessary to extend the use of machinery. I have drawn
and present herewith certain statements which show the breakdown of costs as
between hand work and work with machines, and the effect which these machines
have as a substitute for hand labor.
In practice, when considering projects for mechanization that show less than
IS to 20 percent return on the investment, there is less incentive to mechanize than
when considering projects with greater returns on the invested money. Thus there
are a number of what might be called "border line" cases, where even a slight
increase in the economic value of the machine, resulting from a higher labor wage
will definitely put such border line cases in the economically justified class.
In order to show how we arrived at the value of the machines at the different
hourly wages (30 cents, 31 cents, 32 cents and up to 40 cents) we have made our
calculations for 30 cents, 35 cents and 40 cents per hour; and, from these calcula-
tions are derived the resulting values for all intermediate wages. . . . The cost fig-
ures on the following statements include repairs, interest on the capital investment
at S percent, depreciation, and supplies
Portable Power Track Nutters (See Statement 1)
This machine is used to remove and apply nuts in rail joints, replacing men
with hand wrenches. The value of this outfit (two machines) for curtailing ex-
penditures, at the 30-cent wage, is $628; and this value increases to $1,713 at the
40-cent wage. Six men are displaced by the use of this outfit.
Rail Power Drill (See Statement 2)
This machine consists of a gas-engine-powered drill for boring bolt holes in
rail, replacing the hand drills which were slow, and required two men to operate
them. The machine is used particularly in renewals of turnouts and crossovers, in
interlockings, yard ladders, and where considerable cutting and boring of rail is
necessary. One machine displaces three men and as the field for their use is large
and many machines are in use throughout the country, the total displacement of
labor in the aggregate is large.
The value of the machine for avoiding expenditures is $190 annually at the
30-cent wage, and this value increases to $395 annually at the 40-cent wage.
Mechanization in Maintenance of Way
Rail Laying by Use of Machinery (See Statement 3)
This is a large and important operation. Where a full complement of machines
is used they consist of power nutters, spike pullers, adzing machines, rail laying
cranes and spike drivers. The value of this outfit for curtailing expenses at the
30-cent wage is $36,416, increasing to $47,407 at the 40-cent wage. There are 80
men displaced in mechanizing the rail laying operation.
The amount of maintenance of way machinery which would be assigned to a
rail laying organization would necessarily vary, being dependent upon the extent of
the rail laying program and the speed at which the rail is to be laid, as well as
upon certain other factors, such as whether the track is placed at the disposal of
the rail laying forces or if it must be kept in operation. On inquiry I find that the
value of the equipment which we have set up, based on our actual experience, is
reasonable by comparison with other railroads.
Burro Crane (See Statement 4)
This is a small gas-powered crane operating on the track, but easily removed,
and equipped for loading and unloading dirt, rail and other material. It has many
uses, particularly around yards and terminals. A record, covering a working period
of 180 days on a large eastern railroad, shows 37 days loading scrap; 22 days load-
ing and unloading rail; 100 days ditching, including loading and unloading dirt;
and 21 days handling heavy miscellaneous material. The comparative costs indicate
an annual curtailment of expenditure of $3,133 at the 30-cent wage and $4,812 at
the 40-cent wage, and 11 men are displaced by the use of this machine.
Air Mechanical Tamping Outfit (See Statement 5)
Our field tests, in which cost records are carefully kept, indicate the necessity
of considering all costs for maintaining track over the cycle of years during which
the mechanical or comparative hand tamping will last before another general
rehabilitation of the track surface becomes necessary. The initial cost of machine
tamping is about equal to or a little greater than that for hand tamping, but our
records show that, where traffic amounts to approximately 16,000,000 gross tons
annually on 131-lb. rail, machine tamping lasts six years and hand tamping four
years, and that approximately 30 percent more intermediate or spot tamping is
necessary on the hand-tamped track during the cycle.
The output for one tamping machine for the season's work is, therefore, calcu-
lated and reduced to an annual cost, and the annual cost of the necessary inter-
mediate work added. Thus, one tamping machine has a value for curtailing expendi-
tures annually of $1,186 at the 30-ccnt wage and $1,678 at the 40-cent wage,
displacing three men annually.
Portable Gasoline Driven Unit Tie Tamper (See Statement 6)
This tie tamper is used in the same manner as the compressed air tie tamping
machine, except that it is used more as a spot surfacing tool — -that is, one that is
moved from place to place to tighten track in various spots or short stretches,
rather than being used in a continuous operation. You will note the rapidly in-
creasing value of the machine as the wage rises — namely, $187 at 30 cents and $493
at 40 cents. Each outfit of four machines displaces two men.
Ditching in Cuts With 8-Ton Gasoline-Operated Cranes (See Statement 7)
A common practice in ditching and banking was to use a work train unit with
a battery of cranes and dump cars. The necessity for curtailing expenses has
Mechanization in Maintenance of Way
brought about greater use of off-track crawler cranes with drag lines and the use of
bulldozers, operated by a few men. This method preserves the slopes in better
shape and eUminates considerable hand work in trimming slopes and cleaning up
after the material is roughed out of cuts by the drag Hnes. The value of an outfit
of this kind for reducing costs is $21,825 at the 30-cent wage, increasing to $23,455
at the 40-cent wage. It displaces 17 men and one work train crew. This kind of
work is a substantial portion of the account "Roadway Maintenance".
However, there are many other uses to which this type of machine is assigned.
One railroad reports its use in excavating and filHng bridge ends; and in this opera-
tion displaces 23 men with a daily value of $47.15 when calculated at the 40-cent
wage. In another case 25 men were displaced in unloading 20-ft. and 30-ft. poles
with a daily value of $51, when calculated at the 40-cent wage. In both these cases
a work train was used with the cranes.
Discer (See Statement 8)
Power operated cars for discing and uprooting weeds from along the border
of tracks have been greatly improved within the past few years. A machine of this
kind, with a foreman, operator, and 3 laborers, does the equivalent work of a
foreman, 2 assistant foremen and 87 laborers doing this work by hand. The value
of the machine for eliminating expenditures is $10,957 at the 30-cent wage, and
$14,660 at the 40-cent wage, and 85 men are displaced by the use of this machine.
Scarifier and Ballast Leveler (See Statement 9)
This machine is used to break away the ballast that becomes foul, caked, and
non-draining, about the ends of ties. This condition results in pumping track, in
which case water is held in the depression around the tie, and with the movement
and vibration of passing traffic pumps in and out, displacing the ballast under
the tie.
Before the introduction of this machine this work was done by men with picks
bleeding these water pockets. The machine does similar work and reshapes the
ballast on the shoulder. The reduction in expenditures due to this machine is very
substantial, even at the lower rates for labor — being $18,173 at 30 cents, and in-
creasing to $24,516 at the 40-cent wage. Ninety men are displaced by the use of
this machine.
Weed Burner (See Statement 10)
This car disposes of weeds along the track by buring them with an oil flame.
Two burnings per season are usually required to kill the weeds. Compared with
hand labor, the relative annual value of the machine is $25,402 at the 30-cent
wage, and $34,815 at the 40-cent wage. These values are dependent upon the density
of vegetation. The values which I have used, and which represent my experience,
are those achieved in a territory where the average normal precipitation is low and
where the vegetation is not rank.
Weed Mowers (See Statement 11)
Hand mowing of weeds along the track has been supplemented, in many cases,
by power weed mowers running on the track, and by tractor power mowers operat-
ing on the right-of-way (off-track machines). The value of the track-mounted
machine for curtailing expenditures is $3,569 at the 30-cent wage, increasing to
Mechanization in Maintenance of Way
$S,09S at the 40-cent wage. Each machine displaces 30 men, and there are many
such machines already in use.
The relation of fully mechanized operations at the different wages does not
show substantial differences due to the relatively small number of men necessary
with mechanical operation, yet at the 40-cent wage it means that approximately
one more man is displaced for each additional machine put into use. Due to
climatic conditions, there is more need for discers, weed burners and weed mowers
in the south and southwest than in other parts of the country.
Power Jack and Power Tamper (See Statement 12)
These machines are used together in large reballasting or track raising jobs.
The value of 4 power jacks and 2 power tampers for curtaiKng expenditures is
$37,244 at the 30-cent wage, increasing to $52,576 at the 40-cent wage. This com-
bination of these machines displaces 106 men. These machines have been developed
within the past few years and are not as yet in general use. A few of them have
been in use for sufficient time to prove their value. . . .
Auto Truck Crane (See Statement 13)
This machine is used to considerable advantage around large terminals. The
statement is based on an actual record of performance for 252 days, and the results
are shown to be a curtailment of expenditure of $7,405 at the 30-cent wage and
$9,350 at the 40-cent wage. An average of eight men were displaced in this
operation. The machines are programmed in accordance with the working season
on my own railroad, where cUmatic conditions interfere to a considerable extent.
In southern and southwestern territories, where a 12-month working season is pos-
sible, it is apparent that the value of the machine is increased. . . ,
Use of Heavier Rail (See Statement 14)
The problem of selecting the economically justified weight of rail for a certain
line of railroad carrying a known amount of traffic per year involves consideration
of relative annual investment and maintenance costs, and these costs are affected
by the life of the different weights of rail.
The AREA Committee on Economics of Railway Labor, of which F. S. Schwinn
was chairman, appointed a subcommittee, E. T. Howson, chairman, to study this
subject. Quoting from this report, which is recorded in Proceedings, Vol. 40, page
340: "For lines of heavy traffic, savings by use of 112-lb. and 131-lb. rail in place
of 100-lb. or lighter rail may reach 40 percent of the total expenditure for track
labor. As volume of traffic decreases, savings and labor costs decrease until factors
other than labor saving must justify the use of heavier rail."
The AREA Committee on Economics of Railway Location, of which H. M.
Stout is chairman, appointed a subcommittee under C. H. R. Howe to study this
subject. Quoting from this report, which is recorded in Proceedings, Vol. 40, page
130: "As maintenance costs per unit of traffic handled are greater in proportion to
the inferiority of the track's physical structure, it is evident that the remedy Ues
in bettering conditions. In any given case it is obvious that the limit of justifiable
additional investment is reached when the extra annual interest and replacement
charges exceed the yearly savings that may be. obtained."
The statement which I have prepared is based upon known facts as to life of
100-lb. and 131-lb. rail in our tracks at locations where the annual traffic amounted
to 16,500,000 gross tons per mile, and where the cost of current maintenance is a
Mechanization in Maintenance of Way
matter of record. These details check very closely with similar information developed
in the committee studies to which reference is given above. . . . You will note that
the curtailment of expenditures at the 30-cent wage is $95 and at the 40-cent wage
is $133 per mile of track annually.
Stabilization of Roadbed (See Statements 15 and 16)
By stabilization I mean providing a roadbed of uniform weight and supporting,
ability, free of slides and soft spots due to poor drainage and other causes. Track
maintenance costs per mile vary to a considerable extent as between one mile and
another in the same territory. In order to show this clearly I have had prepared
two statements — one for an important high speed, dense traffic territory and the
other for a less important branch line. These statements show both the normal
maintenance per mile and the excess maintenance per mile caused by improperly
drained and unstable roadbed— these figures being taken from actual records and
experience of the track foremen and supervisors in both instances. The statements
show the annual man-hours of maintenance per foot of soft track before stabiliza-
tion work, after stabilization work, and for normal maintenance, the gross cost of
the projects at the different wages, number of men displaced, and annual curtailment
of expenditures at various wages.
Statements showing specific stabilization work on the International-Great North-
ern Railroad at Long Lake, Texas, (Statement 17) and on the Gulf Coast Lines at
Beaumont, (Statement 18) are typical of many selected points throughout the
country. You will note the curtailment of expenditures in the first case is $1,109 at
30-cent labor, and $1,441 at 40 cents. In the second case the curtailment is $2,461
at 30-cent labor; and $3,046 at 40 cents.
During the past seven years one railroad has effectively stabilized approximately
185 miles of roadbed by various methods, such as driving ties, poles and piling,
and by use of concrete and timber slabs. The curtailment in man-hours obtained as
a result of the stabilization of these "soft spots" is 25 percent, as follows:
To maintain one mile of track having unstable roadbed 12,800 man-hours per year
Maintaining same mile after stabilization 9,600 " " "
Curtailment per mile 3,200 " " "
Curtailment on 185 miles 592,000 " " "
The annual displacement was 242 men. Curtailment of expenditures at the
30-cent wage would have been $177,600, and at the 40-cent wage would have been
$236,200.
Further in Mr. Faries' testimony, he found it desirable to evaluate the effect of
what might be considered complete and properly balanced mechanization, using equip-
ment now available, and to compare this with all hand labor. He said, in part:
I have, therefore, taken an assumed railroad having 1,200 miles of main track,
provided with necessary ballast cars, derrick cars and similar equipment, but with-
out any of the more modern types of maintenance of way machinery, and based
upon my knowledge of average requirements, assigned the proper balanced number
of the different types of machines which I would consider desirable and economical
in mechanizing such a railroad. This list of machines is given on Statement 19.
During the several working periods assigned to the different machines they
would displace 714 men, and this would be equal to 270 men for a complete year.
The investment required to accomplish this, based upon present costs of the
Mechanization in Maintenance of Way
machines, would amount to $160,970, equivalent to an investment of $603 in main-
tenance of way machinery for each man displaced for an entire year and for
convenience, I have used the sum of $600 for the calculations. . . .
Toward the end of his testimony, Mr. Faries gave an interesting review of the entire
subject, which follows:
Reorganization of Maintenance Work
The introduction of machinery displaces labor in considerable numbers, vary-
ing with the type of machine and the size of the gang, and this, coupled with the
introduction of heavier rail, better ballast, treated ties, drainage and stabilization
improvements, has permitted and in fact necessitated a change in maintenance of
way work organizations. Large specialized gangs with adequate machine equipment
frequently take care of the bulk of the heavier work. The work of the section
forces has been in many cases reduced to patrolling and inspection and what might
be classed as minor running repairs. This has permitted a considerable lengthening
of foremen's sections, thereby abolishing many such sections.
In the report of AREA Committee 22 — Economics of Railway Labor — on the
subject "Effect of Recent Developments in Maintenance of Way Practices on Gang
Organization", which extended over a period of years and was concluded in Vol. 39,
pages 589 to 594, there will be found many cases covering representative roads in
all parts of the country indicating the justification for reorganization of forces such
as I have described. The final conclusions of this committee were:
"1. The specialized gang is an economical maintenance of way unit.
2. Continued use of such gangs by any railroad, results in increased efficiency
of the gangs.
3. Specialized gangs permit maximum use of power tools and best justify the
investment in such tools."
In reviewing the actual experience of one railroad in the eastern district, as
reported by Committee 22 in Vol. 33, pages 372, 380, a detailed assignment of man-
hours displaced by the several causes involved is given. There had been a reduction
of 4,385,302 man-hours per year and the major portion of this reduction was defi-
nitely assigned aS follows:
Use of treated cross and switch ties 703,432 man-hours
Use of heavy rail 365,610 " "
Reduction in mechanical wear to ties and improved cross-tie
distribution 317,776 " "
Change in methods of patrolling 500,000 " "
Reduction through use of specialized extra gangs 981,612 " "
Reduction in repairs to roadbed as a result of stabilization, im-
proved ditching and similar causes 484,386 " "
The results for this road indicate the extent to which it has availed itself of the
several labor displacing influences to which I have referred.
It is also of interest to quote from the AREA Manual of recommended prac-
tices. On pages 22-2 and 22-3 we find:
"Recent developments in maintenance of way practices, such as the use of
improved materials and labor-saving devices, have reduced the amount of track
labor required for adequate maintenance. These developments permit the transferring
Text continued on page 25.
Mechanization in Maintenance of Way
«• S
o o o
° a
t-l s
*•
s
s
^
4»
rH
a g
q e> o • BO f-j
tH E tf3 O CO J3
+» PC >
+> ft P. 5
as5s.
E 2
IrH « rH to H ■
I i-e
Pk b 0, PS O < t-c
Mechanization in Maintenance of Way
&si
••a
1^
15
M
•Ol >A
'1 H
u\ p Ol O
5^ ^ i
E ^ 2
ii
o, s
q] O O
►4 +>|2;
Tl ■
^ I I rrtsO <
I CM ^ rgl UN
-^ I s
CM Irt O
- 1 :.
11 '
ss
f 2 8
CO kg
j5 a,
«* < X
** go; ^
t. u >«, -ri a
5 :? "^ o &"£
I ^ • 41
V « as 5
•^- Stall
g 1
rH r-t
■51
<d o
a. A
ii
«.erv t^cNi
s
° . £"3
^B -33
s
Deprec
Suppll
Runnln
Annual
OS
(d
5S5
o ^^o
10
Mechanization in Maintenance of Way
o n
■-" I
8
O O
I o t^
O CM 00
o t^ a
00 CM 40 CM
1 I I o q I I <
fi< »- IS (H r- e- '
U MO O O O
a a« CM CM CM
4(4 4»^ I
O O O O O Q
« M «) « M 9
ssgga
n to iQ to to (0
S3
iH I-* lO
o» n CM ,-
\a
4»
-»
4»
o o o o o o
CM N O N N 4>
S3§SS
723
756
113
755
755
606
'lis^s
g
o
o
CO
rH (H lO
<J> jO CM ,-
o
4»
s s
^ s
I U> O) U1 <H
I to O OO O
©OH
U O <S •
11
jnatBiiii^ »Bf Mn. ^n j),p,y,
•or* rpUn l.a»or .
Crm»l«r Cma« ....
LATIlr. Mil.
n«0HS
AlaUiBwi
^^▼li« R&ll Aaolwra
RaUag Splk..
tttlllng Us»d SpltM
0«iBittlng
Oiy-io«tyl«!i. Ootttr
£«BOTli^ b'plioaa
ZhroTlQg Otot ^11
EmoTing II. pi»t«
Scoring 3«Ilait (f(w Mj«rs]
3riTin€ i>OBu Split* Stabf
s«cu&£ n« piu^
arlTin*? ?1« Flns3
Idling ?!•■
Cr^osotli^ Idled Tl«a
L&ylns OB Tl9 PlACes
Oea^mg Tie nstta
S<tUB£ li aul (Ebrro Cimnal
Grladloe Ms*r Bits
UbnotlBg B<11 fcd
IpplTlog S^los
Applyl^ BoXti
Ssigliig Ball
Startli« Sfltm
Srlrlof %lksfl (C^q)r«isorl ..
t%>lU IrtTMl
Dnnsg Uned 3six»t
ApplTlB^ Ibll Aaabori
ifrpljiiig Bead WIT—
■.t. Sapelisu
&«&«r«l roroaan
Clark
POKT Ball Drill tt7 Isttar Oparatorl
lotala
Vork Train La^or
Vork Trala Xzpaua
Cravltr Crana
toTBas
lotala
(.SM. par
OoMlaaary =i
ftial M»l oil for Caiap rraln ....
Ce/Mf trala - 16 Bsak, * Utility, *
QiBna^ 1 Eltchvi, S 3«z Bad 6
Flat Cara (SS Cara)
TzaAk Cara -
milar Tara
aola (far Ml
Totala
SBAJOt T02AJ. .
THE PB1N3n.TAHIA BiJLIClD CMPAnT
CUtfAfllSOJi or COST OP Lkiim RAIL . Daim; mcmirat V3 atirn i.tnni.
otpjniTT nno - m tt. rails pm my _
BY MACHIHK
IJeprec- Annuel Running
'Dtnrflat latlnn 0>>Hrhwn1 Rftpaif 3nTTpT 1 wa
2«.80l
7.69
9.M
t.72
7.66
9. Si
7.66
42.24
16.36
19.20
16.36
32.72
,*»
7.66
.46
23.04
• E9>
.46)
.48
116.20
.46
61.44
.69
4.721
.46
16.361
.46
7.66
.46
16.16
.671
.tt]
.87
6.96
.59
4.72
.46
16.36
uj.se
41.70
a7.<So
10.77
.69
4.72
3.05
1.29
3.34
1.41
tioist
{iits6
.51
1.03
2.06
4,69
16.67
.741
7.40
2.72
3.56
2.66
1.60
4.26
.4615/8
19.20
162.9ellla7
13.03
a. 69 16.20
t22.12 #19.07
$36.94 $46.70
26.00
26.00
22.14
19.20
13.03
K,K
169.67
3.64
38.66
7.68
16.04
13.82
7.66
3.84
7.68
42.24
16.96
19.20
16.36
19.49
115.20
6.96
4.72
15.36
4.72
t26.66 tT36.08
25.00
25.00
22.14
19.20
13.03
1169767
66.33
5.90
6.50
.741
.46)6/6
162.96)167
MACHIHBRT t TOOL COST
^^' D«prec- Anrroal ftznnlng
_ifiit Intarcat latlon Ot«.«|hi1 RtTBlrj. 3iipnll».
26 Soni, 7 Otlllty, 7 Dlnara,
2 Kitchen. 4 Box and 2 Flat
Cara (46 Cara)
19.20
13.03
66.20
119.83
3.64
64.46
.46
15
36
67
.62)
60
.46
23.04
.59
23
60
162
96
69
50
237
00
10
77
69
4
72
.74)
7.40
.46)6/6
19.20
152.95)IlaT
13.03
_ . , , ($6.00 per Ho.)
Hand toola (j ^jj ^„ j.^.
♦ » »
2.06 4.63 16.67
2.68 1,60 4.26
122.66
11.62
7.66
7.68
69.12
7.68
7.68
23.04
30.72
115.20
65.20
$119.63
93.16
11.10
12.00
36.01 29.40
16.00
.64
1.00
26.00
26.00
22.14
19.20
18.03
66.20
169.67
T.ia
S.M
T.6S
3.64
T.tS
11.52
7.68
7,66
S0.T2
UE.n
IB. 36
EB.ao
U.0*
23.60
69.30
10.77
4.72
7.68
$949.39
25.00
25.00
22.14
19.20
13.03
»169.57
93.18
11.10
12.00
100.49
4.79
1.56
55.43
278.55
$36.66 (30.73 (19.64 (3.26
(1,169.05 (42,12 (99,91 (29,32 (15.94 (230.74 (1,547.08
Coat 1989 he-tOT Beta, (.46 per tear.
boat c/141ne Federal Pecaloi and Unaoploynant Ineoraioe.
mrT^^ miyiY FOB L>rinr. ii.|i,
Bplke Hillera ( 4,923,
Fertile Poaer Track Sntters 4,146.
Tie Adaera 9,620.
Borrfl Craaa 7,640,
0<apr*aaDr - 210 on. ft, 4,603.
Air Spike Dnvera 1,347,
Poaar 6onMo« UacMaea 1,311,
Foaer Ball Drill S32.
OxT^^Acetylan* Ontflt 5j^
pffaer Grinder
lo"! (34.273,
3pare)
Spare)
Spare)
Mechanization in Maintenance of Way
11
• MO
KJ> O (U
%^ u tc
■^a|3
«s
a o
o ^
■H CJ <£> CO I
ifi (s »r
SSSi
3fl
a 0
Si
S^
as*
a to <n
^ O. Oi
5 S (2,
S 3]
o o
>-)•-)» o o
£U".
12
Mechanization in Maintenance of Way
fH iH O] ^ HlO*
p- B
»K'
ga
u a a
S S S oJ
•p o to f<
m * .H P
o rt ^
" £ . ^
e 3 a
P^
w-i
ISS,
^ cm'
cc
•-A lf>
in
•H
?
o
(O
«>
4»>
4»
<^
ph .M a «
•^ s sc f<
* M
Mechanization in Maintenance of Way
13
::s
8SS
5 ^
»H rH tola)
ISS
«ll
. l-> ►J «
•-I •H'4'l'fi
£2
m
cr*
^•
ei
4»
.H
10
r-t
5 °
S S ^ S 5-
to (0 ■*
A> V •*>
< < <
14
Mechanization in Maintenance of Way
*.1
O Pi
*• M
m h
o o
-I a
o o
^ o o
o o ^
CD CO (O
g 88 3 S
to (DO) "^. ^.
4» <» «»
a
8 8
-*
?;
s
ill
o>
o
-* ■*
n
«
«»
4»
<»
« m P4
>« I s
a o o
a a
■ <-l 0> Q
I 00 in 9
4* (4 h 9
111
ft h
«6
^ £ •
m Q iQ
03 9 lA
■as
ts
a» CO O)
p
saa
a^
n in o
"" * S
CC PC «
Mechanization in Maint enance of Way
IS
§ i
£1^
tU> r*^ «~* O I
O -^ 1 sO
S3
a- =>
is.-
bh O <
S"S5:
16
Mechanization in Maintenance of Way
M S
P< h
ss
in w CT» -sU to (h
lO cj o* »* *o
o o o <o in
"^i" 0) W «H CO
■)-> to in «o
Mechanization in Maintenance of Way
17
u^u^^
u, •< _j a
-* ^ ^ lo
^ 1^
o ^ <T>- fno
S*ff;
O ^ (r* '*^ o
I s
a. 3
o a Id
Ui < Jf
fi !,-'
Fe
^ Si
3-^SS
W I.
^*-E
tt
c t.
5:3 <§•
u. ^
L^
> o cd o 4 S
9i a u, Ji :«
I ^
C « 3 3 c
i-i Q w ec ■<
rs4 rn 'O
3 s,e.R
£1 -^-^-^
< < <
18
Mechanization in Maintenance of Way
vo m I <y\
t ffvirx CO f I "N
?s^S
I S
1 OS ir\ CO U^
f-l Q O f>J irl
'^1
. o J a I
♦J tt a, c c
c u 3 3 c
i-< a in K -i
\^3
1 z
fc-
^
s
«
1 '^
^
Fj
Si
+J
•3
a>
rH
';S
^
s
u a
Kl"*
♦>
3
o -3
ir,1
**,,.
g
s^
•H-S
OS
■^
•a
■ji-a
* ♦>
,?
%
■S5 s
u 'S
-H
1
Mechanization in Maintenance of Way
19
U S-.
3 a
' 3 E
1 (js (Ts ^ O
fl
&S:
t'Att
a a « »
•a
o
£5IS^S
'^
"-4 O O
rH O O
f\j o o
&u
o^ -* o *^
CO t- o o]
O «*^nO Oj
eg UN <N^
5 O U\ C^ ■«* O vOl
3 o lJ^a) c^ o ol
f ^ O O ^ '*! Ol
s .
H o ■*»■ o ••^u^
i^g
33 §'
0. 13
> a c
■9,2
"jo's i-e' '. 5^"^5
«V OO uo^-^d
[mb. Mi* «UU.c3
t^"^ 5 sis I
<•■< ■«
20
Mechanization in Maintenance of Way
e M
T lO
M N
» 9 tM CO <
lO P- CD to M CD <
I Q * «
> ro c\i c
CI 3 e t rt 3 I
o o o o
t>- 00 ^ ^ o m tf>
ey M <-t O M M CV)
o
o
??
'
fi e
s s
a
?i
o
£)
b
u
S
E^* fJ E^ SB
^ E 25
©OOP.
« CO p ^ a
tf: m lo <
3 S
H
-* C^ «J
r- c^ o
lO c^ -*«
)■>
<»
■<<*
*►
ii
6S .
©o •^^'-' OtHg**
iH t^ « f- to r-l
W rH in CO 00 O
^£^ CO-tO *0 C^ to
c^ to « .-< oj -*•
I f^ t* u ^
li4 fr, fr, h g Cc
1
» «/ 3
" " O il
ig^2
j= -H -• a •
o -c -a fi .
l!?»
5 a D, (.
1 ^ o 4> «>
4* Pi O p4 a B
3 £c^ S S ^
&: q: p;
♦*■♦»+»
< < <
Life o
Life o
Instal
Mate
Labo:
Work
1st Gei
Fork
1 I
laoip,
1 I
m
Wo)
Ball)
toi '
Woi
Tloi
2nd Gei
Fork
asc
Tainp;
1 (
ffoi
Vol
Ballj
■.Voi
*oi
Jolnl
T\
prJ
Grind
11
Trs
3rd Sax
Fork
and
Tangjl
1 C
7or
*or
Balls
Hot
War
Joint
Ref
1 *
prs
Grind
11
of
Inter
3^ '»
SC
G =
IK, 17ITH TRAFFIC OP 16.5 UIIXIOK QR033
r^s«^ tarra: taa? - Foe- IsBt&U&UcB..... $ 79.01 I
; :^«r»;s- aa& 17 :«h»^r» - 7CO' per d^ 6*.Z8
*K* :s»ia- :■«««
»or« =r*i2 - >»i3*
^' '.M^iJ^ - Ij-TOjiap * Lvnllsg vis of 9C»
%^ IS^Z 40.<
a=r* Erxli - Si^es l/lS i^l
»:« SrxiE- :spe=<- ! 1 := d^i
«a£ 2: -ftiTva - 6CCJ par d^ 62.13
*"""~'^ - l-pc^l^ k I«Talias l/U of 900 zass 16. Z2 40. <
*sa :r»lx - ^i^e=»«"l 1,15 i«^r,m!l!^.!!...
1 ?SVB, t ??Kmt=-« z=i 12 LftiW?s - 200
?Taek ?er £37 1.22
cf 2: la»3m - 60C' 7K- ijf .....^^ 32.1^
1 3pmU:r =i 1? la^srvrs - 7CC' F*r ds;.... &l.2a
aorkV^ - r.«« (1/18 tayl. '.
ItBanmA 3«r« - 67 »• of ?o«w 7mX Mottmr,
1 '««eK^ £ >SWz«t0r« * 12 I&rcr«r« - 200
jTf. 7» 1^ 9.0Z 32.1
U yr«.tcr» a£ 1 Co* - 5Tl=il=c «-9 Mll^a
gg -g*^ ?»:• d^ ^^*?f
X» 'a^am ?»Mtott ^ 1 ^
1716.60 $369.72 «
$ 33.56 $ 37.SX $ 41.01 ^18.39 #372.03 $2.23 | 1.65 $8
J.54 7.25
le.Sl «6.30
1378.64 #8.63
#1 136.36 |1 140,U #1 143.E
#2.51 #27.42 #634.83 |&63.]
#601.32
#1 745.13
Ties per l^ilo i
Labor Applying i
#1 128.66 #219.64 $416,
$1 270.90 C^£19.64 J477
S513.95 §457.00 #
#517.34 #461.17 #
Bftpairs 3iipplLas
#1 061.18 #1 067.94 #1 C
S5E1.24 $468.81 ill..
#2.S6 #36.31 #894.67 #743.25 #S03.«)
#6.18 551.26 #1 755.85 *1 915.18 #1 373.40
Mechanization in Maintenance of Way
21
sss
i\ i
4*1 4»
r I
3 e
H c^ a) eo oo •*
o lolto in tf>lio
io nlok jo
M i-T M
4» h* )«»
£1
a I
O H
ll
* B
11
» «
I- £
!gs
10 c-lo •-> hIn
c^ niH in nlf-i
n n|^- a>
ssa
8^
pa"
a
13 ^ -rH
« « p
a
in
s
1
S
"S^
7> in in
0> MM
; *
4»
»
«»
S 9
ss
m o* S
H (K t-
^ i-l
a-8
,1
! i-i
1-8
a at
las
a o
O H
^ S
O 9
«> o
4»
« 4*
O -^
Pk
•23
E «
s -a
a ^
22
Mechanization in Maintenance of Way
w g^koj-^L
f J- j-lcaj-^ <
;£?s|
I -d ®
! a a, 3
«-a
W CO M
; i "da o
K 01
fi^
Mechanization in Maintenance of Way
23
-1p
sL*
s-?
■^A
^ O
W?
ya
SiS
^'■i
^ ft*
n o
Rd
SI
^5.
!^U
3BI
t4
fl*t3
,_!
Ih
t«
fa fa
^?.
>?.
g ll g
^' ^ ^
■p
5
ftH o :a
.-1
r1
hO o o
•SH-
g
^a^^
§ w^
71.3 "
^
g
^
CL,
^1
>g
!R :x
S SI
3 S
« O
<H O
o
24
Mechanization in Maintenance of Way
tj» Ui m
n >* i-i
3 3 55
t^ to "H d
© o ^ ^ to
o o
B «
3 S
o in c- t-
s a
Mechanization in Maintenance of Way 25
Continued from page 7.
of the heavier routine maintenance work from section gangs to specialized gangs
equipped with modern labor-saving machinery, with large resulting economies.
"The economy derived through the use of such equipment as motor cars, weed
killers, rail cutting and building-up devices, tie tampers, rail layers, ditchers and
locomotive cranes, has been demonstrated and their use is recommended."
From Page 22-4 we quote:
"The use of heavy rail in heavy-traffic, high-speed lines reduces the amount of
labor necessary to maintain a given standard of track excellence.
"This reduction is both direct and indirect. The items affected directly include
line, surface, gage, joint maintenance and laying rail. The items affected indirectly
include tie renewals, cleaning ballast and ballast renewals."
The foregoing quotations have been selected for the purpose of illustrating the eco-
nomic value of mechanization. All of the testimony having a direct bearing upon the
controversial question — the effect of increasing wages upon employment — has been
omitted.
It should be added that, although all but two of the statements here reproduced
represent Pennsylvania Railroad experience, Mr. Faries' subcommittee checked these with
similar data obtained from a number of other railroads and with reports appearing in
AREA Proceedings during recent years. The statements used were found to approximate
average experience closely.
Your committee feels that the matter here related represents a fair picture of
mechanization. Unfortunately, it was impossible to include every type of equipment, but
sufficient examples were included by Mr. Faries to demonstrate clearly the fact that large
economies have been effected by those railroads that have used such equipment
intensively.
Report of the
Joint Committee on Standard Specifications
for Concrete and Reinforced Concrete
Submitting
Recommended Practice
and Standard Specifications
for Concrete and Reinforced Concrete
#
Affiliated Committees of the
American Concrete Institute
American Institute of Architects
American Railway Engineering Association
American Society of Civil Engineers
American Society for Testing Materials
Portland Cement Association
♦
Submitted to Constituent Organizations, June, 1940
27
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Foreword 28
Preface 29
Representation of Constituent Organizations 32
Committee Organization 33
Introduction 35
Recommended Practice for the Use of Concrete and Reinforced Concrete 37
Chapter I — Scope and Definitions 37
Chapter II— Materials (Sect. 201-216) 39
Chapter III — Proportioning, Mixing, Curing, and Testing Concrete (Sect. 301-
312) 43
Chapter IV— Forms and Placing (Sect. 401-406) SO
Chapter V — Details of Design and Construction (Sect. S01-S14) 55
Chapter VI — Waterproofing and Protective Treatments (Sect. 601-614) 58
Chapter VII— Surface Finishes (Sect. 701-731) 63
Chapter VIII— Design (Sect. 801-878) 69
Assumptions and Loads (Sect. 801-803) 69
Frames, Beams, and One-Way Slabs (Sect. 804-808) 71
Two-Way Slabs with Supports on Four Sides (Sect. 809-815).. 73
Diagonal Tension and Shear (Sect. 816-822) 77
Bond and Anchorage (Sect. 823-830) 79
Flat Slabs (Sect. 831-850) 82
Reinforced Concrete Columns (Sect. 851-862) 88
Footings (Sect. 863-871) 95
Retaining Walls (Sect. 872-877) 97
Unit Stresses (Sect. 878) 99
Standard Specifications for Concrete and Reinforced Concrete 102
Materials (Sect. 201-S— 231-S) 102
Proportioning, Mixing, Curing, and Testing Concrete 108
Proportioning— Alternate A (Sect. 301-SA— 309-SA) 108
Proportioning— Alternate B (Sect. 301-SB— 306-SB) 110
Measurement of Materials (Sect. 310-S) 112
Mixing (Sect. 311-S— 317-S) 112
Curing of Concrete (Sect. 318-S) 114
Field Tests of Concrete (320-S— 325-S) 114
Enforcement of Strength Requirements (Sect. 326-SA — 328-SA) 115
Forms and Placing (Sect. 401-S— 422-S) 116
Details of Construction (Sect. SOl-S— Sll-S) 121
Appendices 124
1 — Effect of Various Substances on Portland Cement Concrete and Suggested
Protective Treatments Where Required 124
2 — Support Moments in Continuous Beams and Frames 126
3 — Maximum Moment Coefficients for One-Way Slabs (Solid or Ribbed) of Equal
Spans Carrying Uniformly Distributed Loads 128
4 — Curing Portland Cement Concrete 129
S — List of Specifications Cited 130
Index 133
i
28 Report on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete
Foreword
The report of the Joint Committee is a
very valuable document designed to cover
specifications for every phase of concrete
and reinforced concrete construction in
widely divergent fields and, while within
its scope it necessarily includes the design
and construction of structures for railway
purposes, it does so only in a general way
without emphasis of the specific problems
entering into the features entailed in such
design. The report is more of the type of
a master specification and recommended
practice which may form a basis for any
particular specification to cover specified
types of structures such as those required
for locomotive loadings. Viewed in that
light, it serves as an excellent guide for the
formulation of a specification for concrete
masonry structures for railway uses.
This report is presented to the Associa-
tion as information.
Committee 8 — Masonry
Preface 29
Preface
For more than thirty years the design and building of concrete and rein-
forced concrete structures have been guided and deeply influenced by the work
of Joint Committees as expressed in their reports.
These committees have been composed of members appointed by national
engineering and technical organizations which were primarily interested in a
safe and sound development of the use of concrete. The reports indicate
broadly the progress that had taken place during preceding years and reflect
the developments in the art in recommended practice and specifications.
The periods represented are clearly indicated in the reports. The first
Joint Committee was organized in 1904, a time which marks approximately
the beginning of reinforced concrete construction in this country. At that time
concrete construction was principally in the hands of a few specialists whose
methods varied with their experience. But by 1916, when that committee sub-
mitted its final report, a great quantity of test data and an extensive literature
had been accumulated which found expression in the recommendations of the
committee.
The first Joint Committee organized the available information into a code
of practice based on fundamental principles and concerned itself with details
only insofar as it was necessary to indicate the hmits of sound practice. The
essence of the first report is embodied largely in the sections on design which
crystallized engineering practice and served as the basis for building code and
specification requirements throughout the country.
The second Joint Committee, organized in 1920, was charged with the
duty of preparing standard specifications for concrete and reinforced con-
crete, using as a basis the former Joint Committee report, with such modifica-
tions as were necessary to make its recommendations agree with current prac-
tice and such new data as marked progress in the art. The report submitted
in 1924 in specification form indicated that a considerable advance had taken
place in the method of producing concrete. The improvements had developed
to the point where variability in the quality of concrete could be reduced by
means of preliminary strength tests and controlhng the quantity of mixing
water through the control of the slump. The compressive strength of con-
crete could now be estimated with a reasonable degree of accuracy. On the
basis of this improvement the committee recommended a general increase in
the ratio of working stress to ultimate strength of the concrete and permitted
a corresponding increase in the steel stress where high yield point steel could
be used. By standardizing grades of materials, methods of producing concrete,
and the details of design procedure, the newly acquired knowledge could be
utilized and concrete construction placed on a more definite basis. The com-
mittee completed its report after a series of field tests had demonstrated that
its recommendations were substantially justified.
The present, or third Joint Committee, was organized in 1930 to study the
extent and character of the advances in knowledge since the 1924 report, and
make such recommendations with respect to practice and standard specifica-
tions as might be warranted in view of recent developments.
Of the advances made in recent years, relating to concrete as a material,
the most significant are the increase in the strength of cement, a more wide-
30 Report on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete
spread understanding of the basic principles of mixtures with increasing
attention to field control, and an increasing use of ready-mixed concrete.
In the field of design, the major development has been the increased
interest in rigid frame analysis which recognizes the essentially monolithic char-
acter of reinforced concrete construction and provides a more accurate method
of stress computation and hence a more uniform factor of safety.
With these possible improvements in the quality of concrete and the new
tools which elastic frame analysis places in the hands of the designing engi-
neer, very material advances in reinforced concrete construction are now pos-
sible. In this report, the committee has attempted to provide a means of
applying this new knowledge through the combination of recommended
practice and standard specifications.
The committee was organized at a meeting held in Atlantic City, June,
1930, at which time there were present duly appointed representatives from
the American Society of Civil Engineers, the American Society for Testing
Materials, the American Railway Engineering Association, the American Con-
crete Institute, and the Portland Cement Association. In December, 1932, the
American Institute of Architects was added to the group of organizations
associated in the work of the Joint Committee.
The Joint Committee has held seventeen general meetings and numerous
working committee meetings in the intervals between the general meetings.
The reports of the working committees have been formally presented to the
general committee for action in detail and the material has been assembled
and edited by a committee appointed for that purpose.
In view of the extensive changes in form and substance of the report,
as compared with those of the 1924 report, the committee deemed it desirable
to submit its work for criticism and discussion. To this end a progress report
was given a limited circulation and presented for general discussion at a meet-
ing in New York of the American Concrete Institute, February 26 and 27,
1937. The discussion brought out at that meeting and a considerable volume
of written comments directed to the committee have been carefully considered
and such changes made in the report as seemed justified.
The last, or seventeenth, meeting of the Joint Committee was held in
Atlantic City on June 27 and 28, 1938. At the conclusion of this meeting
there still remained uncompleted a few items concerned with design and one
on the general treatment of the chapter on Waterproofing and Protective
Treatments. The completion of these items and some major and minor changes
in the text have been accomplished through one meeting of the Working Com-
mittee on Design and by the efforts of the editorial committee through corre-
spondence and personal interviews with members of the Joint Committee.
Revisions of Chapters 6 and 8 to which major additions and changes were
made were approved by the working committees responsible for these chapters.
These revised chapters and appendices, and other miscellaneous revisions of
the text, were submitted to letter ballot of the 29 members of the Joint Com-
mittee on December 27, 1939. Twenty-six members returned ballots. The re-
vised chapters and appendices received substantial majorities. Some of the
members, however, indicated reservations with respect to individual sections
or appendices, but the report as a whole was accepted by the unanimous vote
of the 26 members returning ballots.
Preface
31
The committee submits this report, not as the final word on concrete
design and construction, but with a feeling that it reflects fairly the state of
the art as represented by the best practice of the day.
Respectfully submitted,
A. E. LiNDAu, Chairman.
F. E. RiCHART, Vice-Chairtnan
F. R. McMillan, Secretary-Treasurer
J. G. Ahlers
P. H. Bates
H. P. BiGLER
A. J. Boase
J. H. Chubb
M. N. Clair
H. G. Farmer
Charles M. Gay
H. J. Gilkey
A. T. Goldbeck
M. Hirschthal
S. C. HOLLISTER
J. B. HUNXEY
F. H. Jackson
Clarence A. Jensen
A. R. Ketterson
Charles W. Killam
J. F. Leonard
L. S. Moisseiff
B. Moreell
Paul W. Norton
C. L. Post
N. M. Stineman
m. a. swayze
Stanton Walker
L. W. Walter
June, 1940
32 Report on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete
Representation of Constituent Organizations
American Society of Civil Engineers
W. A. Slater, Chairman (June 1930 to October 1931, deceased); Director, Fritz
Engineering Laboratory, Lehigh University (Chairman of Joint Committee, Jiine 1930
to October 1931)
A. E. LiNDAu, Consulting Engineer, Chicago (Succeeded Mr. Slater as Chairman of
A.S.C.E. group and of Joint Committee, October 1931)
M. N. Clair, Vice-President, Thompson and Lichtner Co., Inc., Boston
H. J. GiLKEY (appointed June 1932), Head, Dept. Theoretical & Applied Mechanics,
Iowa State College
C. L. Post (appointed June 1932), Chairman, Advisory Committee on Engineering,
Federal Works Agency, Public Buildings Administration, Washington, D. C.
F. E. RiCHART, Research Professor of Engineering Materials, University of lUinois
W. S. Thomson (resigned June 1932), Chief Engineer, Kalman Steel Co., Chicago
American Society for Testing Materials
P. H. Bates, Chairman; Chief, Clay and Silicate Products Division, National
Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C.
H. P. BiGLER (appointed April 1938), Director, Rail Steel Bar Association, Chicago
C. M. Chapman (resigned June 1932), Consulting Engineer, New York City
A. T. GoLDBECK, Engineering Director, National Crushed Stone Association,
Washington, D. C.
E. E. Hughes (resigned April 1938), President, Rail Steel Bar Association, Chicago
L. S. MoissEiTF, Consulting Engineer, New York City
Stanton Walker (appointed January 1932), Director, Engineering and Research
Division, National Sand and Gravel Association, Washington, D. C.
Portland Cement Association
F. R. McMttLAN, Chairman; Director of Research, Portland Cement Association,
Chicago
D. A. Abrams (resigned June 1932), Consulting Engineer, New York City
Ernest Ashton (resigned June 1931), Vice-President, Lehigh Portland Cement Co.,
AUentown, Pa.
A. J. BoASE (appointed March 1937), Manager, Structural Bureau, Portland Cement
Association, Chicago
J. H. Chubb, Manager, Service Bureau, Pennsylvania-Dixie Cement Corp., New
York City
H. G. Farmer, Technical Service Director, Universal Atlas Cement Co., New
York City
J. C. Pearson (appointed June 1931, resigned March 1937), Director of Research,
Lehigh Portland Cement Co., AUentown, Pa.
M. A. SwAYZE (appointed June 1932), Chief Research Engineer, Lone Star Cement
Corp., Hudson, N. Y.
American Concrete Institute
S. C. HoLLisTER, Chairman; Dean, College of Engineering, Cornell University
J. G. Ahlers, Ahlers Construction Co., New York City
F. H. Jackson, Senior Engineer of Tests, Pubhc Roads Administration, Washing-
ton, D. C.
Personnel of Committee H
Rear Adjmiral B. Moreell (C.E.C.) U.S.N., Chief, Bureau of Yards and Docks,
Navy Dept., Washington, D. C.
N. M. Stineman, Editor, Concrete, Chicago
American Railway Engineering Association
C. P. Richardson, Chairman (resigned June 1933); Engineer, Capital Expenditures,
C. R. I. & P. Railway, Chicago
M. HmscHTHAL, Concrete Engineer, D. L. & W. Railroad, Hoboken, (Succeeded
Mr. Richardson as Chairman, June 1933)
J. B. HuNLEY, Engineer Structures, N. Y. C. Railroad, Chicago
A. R. Ketterson, Engineer of Bridges, Canadian Pacific Railway, Montreal
J. F. Leonard, Engineer, Bridges and Buildings, Pennsylvania Railroad, Pittsburgh
L. W. Walter (appointed June 1933), Inspecting Engineer, Erie Railroad, Jersey City
American Institute of Architects
Paul W. Norton, Chairman; Consulting Engineer, Boston
J. C. Bollenbacher (deceased 1939), Architect, Chicago
Charles M. Gay (appointed May 1936), Associate Director, Franklin Institute,
Philadelphia
Clarence A. Jensen, Architect, Chicago
Charles W. Killam (appointed June 1934), Professor Emeritus, Department of
Architecture, Harvard University
A. T. North (deceased 1933), Architect, New York City
F. Leo Smith (deceased 1935), Secretary, Structural Bureau, American Institute of
Architects, Washington, D. C.
Committee Organization
A. E. Lindau, Chairman F. E. Richart, Vice-Chairman
F. R. McMillan, Secretary-Treasurer
Executive Committee
A. E. Lindau, Chairman F. R. McMillan, Secretary
P. H. Bates S. C. Hollister
M. Hirschthal P. W. Norton
The work of the committee has been organized by the appointment of the following
working committee personnel:
1. Cement and Aggregates M. A. Swayze
F. H. Jackson, Chairman Stanton Walkkk
A. T. GOLDBECK, Vice-Chairman I- W. Walter
J. B. HuNLEY, Secretary
*D. A. Abrams 2. Metal Reinforcement
♦Ernest Ashton L. S. Moisseiif, Chairman
P. H. Bates H. P. Bigler
*C. M. Chapman S. C. Hollister
C. A. Jensen ***E. E. Hughes
*J. C. Pearson J B. Hunlev
Resigned. "Deceased. """ Resigned; since deceased.
34
Report on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete
J. F. Leonard
A. E. LiNDAU
**A. T. North
3. Proportioning and Mixing
F. E. RiCHART, Chairman
*D. A. Abrams
J. G. Ahlers
M. N. Clair, Secretary
H. J. GiLKEY
A. T. GOLDBECK
F. H. Jackson
C. A. Jensen
A. R. Ketterson, Vice-Chairman
F. R. McMillan
B. MOREELL
**W. A. Slater
M. A. Swayze
Stanton Walker
L. W. Walter
4. Forms and Placing
H. G. Farmer, Chairman
M. N. Clair, Secretary
J. G. Ahlers
J. H. Chubb
J. B. Hunley
C. L. Post
*C. P. Richardson
N. M. Stineman
5. Design
S. C. Hollister, Chairman
F. E. Richart, Vice-Chairman
N. M. Stineman, Secretary
A. J. Boase
H. J. GiLKEY
M. Hirschthal
A. R. Ketterson
Chas. W. Killam
A. E. LiNDAU
F. R. McMillan
L. S. MoissEir^
B. a. Moreell
Paul W. Norton
C. L. Post
**W. A. Sl\ter
***W. S. Thomson
Res'gncd.
Deceased.
6. Details of Construction and Fire-
proofing
J. F. Leonard, Chairman
J. G. Ahlers, Vice-Chairman
H. P. Bigler
**J. C. BOLLENBACHER
J. H. Chubb
Chas. M. Gay
s. c. hollister
***E. E. Hughes
Chas. W. Killam
L. S. Moisseiff
Paul W. Norton
C. L. Post
**F. Leo Smith
***W. S. Thomson
7. Waterproofing and Protective
Treatment
*Ernest Ashton
P. H. Bates
*C. M. Chapman
H. G. Farmer, Secretary
Chas. M. Gay
M. Hirschthal
Chas. W. Killam
B. Moreell
**A. T. North
*J. C. Pearson
C. L. Post
*C. P. Richardson
**F. Leo Smith
8. Surface Finishes
J. H. Chubb, Chairman
N. M. Stineman, Secretary
P. H. Bates
**J. C. Bollenbacher
*C. M. Chapman
H. G. Farmer
9. Form of Specification
All Chairmen of Working Committees
Resigned; since deceased.
Introduction
In submitting its report, the committee thinks that it should not depend entirely on
the specification form for presenting its recommendations. It believes that in covering
those subjects on which the information is sufficiently crystallized, some advantage is
gained by having the recommendation in the form of definite specifications. The report,
therefore, consists of two interdependent parts: Recommended Practice and Standard
Specifications. These two must be considered jointly as representing the recommenda-
tions of the committee. Some of the more important departures from the 1924 report
are as follows:
Materials. — The recommendations provide for the use of high early strength cement
and recognize that special cements may be desirable for special uses.
The subject of aggregates is treated much more comprehensively than was possible
in the specifications of 1924. A working specification for general application is submitted
with suggestions for modifications where necessary to meet special requirements.
The use of lightweight aggregates and the classification of aggregates on the basis
of fire resistance are included.
Proportioning. — Emphasis is placed on durability of concrete. The increased strength
of cement and improvement in concrete technology make it possible to produce concrete
having a strength sufficient for ordinary design purposes with a water content too high
for many types of exposure. The committee is of the opinion that a classification or
grading of concrete based on the character of exposure will be more generally useful
than if based on the common requirements of minimum strength. Special emphasis is
also placed on those factors which affect workabiUty and the production of dense,
homogeneous concrete.
Alternate Specifications. — Two types of specifications covering the proportioning of
concrete are presented: One, in which the contractor is required to produce concrete
of a specified quality (exposure and strength considered) with considerable freedom of
procedure within certain limits; and the other, in which the engineer specifies the pro-
portions required, including a minimum cement content. Where the strength is specified
the test procedure is given together with a basis for enforcement of the strength
requirements.
New Developments in the Art. — Developments such as ready-mixed concrete, me-
chanical vibration, and new methods of transporting, are covered either as recommenda-
tions or in the specifications.
Design. — The committee has given special consideration to the increasing use of the
principle of continuity and the elastic frame analysis in the design of reinforced concrete
structures. Since reinforced concrete construction is essentially monolithic in character, it
is felt that these newer methods are not merely refinements, but an attempt to produce a
more rational and better balanced design. Several well recognized methods of frame
analysis are available to the designer and approximate methods have been developed that
permit their use in ordinary building design without an undue amount of computation.
Columns. — The column provisions take into account the results of researches net
available when the 1924 report was pubUshed, particularly the American Concrete Insti-
tute column investigation reported in the Proceedings of the Institute, 1930-1933. The
safe loads on columns are based on the ultimate strength of the concrete and the yield
point strength of the longitudinal reinforcement, including in the calculations the full
gross area of the column. Spirals are not given consideration in computing the safe loads
35
36 Report on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete
unless they are present in an amount sufficient to provide an increase in the ultimate
strength of the core equal to or greater than the ultimate strength added by the shell
surrounding the core. When present in this amount, the toughness, added by the spiral in
event that the shell spalls or fails, is recognized by an increase in the safe load 25 per-
cent over that for colunms without this full amount of spiral.
Flat Slabs.— The section dealing with flat slabs has been somewhat expanded with
respect to details incident to this type of construction, but has not been altered in the
basic design requirements. Since no new test data have been available, the committee
has retained the principal limitations of the 1924 report. The formulas for slab thick-
ness have been simplified and so modified as to apply to concrete of any 28-day strength.
Two-Way Slabs. — For the design of two-way slabs, the committee has adopted a
method which recognizes the elastic plate action as a dominant factor in moment dis-
tribution and stress intensity. Considering the limitations of theory and the available
test data, however, the committee has placed principal emphasis on the simplicity of
application.
Design Formulas. — The standard formulas for rectangular and T-beams and standard
notations have become so widely recognized that they are omitted from the report.
I
Recommended Practice for Use of Concrete
and Reinforced Concrete
Chapter I — Scope and Definitions
101. Scope
This report is intended to cover the use of concrete and reinforced concrete in gen-
eral. In such structures as arches, tanks, reservoirs, chimneys, etc., vi^here specialization
relates principally to the mechanics of design and details of construction, the general
provisions of the report may be appUed vi^ith the modifications necessary to suit the
special conditions.
102. Definitions
No attempt is made here to define all the terms current in concrete technology. Only
those expressions which have particular application to the report and are not thoroughly
estabUshed in the literature are included.
Anchorage. — That portion of a reinforcing bar, and any attachment thereto, designed
to resist pulling out or slipping of the bar when subjected to stress.
Bleeding. — The escape of water from freshly placed concrete, commonly observed
as an accumulation upon a horizontal surface.
Cantilever Retaining Wall.— A reinforced concrete wall having a vertical section and
a base, each of which resists by cantilever action the pressure to which it is subjected.
Buttressed Retaining Wall. — A retaining wall with brackets or buttresses on the side
opposite the pressure face uniting the upright section with the toe of the base.
Columns. — A compression member, vertical or nearly vertical, the height of which
exceeds three times its least lateral dimension.
Column Capital. — In flat slab construction, the head or uppermost portion of a
column or pilaster, designed and built to act as a unit with the column and the slab.
Column Strip. — A portion of a flat slab or two-way panel embracing the area over
the column, usually one-half panel in width, used for convenience in distributing the
bending moments in the slab.
Combination Column.— k column in which a structural steel section, designed to
carry the principal part of the load, is wrapped with wire and encased in concrete of
such quality that some additional load may be allowed.
Composite Column. — A reinforced concrete column with a core of structural steel or
cast iron, in which the core is designed to carry a portion of the column load.
Consistency. — A general term used to designate the relative mobility of freshly
mixed concrete or mortar.
Counterforted Retaining Wall. — A reinforced concrete wall with brackets or ribs on
the pressure side of the vertical wall and designed to act with it in resisting overturning
and sUding.
Creep. — See Plastic Flow.
Deformed Bar. — Reinforcement bar with projections, shoulders or lugs on the surface
of the bar formed during rolHng.
Diagonal Band.— A group of reinforcing bars placed parallel to one of the diagonals
of a panel in a flat slab reinforced in four directions.
Direct Band. — A group of reinforcing bars placed parallel to the edge of a panel in
a flat slab reinforced in four directions.
37
38 Report on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete
Drop Panel. — The structural portion of a flat slab which increases the thickness of
the slab in the area surrounding the column capital.
Effective Area of Reinforcement. — The area obtained by multiplying the normal
cross-sectional area of the reinforcement by the cosine of the angle between its direction
and the direction for which the effectiveness is to be determined.
Effective Depth of Beam. — The distance from the compression face to the centroid
of the area of the tensile reinforcement.
Fineness Modulus. — ^An empirical factor obtained by taking l/lOO of the sum of the
percentages of a sample of aggregate retained on each of a specified series of sieves.
The sieves used are No. 100, SO, 30, 16, 8, 4, ^-in., %-in., 1^-in., and larger, increasing
in the ratio of 2 to 1.
Flat Slab. — A concrete slab reinforced in two or more directions without beams or
girders to transfer the loads to supporting columns.
Honeycomb. — A surface or interior defect in a concrete mass characterized by the
lack of mortar between the coarse aggregate particles.
Laitance. — Extremely fine material of Uttle or no hardness which may collect on the
surface of freshly placed concrete or mortar, resulting from the use of excess mixing
water.
Middle Strip. — The middle portion of a flat slab or two-way panel, usually one-half
panel in width, and symmetrical with respect to the center line of the panel, used for
convenience in distributing the bending moments in the slab.
Modular Ratio. — The ratio of the modulus of elasticity of steel to that of concrete.
Pedestal. — A compression member, generally vertical, whose height does not exceed
three times the least lateral dimension.
Pipe Column. — A steel pipe filled with concrete.
Plastic Flow.— The inelastic deformation in concrete resulting from the continued
application of load.
Ratio of Reinforcement. — The ratio of the effective area of the reinforcement to
the effective area of the concrete at any section of a structural member.
Saturated and Surface Dry. — A term used to describe the condition of an aggregate
in which the pores of all the particles are completely filled with water, but their surfaces
are free from moisture.
Slump. — The shortening of a standard test mass of freshly mixed concrete, used as
a measure of consistency in accordance with the standard method.
Strut. — A compression member other than a column or pedestal.
Stiffness Factor. — The value obtained by dividing the moment of inertia of a
member by its length.
Vibration. — A method of compacting concrete by mechanically producing wave
motion of high frequency in the concrete.
Materials 39
Chapter II — Materials
201. General
The recommendations of this committee covering the quality of materials — cements,
admixtures, water, aggregates and reinforcing steel — are embodied in the accompanying
specifications. The following comments indicate the basis and limitations of the speci-
fication requirements.
202. Cement
(a) In the case of normal Portland cement and high early strength Portland cement,
reference is made to the current ASTM Specifications C 9-38 and C 74-39. No specifica-
tions are recommended for cements for various special purposes other than where high
early strength is required. Although a number of specifications are now in use covering
such special requirements as low heat of hydration, sulphate resistance, etc., the com-
mittee feels that it should refrain from sponsoring any specifications of this nature until
they have received the endorsement of the American Society for Testing Materials,
which is the affiliated body usually relied upon to sponsor national standards in th's
field. Until such standards are available, the Engineer should satisfy himself either by
means of his own tests or by reference to reliable sources of information that the
material which he proposes to use will adequately fulfill his special requirements.
(b) Specifications for special cements, when required, should be inserted in Sec. 203-S
of the specifications.
203. Admixtures
(a) The committee considers that the benefits to be derived from the use in con-
crete of other than the essential ingredients (cement, aggregates, and water) depend so
much upon the conditions surrounding the individual project that it is virtually impos-
sible to write an adequate general specification for these materials. This applies par-
ticularly to admixtures which are employed for the purpose of promoting workability.
The desirability of using an admixture as well as the amount to be used depends greatly
on the characteristics of the essential ingredients, especially aggregate grading, as well
as on the proportions in which they are to be combined. Before permitting the use of
an admixture the Engineer should inform himself thoroughly as to the advantages or
disadvantages to be derived from its use considering both quality and economy. He
should determine definitely the effect of the proposed admixture on the strength, volume
change, durability, and density of the concrete. The possibility of securing the desired
results in other ways, such as by the use of additional cement, better aggregate grada-
tion, closer water control during construction, etc., should be investigated.. The com-
mittee recognizes that admixtures, under certain conditions, may impart desirable
characteristics which cannot be secured as economically by other methods. However, it
should be emphasized that the use of admixtures cannot be considered a panacea for any
of the ills which result from ignoring the fundamental principles governing the making
of good concrete.
(b) Specifications for admixtures, when required, should be inserted in Sec. 204-S
of the specifications.
204. Water
The mortar strength test is intended to assure the use of mixing water of satisfactory
quality from the standpoint of concrete strength. The test may be waived in cases
40 Report on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete
where the water to be used is of known satisfactory quality. Practical experience as
well as results of laboratory investigations indicate, in general, that any water which
ran be safely used for drinking purposes will be satisfactory for use in concrete.
Aggregates
205. General
In preparing its aggregate specifications the committee has utilized, insofar as pos-
sible, the specifications of the federal government and the existing standards of such
specification writing bodies as the American Society for Testing Materials, the American
Association of State Highway Officials, and the American Railway Engineering Associa-
tion. Attention is directed particularly to the fact that in the case of many of the
requirements for quality two test limits are shown, a recommended limit and an outside
permissible limit. This arrangement is in recognition of the fact that specifications for
such locally occurring materials as aggregates must be based, to a certain extent, upon
the available material. The recommended Hmit should be specified in all cases where it is
economically practicable to secure materials conforming thereto. When it is considered
necessary to use aggregates not meeting the recommended limits, less restrictive hmits
may be specified, but this fact should be recognized in the design of the concrete mixture
and in the control of the concrete during construction. In no case should hmits beyond
the maximum permissible values indicated be specified.
206. Fine Aggregate Grading
Attention is called to the fact that the relatively wide range in grading which is
shown in Sec. 208-S, should be permitted only when it is economically impracticable to
obtain materials meeting more restrictive requirements. The most desirable grading will
depend upon the type of work and class of concrete. For the leaner mixes, or when a
small size coarse aggregate is used, in cases where the degree of workabihty is important,
it is desirable to further restrict the allowable ranges in sizes shown in Sec. 208-S so as to
insure a grading approaching the maximum percentage passing each sieve. On the other
hand, for the richer mixes, in the interest of maximum strength and economy, a grading
as coarse as is consistent with the requirements for workabihty should be specified.
However, in no case should a range in grading be specified more restrictive than
indicated below:
Passing No. 16 sieve — range 20 percent or less
Passing No. SO sieve — range IS percent or less
Passing No. 100 sieve — range S percent or less
207. Coarse Aggregate Grading
The requirements for size of coarse aggregate specified in Sec. 21S-S are those
recommended by the Joint Technical Committee of the mineral aggregates associations.
They have been adopted for use in certain federal specifications and by the American
Association of State Highway Officials and as Simplified Practice Recommendation
R 163-39 of the Division of Simplified Practice of the Department of Commerce. The
sizes seem to cover adequately the usual requirements for concrete. The grading limita-
tions also are believed to be reasonable from the standpoint of both producer and con-
sumer. The committee recommends that these sizes, with the corresponding grading
limits, be used wherever it is practicable to do so.
Materials 41
208. Deleterious Substances
The requirements covering deleterious substances as given in Sec. 210-S and 216-S
are, of necessity, quite general. Broadly speaking, the term "deleterious substances," as
applied to aggregates, includes any material contained therein which will adversely affect
the quality of the concrete in any way. This would include a great variety of materials
such as shale, unsound chert, coal, ochre, excessively flat or elongated fragments, etc.,
coatings of various kinds which would affect the bond, and materials which would
adversely affect the hardening of the cement. Except for certain general limits which
are recognized in most specifications, reliance must be placed upon the judgment of the
Engineer based on past experience with the types of material which will be encountered
and with due regard to the economic considerations involved. With these considerations
in mind, the Engineer should list in Sec. 210-S and 216-S the additional deleteriou.s
substances which in his judgment should be controlled, together with appropriate limits,
based wherever possible upon recognized test procedures, reference to which should be
made in Sec. 229-S.
209. Soundness
When the concrete is to be exposed to the weather and other destructive agencies,
care should be exercised to select aggregates of durability adequate for the degree of
exposure. As indicated in Sec. 213-S and 217-S of the specifications, principal reliance
should be placed on service records, when adequate information in that regard is avail-
able. In the absence of such information, the accelerated soundness test specified in
Sec. 213-S and 217-S should be utilized. Methods for accelerated soundness tests in-
volving controlled freezing and thawing in the laboratory and the use of salts, principally
magnesium sulphate (MgS04) and sodium sulphate (Na2S04), to simulate freezing and
thawing, have been used. The committee has suggested the accelerated soundness test
using sodium sulphate (Na2S04) and has recommended requirements based on a rela-
tively limited amount of information resulting principally from experience in climates
where considerable freezing and thawing is encountered.
210. Lightweight Aggregates
Comparatively limited experience in the field of lightweight aggregates justifies a
more conservative specification at the present time than may be desirable later, particu-
larly in. those cases where exposure to wear and weather are not major factors. There-
fore, practically no concession is made for this type of aggregate in the general aggregate
requirements other than that of lower compressive strength in the mortar strength test.
It is suggested, however, that coarse aggregate weighing less than normal aggregates and
more than 5S lb. per cu. ft. (recommended as the maximum weight for lightweight
aggregates), and meeting all requirements for lightweight aggregates except weight, may
l)e used where lightweight concrete is permissible when in the opinion of the Engineer
the weight requirement may be waived.
211. Aggregates — Fireproofing
(a) Coarse aggregates for use in fireprui)fing have been divided into two classifica-
tions in recognition of differences in behavior when subjected to high temperatures. In
general, Group 1 includes aggregates predominating in materials which change in volume
a relatively small amount when exposed to high temperatures, and cinders low in com-
bustible materials; Group 2 includes aggregates containing substantial proportions of
particles which change in volume a relatively large amount when exposed to high tem-
peratures, and cinders containing combustible material in excess of the desirable minimum.
42 Report on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete
(b) The dividing line between the two groups is, necessarily, somewhat arbitrary,
but it is believed that it has been drawn as accurately as available data permit. That
there is a difference in the ability of concrete made with different aggregates to resist
high temperatures is evident from information available; how important these differences
are to the protection of life and property is not so readily evaluated. It should be
emphasized that adequate fireproofing can be obtained with the materials in either group
so long as the differences in their characteristics are taken into account in the design of
the concrete.
(c) The classification of the different types of aggregate is consistent with that in
the "Recommended Minimum Requirements for Fire Resistance in Buildings" outUned
in the Report of the Department of Commerce Building Code Committee, although the
limitation on percentage of siliceous particles is more rigid. The committee believes that
the recommendations outlined in Sec. 22S-S, when considered in connection with those
in Sec. 505, offer a conservative basis for the selection of coarse aggregates for fireproofing.
212. Resistance to Abrasion
Typical requirements covering wear resistance of coarse aggregates for use in con-
crete subject to surface abrasion are included. There are no generally recognized tests
for measuring the hardness or abrasive resistance of fine aggregates. The committee rec-
ognizes that, under certain circumstances, fine aggregates possessing high resistance to
wear are essential and recommends that, in such cases, the general clause covering fine
aggregates (Sec. 207-S) be amplified by the Engineer to include a description of the
desired characteristics.
Metal Reinforcement
213. General
(a) The principal requirements in the selection of metal reinforcement are the
yield point, the bond value, and the ductility.
(b) The advantage of high yield point steel has been recognized for many years,
and is self-evident in view of the fact that the yield point of the reinforcement prac-
tically determines the ultimate strength of both flexual and compression members.
(c) In ordinary commercial grades of steel, a high yield point is generally accom-
panied by a decrease in ductility. The balance, therefore, between a high yield point and
satisfactory ductility has developed the difference of opinion that exists as to the grade
of steel to be used. The relative importance of these qualities depends on the character
and service conditions of the structure. The choice of the grade of steel, therefore,
becomes a matter of engineering judgment.
214. Bond
The tendency toward increase in unit stresses and the use of high strength concrete
emphasizes the need for higher and more dependable bond resistance than that obtained
by the use of plain bars. In the absence of standard specifications for acceptable types
of deformed bars it has been the practice to permit an increase of 25 percent in bond
value of deformed over that of plain bars. This increase in bond resistance to be useful
should be developed at very small values of end slip in pull-out tests.
215. Ductility
The necessary ductility in metal reinforcement is that which permits fabrication by
cold-bending without indication of fracture or reduction in tensile strength. The prac-
tical test for ductility is the cold-bend test in the various specifications. Material that
complies fully with the bend test is sufficiently ductile for fabrication purposes.
Proportioning. Mixing, Curing, Testing 43
216. Recommended Sizes
The following standard sizes listed in the U. S. Department of Commerce Simplified
Practice Recommendation R26-30, are recommended:
Area Weight
Sizes sq. in. lb. per ft.
M"round .05 .167
^"round .11 .376
H'round .20 .668
V^" square .25 .850
^"round .31 1.043
34"round .44 1.502
'7^"round .60 2.044
1" round .79 2.670
1" square 1.00 3.400
lH"square 1.27 4.303
li4"square 1.56 5.313
Chapter III — Proportioning, Mixing, Curing, and
Testing Concrete
301. General
The recommendations of this committee, covering proportioning, mixing, curing, and
testing concrete, are embodied in the succeeding paragraphs and in the accompanying
specifications.
302. Basis for Specification
(a) There are two distinct views with respect to the function of the Contractor
which cannot be reconciled in a single specification. Under one of these it is assumed
that the function of the Contractor is to contribute his skill as a concrete technician as
well as his ability in handling construction equipment and materials. Under the other it
is assumed that the Contractor's function is purely that of a builder and that the Engi-
neer, who prepares the plans and specifications, is the concrete technician. Obviously,
the manner of specifying the quality of the concrete and how it shall be controlled will
not be the same under these two assumptions. The committee, therefore, presents
alternate specifications covering the sections on proportioning and concrete quality.
(b) Under Alternate A the Engineer establishes the general limitations of strength
and water content within which the Contractor is permitted considerable latitude in the
choice of materials and the methods of handling them. The Contractor is required to
produce a plastic and workable concrete of the required strength and water content that
can be placed without segregation or honeycomb. Under this alternate the Contractor
assumes the responsibility for the quality. If the concrete is lacking with respect to any
of the above qualities, he must make good the deficiency at his own expense.
(c) Under Alternate B the Engineer designates in detail the quantities of material
to be used, the length of mi.xing time, amount of water, range in slump, etc., and to this
extent is responsible for the quality of the concrete. Changes in quantities or types of
materials can be made only on the order of the Engineer and then adjustment of com-
pensation will be required under the clauses covering extra compensation or credit in
the contract. The Engineer, on behalf of the owner, is responsible for the adequacy of
the specification.
(d) In using the accompanying specification, the Engineer must designate which of
the alternates is to be used, and fill in the necessary tables with the specific information
44 Re port on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete
required for the project. The recommendations of the committee bearing on the points
involved will be found in the succeeding paragraphs.
303. Requirements of Concrete for Various Conditions of Exposure
(a) Since the publication of the 1924 report there has been considerable develop-
ment in the technology of concrete in which special emphasis has been placed on prop-
erties other than compressive strength, particularly durability and watertightness. These
properties, it has been shown, are controlled principally by the same factors which con-
trol compressive strength; namely (for aggregates and cement of given quality) by the
relative proportions of cement and water and the extent to which adequate curing is
provided. Studies have also shown that for durability, concrete when finally in place
must be free from any honeycomb or other defects which permit the entrance of water.
The recommendations of this committee, therefore, are built around the control of the
water content and curing and those factors which influence workability of the concrete
and the methods of placing and compacting.
(b) In Table 1 are given recommended water contents which are suitable for con-
crete intended for various conditions of exposure. These are based on the assumption
that the concrete will be plastic and workable, and placed and compacted in such man-
ner that a dense, homogeneous mass will be obtained. They also presume that the con-
crete will be sufficiently protected from loss of moisture and from low temperatures to
insure that proper hardening will develop.
304. Specified Strengths and Water Contents — Alternate A
(a) Alternate A is based on a dual control in which both a minimum strength and
a maximum allowable water content are specified. It puts on the Contractor full re-
sponsibility for the strength, consistency, and water-cement ratio. The strengths to be
inserted in Table A, Sec. 301-SA of the specifications, are intended to be those meeting
the requirements of the design calculations. As required in the specifications (Sec. 302-SA)
the Contractor must submit mixtures which he proposes to use for the different classes
of work together with a laboratory report showing that these mixtures will produce the
strengths specified and do not exceed the maximum allowable water contents. The
method of making the tests and the range of mixtures are covered by the specification.
(b) The maximum allowable water contents to be inserted in Table A, are those
meeting the exposure requirements which in the judgment of the Engineer will be re-
quired for the several portions of the work. The values to be inserted in Table A can
be obtained from Table 1. It may frequently happen that the water content which will
meet the particular exposure requirements will correspond to a strength of concrete in
excess of that upon which the design calculations were based. Likewise, it may be
found that to meet the strength requirements will require a water content even lower
than that needed for the exposure.
(c) To avoid a multiplicity of concrete mixes on a given project, a series of mixes,
such as shown in Table 2, is recommended. The eight mixes shown provide for the
entire range of exposures covered in Table 1. The strengths shown for the different
water contents represent those now commonly obtained with normal Portland cement.
For important work it is recommended that a similar table be drawn up based on tests
of the materials available for the project. Such tests should be carried out as specified
in Sec. 321-S to 32S-S.
305. Specified Mixtures — Alternate B
(a) Alternate B is a specification based primarily on a designated cement content,
Inil in which there is also specified a maximum water content, a maximum size of aggrc-
Water Contents
45
O
u
u
I
St?
>» o
q o
DC C
■Si" '^'
G^
CC
a.
DC
? c
fc ^ o a
<
^
O
:^^
Zee S
•S o
^
•Q.
»0 CD
t^
lO
;0 t-~
o.
CC
CC
• 01
o c« if
3 M g
^■^^^
t: 8o s
oi ft S
'^ 2
r4 CO
C3 fl
0) :3.+^ ;zl
rt S c <"
(H -u
s
c
o
[A
a"
=3 4^
5 to
o
^ 0)
I"
^ft
T3 O
3 bfi
O O)
to O
5 *H
CO
cn.« O C
T3 C 3
a o c
O to
.. W d;
bfi "^ »-'
" >» >» .s ^
o5 o
>»i=l
■73 b
ft iS-
g iH c
o a
'3
.2"
>
o
M ;3
P 0)
o ►-.
+^ »-.
c o
cu ^
(D T3
'-' C
CO O)
O °
ft.23
_. to
g-^
« O)
CO rj
.S C
'O o
3 o)
■£! -"^
TZ «
o^
o ="
CD "^
<P o
-l-J CO
CO +->
3 O
CO S
C
3
O
»-i - f^
rS • CD O)
M O) I* 13
be
tn oj i^.5"co
C c5 a*
S S »J
01 i^*" w
O) ^
o « 0)2:
4J re CO o
^ t- ft c
X re o^
t; S t <u
• • c S c t:
"2 O !xl O 3
re (-1 -t-> fc Q,
o o o o rr
'S3 5
ft
O
46 Report on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete
gate, a range in slump, and a range in percentage of fine aggregate. The other items to
be filled in Table B (Sec. 301-SB) are purely informative and not to be confused with
specified values. It is strongly recommended that the Engineer, whenever practicable,
make prehminary tests of available materials in order to determine the values to be
inserted in Table B.
(b) Where it is impracticable to make preliminary tests, and a specification along
the lines of Alternate B is to be adopted, the mixes in Table 3 are suggested. The values
in Table 3 are for a concrete of a medium cons'stency (4-in. slump) . The quantities of
cement indicated will need to be changed if other consistencies are to be entered in
Table B. Since the quantities in Table 3 are all approximate, it will be sufficiently accu-
rate to modify the cement content in accordance with the following: For each 1-in.
difference in slump, change the cement factor ^s sack per cu. yd., increasing this factor
for slumps greater than 4 in. and reducing it for slumps less than 4 in.
(c) When tests are being made to determine the quantities and proportions of
materials to use in Table B, the weights specified in columns 8 and 9 should be based
on the known specific gravities of the aggregates to be used. When these data are sup-
Table 2
Class of Concrete
Maximum Allowable
} Probable Minimum
Net Water Content
Allowable Compressive
Gal. Per Sack of
Strength at 28 Days
Cement
p. s. i.
5
5000
5M
4500 .
6
4000
63^
3600
7
3200
7H
2800
8
2500
8M
2000
plied from Table 3, it should be recognized that the approximate quantities given in
columns 6, 7, and 8 are based on bulk specific gravity of 2.65 in a saturated and surface-
dry condition. For aggregates of different specific gravities the approximate weights
should be multiplied by the ratio of actual specific gravity to the assumed value of 2.65.
(d) It should be pointed out further that in the use of Alternate B the various
classes of concrete are determined either by tests or by selection from data such as are
given in Table 3. Where the tests are to be made the Engineer will arrive at his own
values of strengths for various water contents and should select his concrete classes
accordingly. Where Table B in the specification is to be filled out from Table 3, it must
be understood that -the strengths indicated are based on normal Portland cement and
aggregates meeting the requirements of these specifications determined in a manner
specified in Sec. 321-S to 32S-S. If other than normal Portland cement is to be used,
these values will not apply.
(e) Particular attention is called to the differences between Table 3 and Table 2.
The latter is intended for use where the Contractor has assumed full responsibility for
the quaUty of the concrete and where regular tests will be made to assure that the
intended strengths are secured. Table 3, on the other hand, is compiled merely as sug-
gested values to be used when actual data for the materials at hand are lacking. Because
of this, the strength values indicated for the different water contents are purposely made
conservative.
P r 0 p 0 r
tions
47
Table 3
Cement
Factor,
Approx
. Wts. Saturated
Max.
Estimated
Sacks
Max.
Fine Agg.
Surface-Dry Agg
per
Size
28-Day
Cement
Water
% Total
Sack
of Cement-
-lb.
Coarse
Comb.
per cu. yd.
per Sack
Agg.
(See
Note B be
ow)
Agg-
Str.
Freshly
Cement
(See Note A
in.
p. s. i.
Mixed
gal..
Below)
Fine
Coarse
Concrete
Total
Agg-
Agg.
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
1
2250
4.9
8
40^6
660
280
380
2
2250
4.5
8
37-43
740
300
440
3
2250
4.1
8
34-40
840
310
530
1
2750
5.6
7
39-45
570
240
330
2
2750
5.1
7
36-42
640
250
390
3
2750
4.7
7
33-39
720
260
460
1
3000
6.0
63^
38-44
520
210
310
2
3000
5.5
GVo
36-42
590
230
360
3
3000
5.1
6H
34-40
660
240
420
1
3300
6.5
6
37-43
470
190
280
2
3300
6.0
6
35-41
530
200
330
3
3300
5.5
6
33-39
600
220
380
1
3700
7.2
5K
36-42
420
160
260
2
3700
6.7
5^
34-40
470
170
300
3
3700
6.2
53^
32-38
530
180
350
1
4250
8.0
5
35-41
370
140
230
2
4250
7.4
5
33-39
420
150
270
3
4250
6.8
5
31-37
470
160
310
Note A — The limits shown in Col. (S) are approximate and percentages falling outside of the limits
shown may frequently be found necessary to produce concrete of the desired workability. Wheii ex-
pressed in terms of absolute volume they are applicable to aggregates of different specific gravities;
when expressed in terms of weight, differences in specific gravity should be taken into account.
Note B — The approximate weights in columns (6), (7), and (8) are based on a bulk specific
gravity of 2.65 in a saturated surface-dry condition.
306. Use of High Early Strength Portland Cement
Both Alternates A and B carry provisions for the use of high early strength cement
(309-SA and 306-SB). These are based on the assumption that the 3-day and 7-day
strengths for the high early strength cement concrete are equivalent, respectively, to the
7 and 28-day strengths for the normal Portland cement concrete. When the materials
to be used show other relationships, these of course should be specified.
307. Consistency and Size of Aggregate
(a) The consistency of the concrete and the maximum size of aggregate to be used
will be dependent upon the conditions prevailing at each individual job. The factors
which will govern are: The available materials, size of the member, quality of concrete
to be produced, arrangement of reinforcement, and the manner of transporting and
placing the concrete. Decision in respect to these items should be made with the re-
quirements of plasticity and workabiHty clearly in mind. In structures, where the
exposure will be severe, it is of utmost importance that the plasticity and workability
of the concrete be such that it can be placed and compacted without honeycomb or
other defects which will permit the entrance of water.
(b) Table 4 gives suggested aggregate sizes and consistencies suitable for several
different classes of work. See Sec. 504-506 and 854 for recommendations regarding
embedment and spacing of reinforcement.
Consistency
Maximum
-Slump
Minimum
Maximum Size of
Coarse Aggregate
in.
in.
in.
5
2
VA
4
6
6
3
3
1
3
3
2
1
2
1
1
2
3 to 6*
48 Report on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete
Table 4
Portion of Structure
Reinforced foundation walls and
footings
Plain footings, caissons and sub-
structure walls
Slabs, beams, and reinforced walls.
Building columns
Pavements
Heavy mass construction
* In making the slump test, all aggregate larger than 2 inches should be screened out of the mixture.
(c) When high frequency mechanical vibration is used for compacting concrete, the
limiting consistencies in Table 4 will need to be modified. When properly applied,
mechanical vibration permits the use of stiffer consistencies than are possible under
hand placing. For a given water content, therefore, leaner mixtures, that is, lower cement
factors, can be utilized when this method of placing is employed. Generally, the ratio
of fine to coarse aggregate should be reduced where high frequency mechanical vibration
is employed. See Sec. 404 for Recommended Practice on Placing Concrete by Vibration.
308. Ready-Mixed Concrete
(a) Sec. 313-S and 31S-S require that the maximum size of batch which may be
placed in a truck mixer or agitator shall be in accordance with the "specified rating."
In general, the manufacturer's rating should be used, since it takes into account the
strength and balance of the entire mechanism as well as its efficiency as a mixer or
agitator. However, experience with equipment now in general use shows that the rated
capacities should not exceed the following percentages of the gross volume of the drum:
1. Truck mixers performing the entire mixing operation (see Sec. 313-S)
(a) Top-door loading SO percent
(b) End-door loading 57% percent
2. Truck mixers completing the mixing of concrete partially mixed at central
plant (see Sec. 314-S) 66% percent
3. Agitators or truck mixers used for transporting mixed concrete (see
Sec. 31S-S) 80 percent
Frequently, the manufacturer's ratings are less than the limits given above because
of factors other than mixing efficiency.
(b) In Sec. 31S-S, a period of 1% hours within which delivery of ready-mixed con-
crete must normally be made is specified. This is based on the results of research which
have shown that a period of 1^ hours between the beginning of mixing and the com-
pletion of the discharge of the batch results in no detrimental effects on the concrete.
The data indicate that under specially favorable conditions periods up to 2 and 3 hours
may be allowed. Experience has shown that with certain soft aggregate greatly pro-
longed mixing will result in a decrease in size of aggregate particles and a corresponding
increase in the proportion of fine material. When air temperatures are unusually high, or
the ingredients of the concrete mixture are such that an unusually quick time of set or
loss of plasticity may occur, it may be necessary to specify periods shorter than 1^
hours to insure that no damage be done to the concrete. The exact period will depend
Curing ^9
upon the materials being used and the prevailing temperatures. It is unlikely, except
under the most unusual circumstances, that it will be necessary to specify a period of
less than 1 hour.
309. Curing
(a) The protection of concrete against low temperatures and loss of moisture dur-
ing the period immediately after placing is an important factor in the development of
both strength and durability in concrete. Sec. 318-S in the specifications requires that
the concrete be protected to prevent loss of moisture from the surface and to prevent
temperatures at the surface from going below SO deg. F. for periods of 7 days where
normal Portland cement is used, and 3 days where high early strength Portland cement
is used. In fixing these limits it is recognized that under average conditions, curing of
concrete does not cease immediately upon removal of the protection against loss of
moisture. Where the conditions are severe, as, for example, thin sections in hot dry air
or low temperatures, it may be desirable to increase somewhat the protection periods
specified.
(b) The committee recognizes that under the specification requirement in Sec. 318-S
some doubt may arise as to the methods which will be acceptable. It is not prepared,
however, to offer more specific recommendations, but it does suggest the following
methods which have been used to achieve the desired end with varying degrees of
success:*
(1) Surface remaining in contact with the forms.
(2) The surfaces of slabs protected by ponding.
(3) Covering with burlap or cotton mats kept continuously wet.
(4) Covering with paper of suitable type.
(5) Covering with one-inch layer of thoroughly wet sand, earth, or sawdust.
(6) Covering with six-inch layer (loose) of thoroughly wet straw, hay, or
similar material.
(7) Continuous sprinkling of the exposed surfaces.
310. Field Tests
(a) The sections in the specifications referring to field tests (320-S to 32S-S) are
intended primarily for use with Alternate A under which the Contractor assumes respon-
sibility for the strength of concrete being produced. While the tests are to be made at
the expense of the owner and entirely under the supervision of the Engineer, the clauses
are included in the specification so that there will be a definite understanding as to the
methods by which the quality of the concrete being produced is to be judged.
(b) Where a specification along the lines of Alternate B is used such explicit direc-
tions for making the tests are not necessary. However, there seems to be no good reason
for omitting these detailed clauses in such case.
311. Field-Cured Specimens
(a) The question may arise as to why the specifications for Field Tests of Con-
crete (Sec. 32Q-S to 32S-S) call for the curing of specimens in the laboratory, rather
• than in the field. The committee takes the position that under the conditions prevailing
in most structures it is practically impossible to store specimens in the field in such a
manner that their strength can be assumed to represent accurately the strength of the
• The committee also calls attention to the specifications for curing Portland cement concrete adopted
liy the AREA in March, 1936, which carry very definite requirements for protection aeainst low
temperatures and loss of moisture. These specifications are reproduced in Appendix 4.
50 Report on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete
concrete in the structure. An exception is noted in the case of pavement slabs in which
a procedure, described in (d) below, is used that gives reliable indications as to the
strength of the concrete.
(b) Under such a specification as Alternate A, the quality of concrete being placed
in the usual type of structure can only be judged on the basis of specimens stored in
accordance with standard laboratory procedure.
(c) Field-cured specimens may give information of value as to the curing condi-
tions prevailing on the job, but the results must be interpreted with caution, and under
no circumstances should they be used to determine compliance with the requirements
of a strength specification of the type covered by Alternate A.
(d) As noted above, it is quite common practice in the construction of concrete
pavements to use the results of tests of field-cured beam specimens to determine the age
at which it will be safe to open the road to traffic. The usual practice is as follows:
After removal from the molds at the end of 24 hours the specimens are bedded on the
subgrade alongside the pavement and the sides banked with earth, leaving only the sur-
faces exposed. Every care is taken to give the surfaces of these beams exactly the same
curing treatment as the pavement. A sufficient number of specimens is made each day to
permit testing at various ages until the results show that the concrete has attained the
required flexural strength. The tests are ordinarily made on the job, using one of the
several types of portable beam testing machines on the market.
312. Enforcement of Strength Requirements
Any contract in which concrete of a definite strength is specified should contain
some provision outlining the procedure to be followed in case it is discovered after
portions of the structure are completed that the concrete fails to comply with the
requirements. The objection to a strength specification has largely been based on the
absence of such provisions. Sec. 326-SA to 328-SA in the specifications are intended to
cover this contingency. These sections should be stricken out if Alternate B Specification
is adopted.
Chapter IV — Forms and Placing
401. General
Except for the following special cases the recommendations of the committee are
embodied in the specifications.
402. Pneumatic Placing of Concrete
(a) In order to obtain the best results with equipment now available the following
general rules should be observed:
(1) The placing equipment should be located as close to the point of deposit as
practicable, and the concrete should be conveyed from the mixer with as Uttle segregation
as conditions will permit.
(2) The volume of concrete at each discharge of the gun, in general, should not
exceed 7 cu. ft. Distances from gun to nozzle greater than 1,000 ft. should be avoided.
The general slope of the discharge line may vary from a horizontal to a vertical direc-
tion, but in no case should it be inclined downward.
(3) The position of the nozzle should be such that the concrete is directed to the
point of deposit without impinging directly on the reinforcement, and without excessive
rebound of material.
i
I
Pumping Concrete Si
(4) Concrete of a medium consistency gives the best results. Sloppy mixes are
unsatisfactory.
(b) When this method is being used cores should be drilled at appropriate intervak
for tests to determine whether the concrete being placed is of the desired quality.
403. Pumping Concrete
(a) The pumping equipment, the charging hopper, and the devices used at the out-
let of the pipe should be such that concrete of the specified quality and consistency can
be transported and delivered in the forms without segregation. The devices used at the
outlet of the pipe — deflectors, spouts, hose connections, swivel-mounted elbows, elephant
trunks, etc., — should be selected to meet the particular requirements of the job.
(b) The pump should be able to produce a working pressure of at least 300 lb. per
sq. in., and the pipe line and fittings should be designed to resist approximately double
this pressure.
(c) The pipe line should be laid with as few bends as possible, and changes in
direction should be accomplished preferably with bends 45 deg. or less. Ninety-degree
bends should be used only where they are unavoidable.
(d) Where it is necessary to lay the pipe with a downhill grade, a choke should be
used at the discharge end to keep a continuous flow of concrete in the line. For vertical
pumping, a shut-off valve should be placed in the lower line to prevent backflow when
pumping is stopped, or when making pipe changes or cleaning at the end of a run.
(e) Concrete having a slump of two inches or more can be handled easily by pump-
ing— irrespective of the character and type of coarse aggregate, that is, whether round or
angular. For workable mixes of less than two-inch slump, gravel concrete pumps more
easily than crushed stone concrete. With concrete having 4.5 sacks or less cement per
cubic yard the quality and grading of sand is important for successful pumping. For
such concrete, sand with a relatively high percent of fines that will hold water and
prevent "bleeding" is desirable.
(f) A shut-down of half an hour usually will not prevent the starting of the pump
and the delivery of the concrete in good condition. The permissible limit of a shut-down
with a full charge of concrete in the line will depend on temperature conditions and the
rate of stiffening or hardening of the concrete.
(g) Immediately before concreting is begun the empty pipe line should be flushed
with water and a charge of thin grout placed ahead of the concrete to properly lubri-
cate the line. About one cubic foot of grout should be used for each 1,000 sq. ft. of
inside surface area of pipe line and a plug or "go-devil" should be used just ahead of
the grout to force out any free water.
(h) At the end of a run a "go-devil" should be forced through the pipe line to
clean out the concrete.
(i) Job experience with pumping equipment suggests the use of the following sizes
of pipe, maximum sizes of coarse aggregate, and slump of concrete for maximum
pumping distances.
Maximum Pumping Maximum Size
Pipe Size Slump of Distance — fl. Material
in. Concrete (Passing Screen
in. Horizontal* Vertical ** Size — in.)
8 Not less than 1 1000 100 3
7 Not less than 1 800 100 2}^
6 Not less;than 3 600 100 2
• A 90-deg. elbow is estimated to be equivalent to 40 ft. of horizontal piping.
•• Not over 200 ft. of pipe, actual.
52 R e p 0 r t o n Concrete and Reinforced Concrete
404. Placing by Vibration
(a) The use of vibration for compacting and placing concrete is comparatively new,
and differences of opinion exist as to the best methods, particularly as to frequency,*
methods and position of application, amplitude,* length of time of vibration, force of
blow (related to the size of vibrator), and the area or volume of concrete over and
through which vibration is effective. It is desirable, therefore, that the supervising per-
sonnel, as well as the operators of the vibrating equipment, be experienced.
(b) Vibration imparts no new properties to concrete. However, its use permits
economies or improvement in the quality of the concrete through the use of stiffer and
harsher mixtures with lower water content than is possible with the usual methods of
placement. The consistency of the concrete should be adjudged to the particular condi-
tions of placement and equipment in use. The concrete should not be so dry as to make
placement difficult, nor so wet as to produce a fluid condition on the surface of the
concrete. In general, vibration should not be used when the slump of concrete exceeds
three inches except as an aid in placing under difficult conditions.
(c) All jobs on which the use of vibration is new should start with a mixture which
can be placed readily by the usual methods. The quantity of cement, water, and propor-
tion of fine to coarse aggregate should then be adjusted gradually until the mixture has
the desired placeability. This will generally require a readjustment in the ratio of fine
to coarse aggregate, usually an increase in the percentage of coarse aggregate. Where
economy is desired the total volume of the aggregates should be increased. Where
improved quality is desired, the water-cement ratio should be reduced.
(d) Where excessive bleeding occurs which cannot be readily corrected by adjusting
the mixture, the percentage of sand finer than the No. 50 sieve should be increased.
(e) Vibration should not be applied directly or through the reinforcement to sec-
tions or layers of concrete which have hardened to the degree that the concrete ceases
to become plastic under vibration. Vibration should not be continued at any one point
to the extent that localized areas of grout are formed.
(f) One of the evidences of sufficient vibration is the appearance of a line of cement
paste at the junction of the concrete and the forms, or the concrete and surface of the
steel reinforcement. When the decrease in volume of the concrete is no longer apparent
the vibration has been sufficient.
(g) Vibration should not be used to make concrete flow in the forms over distances
so great as to cause segregation.
(h) Vibration is appHed to the concrete in various ways, depending upon the type
and size of member being cast and whether applied in the field or in the shop. It is
appUed to the forms generally for sections of walls, columns, floor slabs, and precast
units too small for operating vibrators of the internal type. Both internal vibrators and
platform vibrators are used for compacting concrete in massive structures. A table
vibrator is used for making cast stone or concrete products. For pavement work a
vibrating screed is used.
(i) Vibration increases pressure on the forms which should therefore be designed for
the higher pressures and greater strains on ties and supports. Proper precautions should
be taken to prevent leakage of mortar through joints in the form work during vibration.
* Frequency— The number of complete oscillations per minute.
Amplitude — T"-- ' " ' - . '^ -
of an oscillation.
Oscillation— A complete cycle of movement of a vibrating body.
Vibrating Concrete S3
405. Number and Size of Vibrators Required
(a) The factors which govern the selection of type, number, and size of vibrators
are the following:
Depth and area of section.
Size of batch.
Number of batches per hour.
Size of aggregate.
Amount and spacing of reinforcement.
Proportions, particularly the respective amounts of fine and coarse aggregate
and the consistencies of the mixtures.
(b) The number and size of vibrators of whatever type used should be such as to
insure vibration throughout the entire volume of concrete to be vibrated. Application
of vibrators should be at points uniformly spaced and not farther apart than the radius
over which vibration is visibly effective. The vibration should be such that the concrete
becomes uniformly plastic.
406. Pneumatically Applied Mortar
(a) Construction utilizing pneumatically applied mortar has been in the hands of a
few organizations specializing in this field and utilizing equipment produced by a very
limited number of manufacturers. The type of construction has been in use for many
years and considerable advance in technique and equipment has been made during that
period, but there is still considerable divergence in procedure between the different users.
The purpose of this section is to provide a resume of accepted practice as supplementary
to the general specifications.
(b) The results obtained in pneumatically applying mortar depend to a large extent
on the skill of the operator and the work should be done only by experienced men.
(c) Two types of equipment are available, single or double chamber. The single
chamber type is operated intermittently, and is adaptable to small jobs only. The double
chamber type which can be operated continuously is the most common type in use.
(d) The grading of the sand is important in obtaining high strength and density.
The sand should be passed through a ^-in. sieve and have a fineness modulus of 3.0 or
less. Stone sand subject to the same grading limitations as natural sand gives satisfactory
results.
(e) The proportions of cement to sand for various purposes should range from 1
part cement to 3 parts sand to 1 part cement to 4^ parts sand, in terms of dry and
loose volumes. The mortar in place will have a somewhat lower proportion of sand
because of the loss due to rebound.
(f) Control of the water content is important for pneumatically placed mortar in
order to obtain proper placement. The water content should be such that a very slight
film of water will form on the surface of the applied material. Insufiicient water results
in dry porous spots and excess water causes low strength and slipping of the mortar.
(g) The air and water pressure should be maintained uniform. The water pressure
should be at least IS lb. per sq. in. higher than the air pressure which should be sufficient
to give proper velocity to the material leaving the nozzle. To avoid excessive impact the
air pressure should not exceed 7S lb. per sq. in.
(h) The sand should be neither excessively dry nor wet — about four percent mois-
ture by weight is desirable. Sand and cement should be thoroughly premixed by machine
as very little mixing takes place during the application.
54
Report on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete
(i) The velocity of the material that leaves the nozzle should be maintained uniform
and should be such as to produce a minimum of rebound of the sand. The nozzle should
be held between three and four feet from the surface being covered and should be kept
moving to obtain a uniform coating.
(j) Special care should be taken in the removal of forms and in the curing to avoid
cracking of the thin sections. Placing at temperatures below SO deg. F. should not be
attempted unless adequate facihties are available for keeping the mortar above SO deg.
during and after placing. The surface to which mortar is applied should be free from
frost.
(k) Shooting strips should be used at corners, edges, and on surfaces where neces-
sary to obtain true lines and proper thickness. The surface of the mortar may be "steel
floated" when a very smooth finish is desired.
(I) The placement equipment should be thoroughly cleaned whenever work is to be
stopped for a period in excess of 30 min.
(m) The position and size of reinforcement where required and the thickness of
coating varies with the use of the pneumatically applied mortar and should be within
the limitations given below. Square reinforcement bars should not be used.
Use
Reinforcement
Thickness
Encasement of
Steel
Galvanized welded fabric 2 x 2 — No. 12
and No. 12 or 3 x 3— No. 10 and No. 10
bent to templet, and securely fastened
to the steel at M in. from steel.
IJ^ to 2 in. placed in two
layers, second is H in.
thick.
Floor, Wall and
Roof Slabs
Rods and galvanized welded fabric not
larger than % in. diameter sufficient
for load requirements. Reinforcement
not closer than ^ in. to exposed sur-
face.
As determined by load re-
quirements. Placed in
two or more layers.
Final coat 3^ in. thick.
Stucco or Facing
on Tile, Terra
Gotta, Brick,
and Concrete.
Not necessary except for badly disinte-
grated surfaces in which case use gal-
vanized welded fabric equal to 0.2% of
cross-sectional area of tae mortar se-
curely attached to the structure and
located at middle of coating.
^ in. to 1 in. placed in
two layers, second }4
in. tnick. Screed to
proper surface before
applying second layer.
Concrete
Restoration
Galvanized welded fabric 2 x 2— No. 12
and No. 12 or 3 x 3— No. 10 and No. 10
securely attached to old structure at
middle of coating. Two layers of mesh
for thickness of 3 in. and greater.
Not less than 1 in.
placed in two or more
layers. Screed to pro-
per surface before ap-
plying final M in-
layer.
Linings for
Reservoirs
Galvanized welded fabric 4 x 4 — No. 8
and No. 8 or greater at middle of coat-
ing.
Not less than 2 in., in two
or more layers.
Linings for
Canals and
Ditches
Galvanized welded fabric not less than
0.2% of cross-sectional area of mortar
middle of slab.
1 to 2 in. two or more
layers.
Details of Design and Construction ^
Chapter V — Details of Design and Construction
501. General
(a) The monolithic character of reinforced concrete construction creates problems
in details of design as well as in construction that require adequate treatment if the
structure is to be durable, structurally sound, and acceptable in appearance.
(b) To insure durability where the structure is exposed to the weather, the rein-
forcement should be protected by an adequate covering of concrete. For exposure to sea
water, corrosive fluids, or high temperatures, extra precautions are necessary. In order
to maintain a proper amount of covering the metal reinforcement should be accurately
and firmly held in position.
(c) Only comparatively small structures can be cast without interruption. Conse-
quently, construction joints in the concrete and splices in the metal reinforcement are
required.
(d) In addition to construction joints it is frequently necessary to articulate a
structure to provide for length changes due to temperature variation and shrinkage.
Also in some cases joints are introduced for structural or design purposes, as in open
spandrel or hinged arches and some types of framed structures. Joints of this character
need special attention on the part of the designer and the construction organization if
they are to function properly. Where concrete structures are exposed to water pressure,
there is added to these requirements the necessity of maintaining watertightness.
(e) The use of reinforcement in distributing and minimizing the formation of cracks
should be given careful attention.
(f) The following recommendations cover some of the more important construction
details, and are intended to guide in the design as well as in the construction. These
should be considered in connection with Sec. SOl-S to Sll-S of the specifications.
Details of Reinforcement
502. Splicing of Reinforcement
When it is necessary to splice reinforcement, the spUce should develop the strength
of the bar by bond resistance over the surface limited by the length of sphce. In lapped
spUces the bars should be placed in contact and wired together. The minimum distance
recommended in Sec. 504 should be considered to apply to the space remaining between
a pair of bars so sphced and adjacent bars or splices. Wherever possible, spUces of adja-
cent bars should be staggered. A welded or mechanical connection should develop the full
strength of the bars.
503. Offsets in Column Reinforcement
When changes in the cross section of a compression member occur, the longitudinal
reinforcement should be sloped the full length of the member or offset in a region
where lateral support is provided sufficient to resist the transverse component of the
thrust in the inclined portion of the offset. Where offsets are used, the slope of the
inchned portion of the bars should be not more than 1 to 6 with respect to the axis
of the members (see Sec. 854 (c)).
504. Clearance and Embedment
Reinforcement bars should be located a sufficient distance from the surfaces of
members and from each other to afford adequate embedment for bond resistance and
for satisfactory placing. The minimum spacing between parallel bars should be 2J/^ times
56 Report on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete
the diameter of round or 3 times the side dimension of square bars, but in no case
should the clear distance between bars be less than 1^ times the maximum size of the
coarse aggregate nor less than 1 in. in beams and girders, nor V/z in. in columns. See
Sec. 854 for recommendations concerning column reinforcement.
505. Fire Protection
(a) Metal reinforcement should be protected against fire by the minimum thicknesses
of concrete shown in the following table for the various classes of structural members
and types of aggregates (designated as Group 1 and Group 2, and defined in Specifica-
tions Sec. 22S-S).
Minimum Thickness of Concrete — in.
Fire Resistance
4 hr. 3 hr. 2 hr. 1 hr.
For columns, beams, girders, and un-
protected ribbed slabs
Group 1, Aggregate 1}4, 1/^ ^M 1
Group 2, Aggregate 2 IJ^ 13^ 1
For solid slabs
Group 1, Aggregate H H H yi
Group 2, Aggregate Jl % % M
(b) In ribbed floor construction where ribs are spaced not more than 30 in. in the
clear, and formed between permanent masonry filler blocks, or between permanent or
removable forms, and having the additional protection of ^ in. of Portland cement or
gypsum plaster applied directly to the ribs and masonry fillers, or to metal lath attached
to or suspended below the ribbed construction, the fire protection requirements for the
ribs should be those indicated in the table for solid slabs.
506. Moisture Protection
(a) At those surfaces of footings and other principal structural members in which
the concrete is deposited directly against the ground, metal reinforcement should have a
minimum covering of three inches of concrete. At other surfaces of concrete exposed to
the ground or to severe weathering conditions, metal reinforcement should be protected
by not less than two inches of concrete. At undersides of slabs exposed to weather one
inch should be provided.
(b) Where metal fabric in the form of wire mesh or expanded metal is used as
reinforcement for protective coatings on columns, beams, or girders, it should have a
minimum covering of V/i in. for structures exposed to water, ground, or weather, and a
minimum of ^ in. for structures not so exposed.
(c) Where pneumatically applied mortar is used for moisture protection, it should
not be less than IJ^ in. in thickness and reinforced with metal fabric as provided in
Sec. 406 (m) . The mesh should be securely fastened to the surface to be protected.
(d) In large and monumental structures such as large bridges, locks, and dams, it
is recommended that the minimums enumerated above be increased.
(e) Structures or structural elements exposed to the injurious action of corrosive
liquids and vapors require special designs of protective coverings.
507. Concrete in Sea Water
(a) For the protection of the reinforcement where concrete is exposed to sea water
both the quality of the concrete and the thickness of the protection should fulfill more
than ordinary requirements. The minimum water contents shown in Table 1, Section
303, are recommended. The placing should be in accordance with the specification
paragraphs, 420-S and 421-S.
Expansion and Contraction Joints
57
(b) The depth of protection for all metal reinforcement, including supports, ties and
stirrups, should be a minimum of three inches at all plane or curved surfaces and four
inches near the corners of exposed members.
508. Future Bonding
Where reinforcing bars are to be left protruding from a structure for the purpose
of bonding with future additions, special care should be taken to protect them against
injury or corrosion.
Expansion and Contraction Joints
509. Purpose and Location
(a) If a reinforced concrete structure is free to expand and contract with variations
in temperature or moisture conditions (uniform over the section), no stresses of any
importance will be developed. When the movement of the structure is restrained, how-
ever, or when temperature or moisture variations are not uniform over the section,
stresses are introduced which should be provided for in the design.
(b) Points requiring special consideration are located where large changes in cross
section occur or at corners in long members where expansions or contractions may result
in rupture of the side members. No amount of reinforcement will prevent the formation
of cracks in a restrained structure in which the required change in length exceeds the
extensibility of the concrete, but reinforcement properly designed will serve to distribute
the cracks.
(c) Joints providing a complete separation in the structure, when properly located,
can relieve the restraint and prevent or greatly minimize the development of cracks.
Such joints should be carefully designed with respect to the type of structure and should
provide for the full expected movements without introducing local stresses severe enough
to rupture the concrete. They should be located at predetermined points and fully
detailed on the drawings. They may or may not be designed to carry load or distribute
stress across the joint. Frequently this type of joint requires some form of protection to
keep out extraneous material.
510. Expansion Joints in Long Buildings
(a) Expansion joints are expensive and in some cases difficult to maintain. They
are, therefore, to be avoided if possible. In relatively short buildings, expansion and con-
traction can be provided for by additional reinforcement. No arbitrary spacing for joints
in long buildings can be generally applicable. In heated buildings joints can be spaced
farther apart than in unheated buildings. Also, where the outside walls are of brick or of
stone ashlar backed with brick, or where otherwise insulated, the joints can be farther
apart than with exterior walls of lower insulating value.
(b) In localities with large temperature ranges, the spacing of joints for the most
severe conditions of exposure (uninsulated walls and unheated buildings) should not
exceed 200 ft. Under favorable conditions buildings 400 to 500 ft. long have been built
without joints even in localities with large temperature ranges.
(c) In localities with small temperature ranges, the spacing of joints for unheated
buildings or with uninsulated walls should not exceed 300 ft. In such locahtics buildings
up to 700 ft. long have been successfully built without joints where other conditions
were favorable.
(d) In roof construction, provision for expansion is an important factor. The joints
in the roof may be required at more frequent intervals than in the other portions of the
58 Report on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete
building because of more severe exposure. In some cases expansion joints spaced 100 ft.
apart have been provided in roofs and not in walls or floors.
(e) Joints should be located at junctions in L-, T-, or U-shaped buildings and at
points where the building is weakened by large openings in the floor construction, such
as at light wells, stairs, or elevators. Joints should provide for a complete separation
from the top of the footings to the roof, preferably by separate columns and girders.
511. Retaining Walls
For retaining walls and similar structures subject to large temperature and moisture
changes, the details suggested in Sec. 877 are recommended.
512. Concrete Trestles
For concrete trestles and similar structures the spacing of joints will depend upon
the temperature range, flexibility of the supports, and other structural requirements. In
general, for structures of this type it is desirable to place the joints not farther apart
than 125 ft. For this type of construction joints, where heavy loads are being trans-
mitted, shding joints should not be used.
Construction Joints
513. Location of Joints
Wherever it is necessary to interrupt the placing of the concrete, an effort should be
made to form a joint that will least impair the appearance or serviceability of the mem-
ber or structure. Where such joints are objectionable, the drawings should clearly indi-
cate the limits of the various sections to be placed at one operation and the joints
desired should be fully detailed. When construction joints cannot be avoided the method
of procedure given in Sec. S08-S to Sll-S of the specifications should be followed.
514. Watertight Joints
Where construction joints are necessary in structures exposed to water pressure, or
where for other reasons the joints must be watertight, non-corrosive metal water stops ;
should be installed.
Chapter VI — Waterproofing and Protective Treatments
601. General
The questions of when to waterproof and what method to use are so largely matters
of individual cases that it is hot possible to offer specific recommendations that will be
generally applicable. In the following paragraphs some comment is offered on the gen-
eral aspects of the problem. It is realized that experienced engineers are likely to be
well informed on these subjects, but this brief statement of the factors involved is
intended to serve as a background for the satisfactory solution in any individual case.
602. Watertightness of Concrete
(a) Many studies of permeability have shown that concrete of proportions suitable
for structural or hydraulic work, if properly placed and adequately cured, is watertight
for all practical purposes even under very high pressures. Failure to obtain watertight
structures therefore is due either to improper concrete practice or to such structural
features as cracks, joints, etc., which permit the passage of water.
(b) Observations on structures in service have shown that where water finds its
way through the concrete itself, it is almost invariably through defective spots resulting
J
Waterproofing 59
from improper placement or mix proportions. By far the most common source of leak-
age observed is at the planes of contact between successive lifts. This usually results
from improper bond or from porous concrete at the top of the lift due to watergain.
Another common source of leakage is found in defective areas resulting from honeycomb
or segregation during placing. Obviously, the prevention of such defects is a first
requirement of watertight construction.
603. Presence of Cracks and Joints
(a) No matter how impervious the concrete may be, or how perfectly placed, there
is always the possibility of leakage through expansion joints, construction joints, or
cracks. In Sec. 514, the use of non-corrosive water stops at joints is recommended where
watertightness is required.
(b) Cracks, such as might result from load, settlement, temperature changes, or
shrinkage of the concrete may be the source of considerable and annoying leakage in a
structure exposed to direct water pressure. Provision against the formation of such
cracks can be made by careful attention to all features of design. Spacing and arrange-
ment of contraction joints and proper distribution of reinforcement can accomplish
much in the prevention of cracks which will permit the entrance of water.
604. Importance of Drainage
Too much emphasis cannot be placed on the need for drainage around the structure
where unsightliness or damage will result from the penetration of water. In many cases,
proper drainage would be all that is needed to preserve the structure or to protect the
interior. In the opinion of this committee, drainage should be considered not as an
adjunct to waterproofing, but rather as a first requirement to which waterproofing is
added as a further protection.
605. Need for Some Type of Protection
In many types of structures exposed on one side to direct water pressure, it is im-
portant that the other side be absolutely dry. In the case of such structures, some
method of waterproofing may be necessary which takes into account the possibility of
the occurrence of structural cracks or the presence of defective spots in the concrete.
Some of the methods mentioned below for waterproofing the concrete without a mem-
brane may be effective in such cases, or an outside waterproof membrane may be needed.
Where a membrane is necessary, the materials to be used and the methods of applying
them should be those best adapted to the particular location or structure. The problems
of this type of waterproofing are not peculiar to concrete construction and are therefore
outside the scope of these recommendations.
606. Protection Against Weathering
(a) Although concrete of normal proportions, properly placed and cured, is imper-
vious to the actual passage of water under pressure, it is not immune to the passage of
water due to capillary forces. As indicated in Table 1 of Sec. 303 (b), concrete even
though properly made and cured, is affected by weathering in proportion to the severity
of exposure and to the water-cement ratio of the paste. The greater the water-cement
ratio, the greater the amount of free water that may be present and the more destruc-
tive the effect of the repeated freezing and thawing and wetting and drying. Laboratory
tests, as well as field experience, have shown that a high degree of resistance can be
obtained with properly placed and well-cured concrete by the use of low water-cement
ratios. Low water-cement ratios require the use of rich mixes or some method of placing
which permits concrete of stiffer consistencies to be properly consoHdated.
60 Report on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete
(b) There is also evidence from both experiment and experience to show that cer-
tain protective coatings which are effective in sealing the concrete to the penetration of
moisture are effective in increasing the resistance to the destructive action of alternate
freezing and thawing. Such protective coatings or a membrane waterproofing, therefore,
may frequently be necessary as a protection against weathering.
607. Dampproofing
(a) Water which enters the concrete wall by absorption will be distributed by the
capillary forces throughout the concrete until a condition of saturation is reached or
until evaporation balances the inflow. If there is a continuing supply of free water
available on one surface and evaporation can take place from another, there will be a
continuing passage of water. If the air becomes saturated or the temperature drops
sufficiently, moisture will condense on the wall. When this occurs, or if a seal coat is
applied to the face away from the source of the moisture, the outflow of water ceases
and saturation of the concrete is encouraged. The prevention of moisture penetration
by capillarity is commonly referred to as "dampproofing" as contrasted with "water-
proofing," which impHes the prevention of an actual flow of water through the structure.
(b) The appearance of moisture on a wall does not always indicate, of course, that
the water vapor in the air is entirely due to passage of water through the wall. Often-
times, dampness on the inside of a wall is mistakenly ascribed to moisture penetration,
when in fact it is merely the result of condensation, on the cold wall, of moisture which
originated elsewhere.
(c) Dampness due to absorbed water or condensed water vapor can develop on and
within concretes through which water will not "flow" even under great pressure. The
remedy is to seal the pores on the side exposed to the moisture. Most of the methods
mentioned below for waterproofing should be effective in preventing the entry of water
into concrete. Other and more simple methods might also be effective. The use of a seal
coat on the side away from the water may be effective for some time, but if the wall is
subject to freezing temperatures the use of such seal coat may in the long run result in
greater damage than leaving the wall unprotected.
608. Protection of Reinforcement
Spalling of concrete due to corrosion of the reinforcement is frequently the cause
of damage to structures. In structures exposed alternately to wetting and drying, this is
probably the most common cause of deterioration. Where the concrete protection is in
accordance with Sec. 506, the only special requirement for protection of the reinforce-
ment will be that necessary to prevent the moisture reaching the reinforcement through
cracks or defective areas.
609. Protection Against Corrosive Substances
Research and experience have developed various types of treatments for protecting
concrete against the effect of exposure to various types of substances. The committee has
assembled in Appendix 1 the best available information on the effect of some of the
more common types of substances and the treatments which have been found helpful in
retarding or preventing corrosion.
610. Coatings on the Side Away from the Water Pressure
The desirable procedure in waterproofing a structure is to apply protection on the
side exposed to water pressure. Frequently, however, this is impossible and it is neces-
sary to apply waterproofing on the opposite side. Where the waterproofed surface is pro-
tected from freezing temperatures, this procedure has some advantage in that in the case
Waterproofing 61
of failure of the waterproofing it is easier to locate the source of weakness and make
the necessary repair. Where the waterproofed surface is to be exposed to freezing tem-
peratures, however, the method is not to be recommended. The freezing of water in the
concrete immediately underneath the protective coating will not only damage the coating,
but injure the concrete itself. The concrete may be affected more rapidly with the
coating than it would if the coating were absent, when there would be less opportunity
for the concrete to become saturated at the surface.
611. Waterproofing with Portland Cement Mortar
(a) A plaster coat of Portland cement mortar on the side of a wall exposed to water
pressure, when properly applied and cured, will effectively protect porous concrete
against the penetration of water under pressure. However, any structural movement re-
sulting from load, settlement, shrinkage, etc., which will crack the structure, will crack
the plaster, thereby destroying its waterproofing value at these points. The use of this
type of waterproofing, of course, would require that any cracks existing in the concrete
be chipped out and filled with mortar before applying the plaster coat.
(b) Portland cement plaster applied on the side of the structure away from the
water pressure has been successfully used against considerable heads. Cracks and defec-
tive spots are readily filled by mortar applied from the inside. When skillfully done, this
method can be used to shut off actual flowing leaks. When the quantity of water flow
is considerable, some accelerating agent, which will reduce the setting time to a few
minutes, may be necessary.
(c) This method of waterproofing has the advantage that cracks occurring after the
plaster is in place can be readily located and repaired. It does not, of course, prevent
possible damage to the structure from corrosion or weathering even though the interior
may be kept dry. It should not be used where the surface is to be exposed to freezing
temperatures. The method, however, has its uses and in some instances may be the
only possible one.
(d) Good plastering technique is required for successful waterproofing with Portland
cement plaster, whether applied on the inside or the outside. This includes such details
as clean surfaces, proper suction at the time of application, plastic consistency, and the
proper curing of each coat. The mortar should be about a 1 : 2 mix applied in at least
two coats, each coat about ^ in. thick. Powdered iron preparations (Sec. 613 (e) ) are
sometimes added to the mortar.
612. Integral Waterproofing
(a) Powdered Admixtures. — Misconception of the function of admixtures and fre-
quent overstatement of their properties have led to much misunderstanding regarding
their use. In very lean mixtures almost any fine, inert material will improve the water-
tightness of concrete. This improvement comes about in two ways. First, with the extra
fines the paste will have a more plastic consistency which will segregate less and be more
watertight. Second, the more plastic paste will improve the workability of the concrete
and thereby guard against those defects in placing which leave open channels for water
to pass through the member.
In rich mixes, on the other hand, where the tenient-water paste is already of plastic
consistency, and of sufficient quantity to give the needed workability, powdered admix-
tures serve no useful purpose so far as watertightness is concerned. For mixtures in this
range most of the powdered admixtures require increased water content, as compared
with the plain mix, which reduces the quality of the paste and detracts from its
watertightness.
62 Report on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete
The field of powdered admixtures, therefore, for waterproofing concrete will depend
upon the character of the concrete mix just as much as upon the characteristics of the
admixtures. Lean mixtures or normal mixtures deficient in fines in the aggregate can be
improved by some of the admixtures. On the other hand, rich mixes, and normal mixes
in which adequate fines are present, may be reduced in watertightness by the presence
of these added fines.
(b) Water-Repellent Admixtures. — Stearates or other water-repellent materials have
found considerable use as admixtures for concrete where the penetration of moisture is
to be retarded. These materials reduce the absorption and retard penetration of moisture
by capillary action. They do not seem to be effective ^s waterproofing when the con-
crete is exposed to direct water pressure. Some of these water-repellent admixtures
improve the workability of concrete and thereby may improve the watertightness of a
wall exposed to direct water pressure.
613. Waterproofing with Surface Treatments
(a) There are a number of surface materials which can be applied to concrete for
protection of the surface against weathering or other attack. Those referred to in Sec.
609 and listed in detail in Appendix 1 are materials which have been found especially
effective for certain uses. Some of these may be sufficiently permanent to serve as a
waterproofing or dampproofing coating. In the following paragraphs are listed some
of those which have been found particularly adaptable.
As in the case of cement mortar plaster, any structural movement which produces
a crack will break these applied coatings and destroy their waterproofing value at these
points. Likewise, none of these surface treatments is of sufficient body or strength to
span cracks already in the structure and prevent the entrance of water. As pointed out
in Sec. 610, these materials, when used on the side away from the pressure, may
accelerate deterioration of a wall if exposed to freezing temperature.
(b) Bituminous Coatings. — There are a number of asphaltic and tar coatings which
are available for application to concrete. Some of these are to be appUed hot; others,
which depend for their hardening on the evaporation of a liquefier, are to be applied
cold. The extent to which these materials can waterproof concrete and the period over
which the protection will remain effective, depend not only upon the materials them-
selves, but on the condition of the concrete to which they are applied and the type of
exposure to which the surfaces will be subjected. This same comment might with equal
propriety be applied to the other materials mentioned below.
(c) Oil, Oil Paints, or Resin Combinations. — Linseed oil by itself, or in com-
bination with resinous varnishes, makes a very satisfactory coating material for ordi-
nary weathering and many other types of exposure. Oil paints based on linseed or other
weather-resisting oil also have value. The preparation of the surface and the application
of the materials should be done in accordance with the best painting technique with
particular reference to the type of materials being used.
(d) Portland Cement Paints. — Mixtures of Portland cement and water or specially
prepared combinations consisting mainly of Portland cement are shown to have con-
siderable value in resisting the penetration of water into concrete surfaces under condi-
tions of moderate exposure. The use of these materials requires that special attention be
given to curing methods to develop their greatest effectiveness.
(e) Powdered Iron Preparations. — Mixtures of pulverized iron and cement, usually
with some agent designed to hasten the oxidation of the iron, have been used for water-
proofing concrete surfaces. These are usually applied with a brush, either in a thin
coating like a paint, or in a stiffer consistency to a measurable thickness. The water-
Surface Finishes 63
proofing effect is considered to result from the formation of the oxide of iron within
the pores of the concrete. The agent most commonly used to accelerate the oxidation of
the iron is ammonium chloride. These materials are also sometimes mixed with cement
mortar for use in waterproofing (see Sec. 611).
(f) Proprietary Surface Treatments. — Many surface treatments of a proprietary
nature are available for painting concrete which are based on some of the foregoing or
similar materials. The use of such proprietary compounds should be restricted to those
which have been proven by service test and which are susceptible to tests that will insure
uniformity. They should always be limited to the type of service for which they are
intended and the method of application should be strictly in accordance with the
directions of the manufacturer.
614. Bituminous Membrane Waterproofing
(a) This method is particularly adaptable to large areas where there is some uncer-
tainty as to the possibihty of further cracking in the structure which would render other
forms of waterproofing ineffective. It involves the use of a membrane consisting of one
or more layers of bitumen-saturated cotton fabric or felt, or combinations of both
materials cemented together (and to the surface waterproofed if a priming coat is used)
by means of bituminous coatings. The bitumen to be used for the saturant and coating
should be either asphalt or tar. The technique of applying this type of waterproofing is
well estabhshed and organizations and workmen experienced in its use are generally
available.
(b) Where there is any possibility that the membrane will be punctured by the
backfilling material, it should be protected by an additional layer of masonry or by
some such method as Portland cement mortar or bituminous mastic, or by an asphalt
blanket or bituminous mastic blocks.
Chapter VII — Surface Finishes
701. General
(a) Surface finish is a term used to denote the process or method of mixing, plac-
ing, and treating concrete to produce a desired appearance and texture of the surface.
(b) The requirements of the sections of this Report relating to materials, forms,
mixing, curing, conveying, depositing, and protection of concrete should apply except as
they may be modified by these special requirements.
(c) Concrete should be placed in one continuous operation between prescribed ex-
pansion or construction joints, unless the drawings indicate other points where the plac-
ing of concrete can be discontinued.
(d) The same brand of cement, the same kind and size of aggregates, the same pro-
portions and type of finish should be used where it is desired to duplicate texture and
appearance on any showing surface.
702. Forms
(a) Forms for finished surfaces should be smooth and mortar tight. If wood forms
are used, the boards must be uniform in thickness, tongued and grooved, smoothly
finished on the surface next to the concrete, evenly matched and tightly placed, except
where the desired surface or appearance requires special treatment.
(b) The forms should be so constructed as to be removable in sections without
marring or damaging the surface of the concrete. Forms should be removed as soon as
possible in order to make necessary repairs and finish the surface. As soon as forms are
64 Report on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete
removed any undesired fins or other projections on the surface should be carefully re-
moved, offsets leveled, and voids or damaged places immediately saturated with water
and repaired by filling with a concrete or mortar of the same composition as was used
in the surface. After making the necessary repairs the surface should be finished with a
wood float so as to be free from streaks, discolorations or other imperfections. Plastering
should not be permitted and a steel trowel should not be used to finish surfaces.
703. Preparation for Surface Finish
(a) Where a surface mortar is to be the basis of the finish, the coarse aggregate
should be worked back from the forms with a suitable tool so as to bring a full surface
of mortar against the forms, care being taken to prevent the formation of voids and
aggregate pockets.
(b) Where a special surface finish is called for on the drawings or in the specifica-
tions, the work of preparation should be carried out as specified.
Decorative Finishes
704. General
(a) Modern materials and methods may be used in the decorative treatment of
architectural concrete to express the designer's ideas and taste in a wide variety of
motifs, color, and texture.
(b) Decorative finishes on exposed concrete surfaces may be classified as:
1. Precast ornament
2. Monolithic ornament
3. Surface treatment after removal of forms
4. Applied finish
705. Precast Ornament
Precast ornamental units should be applied to the inside face of forms or set in
framed openings in the structural form work. Such units are ordinarily made of cast
stone from approved models. Positive anchorage into concrete should be made by means
of rabbets, lugs, non-corrodible metal anchors, or other approved means of anchorage.
706. Monolithic Ornament
(a) Ornament is produced monolithically by forming concrete with negative models
or molds. The precast models or stamped forms should be accurately and securely set in
the structural forms. Special treatment of absorptive molds should be provided to pre-
vent the absorption of moisture. Particular care is required in the design of the mixtures
and in placing ornamental concrete to assure structural soundness and the desired finish.
(b) Finished samples of positive models should be submitted and approved as to
craftsmanship, form, texture, and appearance.
(c) Construction joints in monolithic ornament, when necessary, should be located
and constructed in such a manner as to be unobjectionable in the finished work. When
molds are removed in less than seven days, the surface should be immediately sprinkled
with water and kept wet until the concrete is at least seven days old. All ornamental
work should be protected from damage until it is accepted.
707. Surface Treatment after Removal of Forms
(a) The desired appearance, texture, and finish for the surface should be deter-
mined from sample surfaces. Form linings, such as sheet metal, fiber, or manufactured
board, may be used to produce concrete surfaces with specified markings or patterns.
S 11 r f a c (' F i n i s h e s 65
(b) Where a special facing mix with selected aggregates is to be used, it should be
placed to the required thickness and in such a manner as to bond securely with th?
backup concrete.
(c) The time of removal of face forms will depend upon the type of surface finish
desired. For scrubbed finish the face forms should be removed as soon as safety permits
and before the surface becomes too hard. For rubbed, sand-blasted, or tooled finishes,
the surface must be thoroughly cured and hard before finishing.
708. Type of Finish
(a) Rubbed Finish.— The surface should be thoroughly wetted, and rubbed or
ground with carborundum or other abrasive until it presents a uniform and smooth
appearance. Cement mortar may be used in the rubbing, but the surface should not be
brush coated with cement or grout after rubbing.
(b) Scrubbed Finish. — The surface should be thoroughly wetted and scrubbed with
stiff fiber or wire brushes using water freely until the surface film of mortar is removed
and the aggregate uniformly exposed. The surface should then be rinsed with clean
water. If portions of the surface have become too hard to scrub in equal relief, dilute
hydrochloric acid (ccmmercial acid diluted with 4 to 10 parts water) may be used to
facilitate the scrubbing, the acid being removed from the finished surface with clean
water.
(c) Sand-Blasted Finish. — The thoroughly cured concrete surface should be sand-
blasted with hard, sharp sand until the aggregate is in uniform relief.
(d) Tooled Finish. — The thoroughly cured concrete surface should be dressed with
tools to a uniform texture and even face. The tools ordinarily used are electric or air or
hand tools, giving various textured surfaces such as hand-tooled, rough or fine pointed,
crandaUed, or bush-hammered, as specified and as selected from sample surfaces.
(e) Sand-Floated Finish. — The forms should be removed before the surface has
fully hardened; the surface wetted and rubbed with a wood float by a uniform circular
motion, fine sand being rubbed into the surface until the resulting finish is even and
uniform.
709. Applied Finish
(a) With applied stucco or plaster finishes the surface of the concrete should be
removed to a depth of at least -h in., exposing the aggregate and leaving a clean, firm,
granular surface for the permanent adhesion of the finish. A chemical compound may
be used on the inside of forms to retard the setting of the surface concrete, in which
case all loose material should be removed and surface thoroughly cleaned before finish-
ing. If mechanical treatment, such as hacking or chipping or grinding is used, care
should be taken to leave no untreated surfaces. A mechanical bonding surface may be
formed by using a suitable form material or form lining.
(b) When applying the first coat of stucco or plaster, the concrete should be thor-
oughly wetted but should have no free water on the surface.
Wearing Surfaces
710. One-Course Work
In one-course work the slabs should be placed continuously for the full thickness
without change of proportions. The least quantity cf mixing water should be used to
meet placing conditions. The proportions should be such that not over 5 gal. of mixing
water, including that carried by the aggregate, is used per 94-lb. sack of cement..
66 Report on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete
711. Two-Course Work
(a) In two-course work the wearing surface or topping may be applied either
before or after the base has hardened. For pavements and driveways the top coat
should have a minimum thickness of 2 in. Floors subject to heavy wear should have a
minimum thickness of 1 in. For walks and ordinary floors 54 ^^- ^^Y ^^ used.
(b) On an unhardened base the concrete topping should be applied within 45 min.
after the concrete base is in place. The unhardened base course should be free from
water, laitance, foreign matter and loose particles.
(c) For a hardened base the surface should be roughened to improve bonding,
should be thoroughly wetted just prior to placing the finish, and a thin coat of neat
cement paste should be broomed into the surface for a short distance ahead of the top-
ping. The wearing course should be immediately applied.
712. Aggregates
Aggregates should meet the requirements of specification Sec. 207-S to 219^5.
Coarse aggregates should be graded from No. 4 to 5^ in. or from No. 4 to J^ in.
713. Proportions
For surfaces not subjected to severe wear or heavy abrasion the proportion should
be one part cement to not more than two parts fine aggregate by volume. For surfaces
subjected to severe wear or heavy abrasion the proportions should be one part cement,
not more than one part fine aggregate, and not more than two parts coarse aggregate of
the specified grading.
714. Finishing
(a) Topping applied to an unhardened base should be struck off to a true and
even surface and finished to the desired smoothness with a wood float and steel trowel,
or with a mechanical float machine and steel trowel. Cement or a mixture of cement
and aggregate should not be sprinkled on the surface to absorb moisture or to stiffen
the mix.
(b) Topping applied to a hardened base should be struck off and compacted by
rolling or with tampers or vibrators. The surface should be finished to the desired
smoothness with a wood float and steel trowel, or with a mechanical float machine and
steel trowel.
715. Curing
As soon as the finished wearing course has hardened sufficiently to prevent marring
it should be sprinkled with water or covered with sand or other approved coverings
and kept continuously wet for at least 10 days where normal Portland cement is used,
or three days where high early strength Portland cement is used.
Terrazzo
716. Methods of Bonding
Terrazzo finish should be bonded to the structural concrete base following Method 1,
or separated from the concrete base or supporting surface following Method 2.
Terrazzo Method 1
717. Treatment of Base
The surface of the structural concrete base or fill course upon which terrazzo is to be
placed should be at least two inches below the finished floor level. The base course
should, be cleaned of all loose and foreign materials, thoroughly wetted and a thin coat
Terrazzo Finishes 67
of neat cement broomed into the surface for a short distance ahead of the placing of
the mortar base.
718. Mortar Base Course
Upon the concrete base should be placed a mortar base course at least 1% in.
thick, with the surface struck off at least ^ in. below the finished floor level. The
mortar base should be composed of one part Portland cement to not more than four
parts sand and sufficient water to produce a mortar of the stiffest consistency that can
be struck off cleanly with a straight edge.
719. Metal Strips
Metal dividing strips of the type and width desired and at least 20 gage in thick-
ness should be inserted in the mortar base before it hardens and should be so posi-
tioned as to control the location of cracks and conform to the design or pattern required.
The tops of the metal cUviding strips should extend at least ^ of an inch above the
finished level of the floor.
720. Terrazzo Mix
The terrazzo mixture should consist of one part gray, white, or colored Portland
cement, as desired, to not more than two parts by weight of marble chips, stone chips,
or abrasive aggregate, or a mixture of these of the required grading, quality and color.
The consistency of the terrazzo mixture should be plastic and workable; wet or fluid
mixes should be avoided. Coloring agents other than aggregates should be mineral
pigments.
721. Placing
When the mortar base has hardened sufficiently to withstand rolling, the terrazzo
mixture should be placed to the level of the tops of the metal dividing strips. After
being struck off the surface should be rolled lengthwise and crosswise to secure a thor-
ough compacting. Additional aggregates of the quality, grachng, and color required
should be spread over the surface during the rolling until at least 70 percent of the
finished surface is composed of aggregate. Immediately after rolling the surface should
be floated and troweled once without attempting to remove trowel marks.
722. Grinding and Finishing
After the terrazzo concrete has hardened sufficiently to prevent dislodgment of the
aggregate it should be ground down by hand or with an approved type of grinding
machine shod with rapid cutting carborundum stone or other abrasive. The floor should
be kept wet during the grinding process. All material ground off should be removed by
squeegee and by flushing with water. Air holes and other blemishes and imperfections
should be filled with a thin grout composed of neat Portland cement paste spread over
and worked into the surface. After the cement paste has hardened for at least 72 hours
the floor surface should receive a second or final grinding sufficient to remove the
film of cement paste.
723. Curing
See Sec. 715.
724. Cleaning
After removing all loose material the finished floor should be scrubbed clean with
warm water and soft soap and mopped dry.
68 Report on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete
Terrazzo Method 2
725. Sand and Paper Course
The surface of the structural base or fill course upon which the terrazzo is to be
placed should be 2% in. below the finished level of the floor. Over this surface should
be placed a layer of fine, dry sand about % in. in thickness. The sand should be struck
off with a straight edge to a smooth surface not less than 2 in. below the finished floor
level. The surface of the sand should be covered with waterproofed paper. The paper
should be so placed that all side and end laps are at least 1 in. wide.
726. Construction
The mortar base course should be placed upon the paper and terrazzo finish laid
as described for Method 1 (Sec. 717 to 724).
Use of Color
727. Pigments
(a) Quality of Colors. — Only those pigments should be used which are insoluble in
water and free from acids and soluble salts, and which are definitely known not to react
with the calcium hydroxide set free during the hardening of the concrete, and which
are further known through service not to be fugitive. Inorganic pigments are to be pre-
ferred; organic coloring agents should be used only when known to have the above
characteristics.
(b) Limiting Amounts. — Pigments having a specific gravity of 3.0 or higher should
be used in amounts not greater than 10 percent of the weight of the cement. The lighter
weight pigments should be used in lesser amounts. When in doubt as to the permissible
amount that should be used for any particular job, tests should be made using all the
materials and in the proportions indicated for the job, and noting the appearance and
effect on the physical properties, particularly strength and volume change of the concrete.
(c) Mixing. — Preferably, the pigment should be ground with the cement; other-
wise, it should be thoroughly mixed dry with the cement and fine aggregate until a
uniform color is secured throughout.
728. Colored Aggregates
Colored aggregates may be used when tests have shown that they will produce a
concrete having the desired properties and that the colors are not fugitive and will not
react with the calcium hydroxide set free during the hardening of the cement. Naturally
occurring aggregates and those produced from crushing and sizing vitrified ceramic prod-
ucts and colored glasses have generally proved satisfactory. These aggregates should be
used as normal aggregates.
Paints
729. Classification
(a) Paints commonly used for concrete may be of three classes:
Lead and oil paints. i
Cement and oil paints.
Portland cement paints.
(b) "Lead and Oil Paints" is the general term used for paints based upon the prin-
ciple of grinding a pigment, such as white lead, in a vehicle such as linseed oil with the
addition of driers and thinners. Modern paints of this type may be composed of many
other pigments besides white lead, and other vehicles besides linseed oil.
Design 69
(c) "Cement and Oil Paints' is the general term used for paints made by grinding
Portland cement and pigment in an oil or synthetic resin vehicle.
(d) "Portland Cement Paints" is the general term for mixtures of Portland cement
and pigment prepared for application by mixing with water.
730. Application of Lead and Oil Paints, Cement and Oil Paints
(a) Seasoning of Concrete. — A period of eight to ten weeks following the curing
period should be allowed for concrete to season before painting. The alkalinity of the
surface should then be reduced by applying a solution consisting of two to three pounds
of zinc sulfate per gal. of water. When thoroughly dry, all crystals should be brushed
from the surface. This treatment is net necessary on old concrete or stucco.
(b) Condition of Surface. — The surface should be clean and free from dirt, oil,
grease, and efflorescence, and should be thoroughly dry at the time of painting. If water
dashed on the surface from a brush is rapidly absorbed, the surface may be assumed to
be dry enough for painting.
(c) Number of Coats. — The number of coats necessary will depend on the porosity
of the surface and in general should be not less than three on surfaces previously
unpainted. The first coat should be well thinned for penetration. The second coat should
contain more pigment, the amount depending on the suction remaining. The number of
undercoats should be sufficient so that oil will not be drawn from the finish coat and it
will dry to a uniform gloss and color.
731. Application of Portland Cement Paints
(a) Condition of Surface. — The surface should be clean and free from dirt, oil,
grease, and efflorescence, and should be uniformly damp at the time of painting. The
surface should be dampened sufficiently in advance so that free water has drained from
the surface.
(b) Application and Curing. — After the first coat of paint has hardened sufficiently
to prevent damage to the surface, it should be moistened with water applied with a fine
spray and a second coat of paint applied. As soon as it is possible to do so without
marring the surface, the second coat of paint should be sprayed with water and the sur-
face kept wet for at least three days to insure proper curing and hardening of the paint.
Chapter VIII — Design
801. General
(a) In presenting recommendations for the design of reinforced concrete structures
the committee has given consideration to such recent developments as plastic flow, or
time yield, in concrete, and the application of the elastic frame theory in design. Con-
cerning plastic flow, the committee adopts the prevailing opinion that in flexural mem-
bers there is an adjustment in the concrete and steel stresses of moderate amounts, but
that the load carrying capacity of the member is not materially affected. In fact,
according to this opinion plastic flow may aid the structure in producing a more
uniform stress distribution by yielding at heavily stressed sections.
(b) In regard to the elastic frame theory the committee ^akes the position that the
design of a monolithic frame as an aggregation of isolated members is not tenable.
Frames of buildings and other types of structures are generally built with the various
members rigidly connected with one another. This feature of continuity of construction
70 Report on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete
complicates the problem of determining the character and amount of bending at critical
sections of the frame.
(c) In the design of buildings it has been for many years common practice to design
columns and beams as isolated members, the columns as compression members axially
loaded, and the floor system by prescribed coefficients for moments at the ends and in
the center of the span. In some cases prescribed moment coefficients have also been
used to evacuate the bending in columns induced by unbalanced loadings from the floor
system.
(d) Although such practice has apparently resulted in safe design in the case of
buildings with uniform column spacings, it has become increasingly clear with the advent
of newer methods of analysis that the degree of safety was neither uniform throughout
the structure nor in some cases equal to that intended in the design. In the rather fre-
quent cases of unequal spacing of columns or story heights, the design based on the
usual moment coefficients often leads to improper design, and quite generally to wide
departure from uniformity of factor of safety in the various members of the structure.
(e) The committee recognizes that more exact methods of analysis are now avail-
able for general use in the design of buildings and other framed structures, also that
they may be simplified without undue sacrifice of accuracy. These methods will result in
better provision for the effects due to continuity and should thereby secure a more
uniform degree of safety. The need for such improvement in design becomes more im-
portant with the introduction of higher strengths and lighter weights of concrete and the
accompanying higher working stresses. The consideration of continuity is especially im-
portant in cases of unequal spans alternately loaded where the ratio of live to dead load
is large.
802. Assumptions
The design of reinforced concrete frames, beams, and slabs, is based on the
following assumptions:
1. Plane sections normal to the axis remain plane after bending.
2. Tensile strength of concrete is negligible in resisting bending.
3. The ratio of the modulus of elasticity of steel to that of concrete, for con-
crete of a given strength, is constant in flexural members within the range of work-
ing stresses. The ratio, however, is not considered as fixed in the case of columns or
in the case of compression reinforcement in flexure where, due to plastic flow, the
reinforcement will be more highly stressed than indicated by a constant value of the
modular ratio.
4. The moment of inertia of flexural members, for purposes of computing the
relative stiffness, may be that of the gross cross-sectional area of the member,
making reasonable allowance for the effect of flange width in T-beams permitted in
804(d). For columns or other compression members the transformed area of the
steel reinforcement should be included.
5. Temperature changes and shrinkage are neglected in the computation of
stresses for buildings of ordinary size. (See Sec. 510 for recommendations regarding
expansion joints and temperature reinforcement.)
6. In engineering structures such as arches, elastic frame bridges, and similar
types where temperature change is an important factor in the resultant stressss, it is
assumed that the temperature change is uniformly distributed throughout the mem-
ber affected. For design purposes the coefficient for temperature change may be
taken as 0.000006 per degree F.
Design H
7. Where shrinkage is considered a factor in design it may be assumed to range
from O.OOOIS to 000045. depending upon the size of the member and the moisture
conditions.
803. Superimposed Loads
(a) Uniform Loads. — It is generally recognized that the conventional assumption of
uniform load is a device employed for convenience of design and is only an approxima-
tion to floor loadings found in service. Uniform load, however, has been found to cover
adequately the usual varieties of partial loadings in buildings and may be accepted unless
the loads are permanently fi.xed in position. For the usual building, the following arrange-
ment of loaded spans for computing maximum positive and negative bending moments,
respectively, is recommended, unless conditions indicate a need for more careful analysis:
1. Alternate spans loaded, with a maximum of three loaded spans.
2. Two adjacent spans loaded, other spans unloaded.
(b) Moving Loads. — In structures subject to moving loads the bending moments
and shears to be used in design should be the maximum values which may result from
any probable position of the conventional or actual system of loads to be provided for.
(c) Impact. — For moving or other impact-producing loads suitable allowance should
be made in the various portions of the structure for these effects. Such allowance should
take into account the ratio of the Uve to dead load.
(d) Structures in Earthquake Regions. — In structures subject to earthquake shocks
special analysis should be made to determine the probable stresses which should be added
to those resulting from static or moving loads.
Design of Frames, Beams, and One-Way Slabs
804. General
(a) Effective Span for Determining Bending Moments. —
1. In continuous beams and slabs or elastic frames the effective span should be
taken as the center-to-center distance between supports.
2. In beams or slabs of one span freely supported, the effective span length
should be taken as the center-to-center distance between supports, but need not
exceed the clear span plus the distances to centers of the required bearing areas.
3. In slabs built integrally with supports capable of fully restraining the slab
the effective span length may be taken as the clear distance between supports.
(b) Lateral Support. — If the distance between lateral supports of beams exceeds 24
times the least width of the compression face, the allowable unit stress should be re-
duced. In no case should the distance between supports be more than 36 times the least
width, at which Umit the reduction in stress should be 50 percent. Proportionate reduc-
tion for intermediate ratios of span to width should be made.
(c) Compression Reinforcement in Beams. — Compression reinforcement in girders
or beams should be secured against buckling by ties or stirrups adequately anchored in
the concrete and spaced not more than 16 bar diameters apart. Where compression re-
inforcement is used its effectiveness in resisting bending may be taken at twice the value
indicated from the calculations, assuming a straight-line relation between stress and
strain and the modular ratio given in Table 7, Sec. 878. However, in no case should a
stress in compressive reinforcement greater than 16,000 p.s.i. be allowed.
(d) T- and L-Beams, Limitations. —
1. In T- and L-beam construction the slab and beam should be built integrally
or otherwise effectively bound together.
12 Report on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete
2. The effective flange width used in the design of T-beams should not exceed
one-fourth of the span length of the beam, nor should the overhanging width on
either side of the web exceed eight times the thickness of the slab or one-half the
clear distance to the next beam.
3. For beams having a flange on one side only, the effective overhanging flange
width should not exceed one-twelfth of the span length of the beam, nor six times
the thickness of the slab, nor one-half the clear distance to the next beam.
(e) Transverse Reinforcement in Flange of T- and L-Beams. — ^Where the principal
slab reinforcement is parallel to the beam, transverse reinforcement should be provided
in the top of the slab. This reinforcement may be designed to carry the load on that
portion of the slab which is assumed to act as the flange of the T-beam.
805. Bending Moments in Frames
(a) In monolithic frames or continuous construction the members should be designed
to resist the bending moments and shears produced by the dead, live, and wind loads
in accordance with methods of elastic frame analysis. For special conditions, such as
centrifugal force, impact, braking and tractive forces in railway loadings, and for earth-
quakes or unequal settlement of the foundations, etc., the analysis should include the
effect of these additional forces.
(b) For unusual building frames, continuous girder bridges, arches, or other types
of statically indeterminate structures, rigorous methods of analysis are recommended.
(c) For ordinary building construction approximate methods of frame analysis are
satisfactory.
(d) Regardless of the method of computing bending moments, all horizontal mem-
bers of the frame should be designed to resist a positive moment near the center of the
span not less than O.OAwV.
806. Bending Moments in One-Way Slabs (Solid or Ribbed), Spans of Any
Length or Loading
(a) Floor slabs over a series of spans should be designed as restrained by their con-
tinuity with each other. Restraint afforded by the supports themselves, unless approaching
fixity, and except as specially provided in (c) below, may be disregarded. However, a
negative moment of at least 0.04^;^ per foot of width should be provided for in the slab
at the discontinuous end.
(b) It is recommended that bending moments be computed for the following
arrangement of live load:
1. The maximum negative moment at the support for two adjacent spans
loaded.
2. The maximum positive moment near the middle of a loaded span when
adjacent spans are not loaded.
3. The resultant moment (positive or negative) near the middle of an
unloaded span when adjacent spans are loaded.
(c) In computing the bending moment near the middle of unloaded spans, in
accordance with (b) 3 above, the torsional resistance of the supporting beam may be
considered to restrain the rotation of the support to the extent that adjacent spans may
be assumed loaded with only one-half their specified live load.
(d) For proportioning the sections of slabs or ribs the negative bending moments
may be computed at the face of the supports.
Design 73
(e) In Appendix 2 is given a general method for computing moments at the center
of the supports which can be applied to the assumptions of this section. The positive
moments at mid-span can be obtained by the ordinary methods of statics, but the
resisting moment provided should not be less than required by 805 fdj.
807. Bending Moments in One- Way Slabs (Solid or Ribbed) of Equal Spans
(a) For the special case of equal span lengths, equal stiffness, and uniform loading,
the requirements in Sec. ZO(i(a),(b), and (c) are substantially fulfilled by the coefficients
given in Appendix 3.
808. Bending Moments in Beams and Girders
(a) The positive and negative bending moments in beams and girders designed to be
built monoUthically with columns, beams, or walls, should be computed in accordance
with the theory of elastic frames.
(b) In building construction, horizontal members of the frame should be designed
as being restrained by their continuity with each other and by supporting and other
members connecting at the joints. Where no great irregularities of span, story-height,
or loading are involved the general method given in Appendix 2 may be used for com-
puting the moment at the centerline of supports. In the case of beams framing into a
girder, the restraint due to the torsional resistance afforded by the girder may be assumed
as equal to that which would be furnished by a column having a stiffness factor equal
to one-half the average stiffness factor of the beams framing into the girder.
(c) Bending moments should be computed for the arrangement of live load
recommended in Sec. SQZ(a).
(d) The moment at the face of a support may be used for proportioning the mem-
ber. This moment may be obtained approximately from the moment at the centerline
by subtracting a quantity Fa/3, where V is the shear at the face of the support and a is
the width of the support.
(e) Positive moments may be computed by the ordinary methods of statics, but
the resisting moment provided should not be less than O.OAwt^.
Two-Way Slabs with Supports on Four Sides
809. General
(a) These recommendations are intended to apply to slabs (sohd or ribbed) , isolated
or continuous, supported on all four sides by walls or beams, in either case built mono-
Uthically with the slabs. The recommended coefficients, as in the case of the design
provisions for fiat slabs, are based partly on analysis and partly on test data.* The
analysis indicates that for square panels the moments may be substantially less than
those determined on the basis of independent prismatic beam elements. Similar decrease
is considered to hold for other than square panels but at reducing percentages until a
ratio of short to long span of 0.5 is reached. For this and all lesser ratios the entire
distributed load (except that in the column strips) is assumed to be carried in the short
direction of the panel. Available test data indicate that these assumptions are justified.
(b) Available data also indicate that when two-way slabs are cast monolithically
with supporting beams, the distribution and the numerical values for bending moments
in slabs with one or more discontinuous edges do not differ widely from those of in-
* In general, the coefficients and methods given in these recommendations are based upon the co-
efficients proposed by Dr. H. M. Westergaard (Formulas for the design of rectangular floor slabs and
supporting girders, p. 26, Proceedings of the American Concrete Institute for 1926). Some modifica-
tions of these coefficients have been made and the scries extended to include cases not covered by Dr.
Westergaard. In making these modifications and extensions full consideration has been given to the
results of available test data.
74 Report on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete
terior panels. However, these data are rather limited, but the moment coefficients rec-
ommended in Table S for the slabs with discontinuous edges are conservative and in
general agreement with accepted theoretical considerations and general practice.
(c) In the special case of slabs discontinuous at four edges (isolated panels, case S,
Table 5), the coefficients may be assumed to apply also to slabs which are built into
masonry walls, provided the weight of masonry above the slab is sufficient to restrain
the slab properly at the edges. The average parapet wall is probably lacking in this
respect.
810. Limitations and Notations
(a) The recommended moment coefficients in Table S, Sec. 811, are intended to
apply to panels fully loaded with a uniformly distributed load. For values of m inter-
mediate between those shown in Table S, interpolated values of the moment coefficients
may be used. For values of m less than O.S the coefficients given for this ratio should
be used.
(b) Panels are considered as being divided into middle strips and column strips as
in flat slabs. (See Sec. 824(a)). For panels in which the ratio m is less than O.S the
middle strip in the short direction of the panel should have a width equal to the differ-
ence between the long and short spans, the remaining area representing the two column
strips.
(c) Notation. — Span lengths of panels should be taken as the center-to-center dis-
tance between supports or as the clear span plus twice the thickness of the slabs,
whichever value is the smaller.
S = short span as defined above
. short span
''^ — ratio ~i
long span
w = load per unit area
(d) Principal Design Sections. — The critical sections for moment calculations are
referred to as principal design sections and are located as follows:
For negative moment, along the edges of the panel at the faces of the sup-
porting beams.
For positive moment, along the center lines of the panels.
811. Bending Moment Coefficients
(a) Middle Strips.— In Table S are given the bending moment coefficients for the
middle strips for both short and long spans for varying values of the ratio m of short
to long span. These coefficients, when multiplied by wS^ give the bending moment per
unit width of slab. The basis of this table is a maximum negative moment of 0.0.33 wS^
per unit width in the middle strip for square interior panels. The coefficients for other
than square panels and for panels with one or more edges discontinuous are based on
the following modifications of this basic moment for the square interior panel:
1. Bending moments in the short span increase as the ratio m decreases.
2. Bending moments in the short span increase successively with the introduc-
tion of one or more discontinuous edges, the increase being independent of the
position of the discontinuous edges.
3. Bending moments for the long span for all values of m are equal to the
bending moments in a square panel having sides equal to the short span.
4. Negative moments at discontinuous edges are taken as equal to one-half
of the corresponding moment at the continuous edge.
5. Positive moments at the center are taken as three-quarters of the negative
niomont at the continuous edge.
Design
75
(b) Column Strips. — For moments in the column strips, coefficients two-thirds of
those given in Table 5 for the corresponding moments in the middle strip should be
used. In determining the spacing of the reinforcement for the column strip, the moment
at any section may be assumed to vary from a maximum at the edge of the middle strip
to a minimum at the edge of the panel, but the average should be that computed from
the coefficient as given herein.
Table S — Bending Moment Coefficients for Rectangular Panels Supported on
Four Sides and Built Monolithically With Supports
Coefficients are for moments in middle strips.
Short Span
Long
Moments
Values of m
Span
All
1.0
0.9
o.s
0.7
0.6
0.)
and
less
Values
of m
Case 1 — Interior Panels
Negative Moment at
Continuous edge
. 033
.040
.048
.055
.063
.083
.033
Discontinuous edge
Positive Moment at Midspan
.025
.030
.036
.oii
.047
.062
.025
Case 2 — One Edge Discontinuous
Negative Moment at
Continuous edge
.041
.048
.055
.062
.069
.085
.041
Discontinuous edge
.021
.024
.027
.031
.035
.042
.021
Positive Moment at Midspan
.031
.036
.041
.047
.052
.064
.031
Case 3 — Two Edges Discontinue
us
Negative Moment at
Continuous edge
.049
.057
.064
.071
.078
.090
.049
Discontinuous edge. .
.025
.028
.032
.036
.039
.045
.025
Positive Moment at Midspan
.037
.043
.048
.054
.059
.068
.037
Case 4 — Three Edges Discontinu
ous
Negative Moment at
Continuous edge
.058
.066
.074
.082
.090
.098
.058
Discontinuous edge
.029
.033
.037
.041
.045
.049
.029
Positive Moment at Midspan
.044
.050
.056
.062
.068
.074
.044
Case 5 — Four Edges Discontinue
us
Negative Moment at
Continuous edge
Discontinuous edge
.033
.038
.043
.047
.053
.055
.033
Positive Moment at Midspan
.050
.057
.064
.072
.080
.083
.050
These coefficients, when multiplied by wS^, give the moment per foot of width, w ^ load per sq. ft.;
: short span as defined in Sec. &\0(c).
Note that wS^ is the multiplier for both short and long span moments.
(c) Corner Reinforcement. — Experience and theoretical considerations have shown
the need for reinforcement at exterior corners to prevent cracks in diagonal directions.
The effective amount of such reinforcement per foot of width should be equal to that
for the positive moment in the middle strip. This is required in both the top and bottom
face of the slab. By the effective amount of the steel is meant the normal area multiplied
by the sine of (he angle which the bar makes with the rritiral section. In the lop of the
76 Report on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete
slab the critical section is perpendicular to the diagonal ; in the bottom of the slab it is
parallel to the diagonal.
812. Distribution of Unequal Negative Moments at Supports
(a) In applying the moment coefficients of Table S to adjacent panels of varying
dimensions and unequal loading, the negative moments on either side of a supporting
beam may differ materially. Under these conditions some modification of the moments
should be made, based on the relative rigidity of the slabs and the resistance offered by
the support. For this purpose the assumption that the supporting beams offer a restraint
equivalent to the average of the stiffness factors of the adjacent slabs may be used in a
manner similar to that given in Sec. SQ8(b) for beams framing into girders. On this
basis two-thirds of the unbalanced negative moment should be distributed to the two
spans in proportion to their respective stiffness factors.
(b) Where conditions are such as to require modification of the support moments,
as given in (a) above, the corresponding midspan moments may be obtained by the pro-
cedure ordinarily followed for continuous beams. For this purpose, the unadjusted nega-
tive moments obtained from Table 5, considered as equivalent to fixed end moments,
may be multiphed by l]4 to obtain the simple span moments. The midspan moment
then would be equal to the average adjusted end moments less 1^4 times the unadjusted
end moments. The coefficients in Table 5 for positive moments at midspan are suffi-
ciently conservative to cover ordinary cases. However, where large adjustment of the
support moments is required, the midspan moments should be investigated.
813. Shear in Slabs
The shearing stresses in the slab should be computed on the assumption that the load
is distributed to the supporting beams in accordance with Sec. SlS.
814. Minimum Slab Thickness
The slab thickness should not be less than 4 inches, nor less than the value com-
puted by the following formula:
'2500
L ^ m 10J72 r f'c
Where t =^ Slab thickness in inches
S (in inches) and m as in Sec. &10(c)
N =: Total length in inches of slab periphery which is continuous with adjacent
slabs.
815. Loads and Bending Moments in Supporting Beams
(a) Distribution of Load.- — The loads on the supporting beams for a two-way rec-
tangular panel may be assumed as the uniformly distributed load within the tributary
areas of the panel bounded by the intersection of 45 deg. lines from the corners with
the median line of the panel parallel to the long side.
(b) Total Load and Shear. — On the basis of the load distribution in (a) above, the
total loads on the short and long span beams due to one loaded panel are given by the
following formulas, respectively.
4
Wb =
W^^wST2-ml
4 L "i J
Diagonal Tension and Shear 77
The end shears may be obtained from the above loads by the usual modifications
cf the reactions for any difference in end moments.
(c) Bending Moments. — The bending moments may be obtained for the load dis-
tribution assumed by the methods of mechanics appropriate to the conditions of sup-
port, or they may be determined approximately by transforming the load on the beams
•to equivalent uniform load per lineal foot of beam as follows:
For the short span, = -^^
3
nflj \ \ 7 "fit I
For the long span, =
Diagonal Tension and Shear
816. General
(a) For homogeneous beams the diagonal tensile stress is given by vv^ell-known for-
mulas as a combined stress. This stress is a function of the shearing and the flexural
stress at any point in the beam. Where the flexural stress is zero, as for example, at the
neutral surface, at points cf inflection, or at the supports of simple beams, the diagonal
tensile stress is equal to the shearing stress and is inclined at an angle of 45 deg. with
the neutral surface.
(b) Because of the composite character of reinforced concrete beams the action of
reinforcement in resisting diagonal tension is not susceptible of exact analysis. The design
of web reinforcement is therefore based on empirical or modified rational methods.
These methods were developed by observation of existing structures and from test results
that do not apply with certainty to new and untested arrangements of reinforcement.
(c) However, when ordinary web reinforcement is used, such as vertical stirrups,
bent-up longitudinal bars, or the combination of these, the resistance to diagonal tension
or shear is greatly increased. This is especially true if adequate bond resistance is pro-
vided, either in the form of low bond stress or effective anchorage of the reinforcement.
The importance of bond resistance is such that high working stresses in shear are only
permitted when all the reinforcement is properly anchored.
(d) In view of available data the following assumptions are recommended as a
proper basis for design.
1. The vertical shear is a measure of diagonal tension in the web of beams.
2. The effectiveness of web reinforcement is measured by its projection on a
plane inclined at 45 deg. with the neutral surface.
3. Web reinforcement provides for the shear in excess of that permitted in beams
with longitudinal reinforcement only.
817. Shear and Diagonal Tension in Beams
(a) Beams (including ribs and other members subject to bending) should be de-
signed to resist the diagonal tension in their webs without exceeding the stresses prescribed
in Sec. 878. The critical section for diagonal tension should be taken at the face of the
supports.
(b) For purposes of design, diagonal tension is assumed to be directed at an angle
of 45 deg. with the axis of the beam, and its intensity is measured by the unit shear as
computed by the formula:
''^W (1)
Where V = total external vertical shear at the section
jd = moment arm of the internal force couple
b =■ width of the beam
78 Report on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete
For beams of I- or T-section, b is the width of the concrete web or stem. In case
the sides of the web are not parallel the average width may be used, provided it does
not exceed the minimum width by more than 20 percent.
(c) In ribbed tile construction where fillers are used consisting of burned clay or
concrete tile having a net compressive strength in the shells at least equal to that of the
concrete in the ribs, and so placed that the joints in alternate rows are staggered, the
shells of the fillers in contact with the ribs may be used in computing the shearing
stress at any section of the rib.
(d) Where the shearing stress as computed by Formula (1) exceeds the stress (vv)
permitted for an unreinforced web (Sec. 878), web reinforcement should be provided at
all sections for the amount of shear exceeding that allowed for webs without
reinforcement.
(e) Where the shearing stress exceeds 0.06/[. the web reinforcement should be
designed to carry the entire shear.
818. Types of Web Reinforcement in Beams
Web reinforcement may consist of vertical or inclined stirrups and bent-up longi-
tudinal reinforcement or combinations thereof. Bars inclined at an angle less than IS deg.
with the axis of the beam shall not be considered as web reinforcement. When v exceeds
0.06/'c bent-up bars or inclined stirrups should be provided in addition to vertical
stirrups.
819. Design of Web Reinforcement in Beams
(a) Web reinforcement is considered effective only when anchored at both ends
according to Sec. 828 and 830.
(b) Web reinforcement, whether vertical or inclined, is assumed to contribute to
diagonal tensile resistance only the component of its total resistance that lies in a
direction of 45 deg. with the axis of the beam.
The stirrup spacing (or length of beam over which the bar is effective) is given
by the formula:
_ Avfsjd {cos X -\- sin x) ._.
^ V' ^ '
wherein : s =^ the horizontal distance along the axis of the beam between bars ;
X ^ the angle the bars make with the axis of the beam ;
i4v = the total normal cross-sectional area of web reinforcement in any plane ;
V = the total external vertical shear in excess of that allocated to the unre-
inforced web according to Sec. 817(d) and (e).
For vertical stirrups this becomes:
. _ A.fsjd
I
(3)
and for stirrups or bars inclined at 45 deg.:
0.7 F'
(4)
wherein /s -^ 16,000 p.s.i. or less, regardless of the grade of steel used. Where bars are
bent up in a single plane the effective length (s) as given by Formula (2) is to be
measured, one-half each way from the bar at the mid-depth of the beam and should
not exceed %d.
(c) Web reinforcement should be so spaced that every 45 deg. line extending from
the mid-depth of the beam (downward and towards the nearest support) to the longi-
Bond and Anchorage 79
tudinal tension bars should be intersected by at least one line of web reinforcement. If
the shearing stress exceeds 0.06/', every such line should be intersected by at least two
such lines of web reinforcement.
(d) Where more than one type of reinforcement is used to reinforce the same portion
of the web, the total shearing resistance of this portion of the web is assumed to be the
sum of the shearing resistances computed for the various types separately.
820. Shear and Diagonal Tension in Flat Slabs
(a) The shearing stress on a vertical section which lies at a distance equal to the
effective depth of the slab beyond the edge of the column capital (or bracket) and
parallel or concentric with it, should not exceed the following values when computed
by Formula (1):
1. 0.03/e when at least SO percent of the total negative reinforcement of the
column strip passes through the section,
2. 0.025/'. when 25 percent of the total negative reinforcement of the column
strip passes through the section,
3. For intermediate percentages, proportional values of the shearing stress may
be used.
(h) The shearing stress on a vertical section which lies at a distance equal to the
effective depth of the slab beyond the edge of the drop panel and parallel with it should
not exceed 0.03/' when computed by Formula (1). At least SO percent of the cross-
sectional area of the negative reinforcement in the column strip should be placed within
the strip directly above the drop panel. (See Sec. 843.)
821. Shear and Diagonal Tension in Footings
(a) The shearing stress as computed by Formula (1) on the critical sections (as
defined in Sec. 866fcJ and (d)) should not exceed 0.02/c for footings reinforced with
straight bars only, nor 0.03/c where the reinforcement is adequately anchored by hooks
or otherwise as described in Sec. 827 and 828.
(b) For combined footings and raft foundations the shearing stresses and web re-
inforcement for beam elements may be treated the same as for flexural members
described in Sec. 818 and 819 except that the shearing stress should not exceed 0.06/^,
822. Wedge-Shaped Beams
In beams of variable depth the resultant internal shear at any section is increased
or decreased by the vertical components of the inclined stresses (tension or compression)
as described in Sec. 825.
Bond and Anchorage
823. General
(a) The theory of reinforced concrete is based on the assumption that stress is
transmitted from one material to the other by bond. Consequently, all members of the
structure should be so designed that stress transfer is accomplished without exceeding
recommended allowable bond values.
(b) In members subject to direct stress, also in end anchorage of flexural rein-
forcement, the bond stress is assumed to be uniformly distributed over the embedded
surface of the bar.
(c) In members subject to bending, the bond stress varies in proportion to the
amount of external shear and is generally a maximum in the region near the supports.
80 Report on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete
In order to maintain normal beam action and structural integrity of the member, slip-
ping or appreciable movement of the reinforcement must be prevented. End anchorage is
effective in increasing resistance to slipping and therefore serves as an added factor of
safety against failure by diagonal tension.
824. Bond Stresses in Beams of Uniform Depth
(a) In beams in which tensile reinforcement is parallel to the compressive face, that
is, excluding wedge-shaped beams, the bond stress, ii, is given by the formula*;
u——^ (5)
Wherein ^o = the sum of the perimeters of all the bars at the section, and
V and jd are as in Sec. 817(b).
(b) In applying Formula (S) to any section of a beam in which the reinforcement
includes bent bars, those portions of bars which are within a distance of one-third the
effective depth of the beam from the main longitudinal reinforcement may be counted
as contributing to bond resistance.
825. Wedge-Shaped Beams
(a) In beams of variable depth the resultant internal shear at any section is in-
creased or decreased by the vertical components of the incUned stresses (tension or com-
pression) depending on whether they agree or are opposite in sign to the direction of the
external shear. The bond stress is obtained by substituting for V in Formula (5) the
value Fi, given by the following formula:
Fi=F±— (iaw c-H tan t) (Sa)
d
The negative sign to be used when the depth of the beam increases in the direction of
increasing bending moment and the positive sign when the depth decreases as the moment
increases.
Wherein M = bending moment ;
d = depth of beam at the section ; and
c and t = the angles, respectively, that beam faces make with a direction normal to
the direction of the external shear.
(b) In beams of this type including sloped footings, tapered brackets, and cantilever
beams, bond stresses may be excessive. This is particularly true of tapered cantilever
beams loaded at the unsupported end. These and similar cases may require end anchorage.
826. End Anchorage of Reinforcement
(a) In beams where the bond stress as computed by Formula (S) exceeds the allow-
able normal working stress, the use of end anchorage permits some form of redistribution
of stress to take place. Without attempting to rationalize the precise character and action
of anchorage, reliance is placed on tests which indicate that end anchorage is equivalent
to increased bond resistance. Consequently, with effective end anchorage a somewhat
higher bond stress may be allowed than is permitted for unanchored reinforcement.
(b) Since resistance to diagonal tension failure is primarily a function of bond
resistance, increased shearing stresses are also permissible when special precautions are
taken to prevent slipping of the reinforcement.
* It is recognized that when end anchorage is used the assumptions upon which Formula (5) arc
based may not strictly apply. However, the committee belie\'es that the use of Formula (5) with the
higher allowalsle bond stresses permitted in Sec. 82 7 for end anchorage is amply supported by test data.
Bond and Anchorage 8£
827. Unit Stresses with End Anchorage for Beams
The increased shearing and bond stresses recommended in Sec. 878 are based on the
use of end anchorage, in accordance with Sec. 828, in addition to the ordinary extension
requirements outlined in Sec. 829. Where these higher stresses are used all of the longi-
tudinal bars should be provided with end anchorage, except those which are bent across
the web at an angle not less than 15 deg. with the neutral plane and made continuous
with the reinforcement along the opposite face of the beam.
828. Allowable Capacity of End Anchorage — Hooks
Anchorage, transmitting direct stress, tension or compression, within the limits of
allowable normal bond stress is assumed to provide for the full working stress in the bar
by uniform distribution of bond stress over the embedded surface. End anchorage, how-
ever, being a device to provide for increased bond and shearing stress should be limited
to some definite amount. It is recommended that end anchorage be assumed to develop
a maximum stress of 10,000 lb. per sq. in. in the bar so anchored. End anchorage may be
an extension of the bar or a hook. In either case the additional length of bar should pro-
vide the needed anchorage by normal bond stress, assumed to be uniformly distributed
over the additional embedded surface. A properly dimensioned hook is one in which the
bar is bent in a full semicircle, with a radius of bend not less than three diameters, plus
an extension at the free end of at least four bar diameters. Right angle or other abrupt
bends, which do not engage a structural steel member, are not to be considered as
anchorage unless the radius of the bend is at least 4 bar diameters and the total length
from beginning of bend to the free end of the bar is at least 16 bar diameters.
829. Extension of Reinforcement
(a) To provide for contingencies arising from unanticipated distribution of loads,
yielding of supports, shifting of points of inflection, or other lack of agreement with
assumed conditions governing the design of elastic structures, it is recommended that the
reinforcement be extended at the supports and at other points between the supports as
indicated in (b) to (f) below. These paragraphs relate to ordinary anchorage and are
the minimum requirements under which normal working stresses for bond or shear are
permitted.
(b) Negative tensile reinforcement at the supported end of a restrained or cantilever
beam or member of a "rigid frame" should be extended in or through the supporting
member in such a manner as to develop the maximum tension in the bar with a bond
stress not exceeding the normal working stress provided in Sec. 878.
(c) Between the supports of continuous or freely supported beams, every reinforc-
ing bar should be extended at least 12 diameters, but not less than one-twentieth of the
span length, beyond the point at which computations indicate it is no longer needed to
resist stress.
(d) In simply supported beams and freely supported ends of continuous beams, at
least one-third of the positive reinforcement should extend into the supports a distance
sufficient to develop one-half the allowable stress in the bars.
(e) In restrained or continuous beams at least one-fourth of the positive reinforce-
ment should extend into the supports and the remainder treated as provided in (c).
(f) In restrained or continuous beams at least one-third of the total reinforcement
provided for negative moment should extend beyond the point of inflection a distance
sufficient to develop one-half the allowable stress in the bars so extended. Negative steel
not so extended should be treated as provided in (c).
82 Report on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete
830. Anchorage of Web Reinforcement
(a) The stress in a stirrup or other web reinforcement should not exceed the
capacity of its anchorage in the upper or lower one-half of the effective depth of the
beam.
(b) Web reinforcement which is provided by bending into an inclined position one
or more bars of the main tensile reinforcement where not required for resistance to posi-
tive or negative bending, may be considered completely anchored by continuity with the
main tensile reinforcement, or by embedment of the requisite length in the upper or lower
half of the beam, provided at least one-half of such embedment is as close to the upper
or lower surface of the beam as the requirements of fire and rust protection allow. A
hook placed close to the upper or lower surface of the beam may be substituted for a
portion of such embedment.
(c) Stirrups should be anchored at both ends by one of the following methods, or
by a combination thereof:
1. Rigid attachment, as by welding, to the main longitudinal reinforcement.
2. Bending around and closely in contact with a bar of the longitudinal
reinforcement, in the form of a U-stirrup or 'hook.
3. A hook placed as close to the upper or lower surface of the beam as the re-
quirements of fire and rust protection will allow. In estimating the capacity of this
anchorage the stress developed by bond between mid-height of the beam and the
center of bending of the hook may be added to the capacity of the hook.
4. An adequate length of embedment in the upper or lower one-half of the
effective depth of the beam, whether straight or bent. Anchorage of this type alone
should not be relied on for stirrups in cases where the shearing stress in the web
exceeds that recommended for beams without end anchorage of the reinforcement.
(See Sec. 878.)
Flat Slabs
831. General
The design of flat slabs is based on generally accepted empirical methods. These
methods have been developed partly by analysis and partly by tests on models, full size
test panels, and on a wide range of completed structures. Accordingly, the special pro-
visions relating to the design of flat slabs apply only where certain general limitations
are observed.
832. Limitations
(a) These provisions apply to:
1. Concrete slabs, without beams or girders, built monolithically with the sup-
porting columns. These slabs may be increased in thickness at the supports by the
use of drop panels, or along the margins to form paneled ceilings.
2. A series of rectangular slabs of approximately uniform dimensions arranged
in three or more rows of panels in each direction, and in which the ratio of length
to width of panel does not exceed 1.33.
3. Slabs with drop panels having a length in each direction of approximately
one-third of the panel length in that direction. Also to continuous drop panels that
form paneled ceilings, in which the continuous drops have a width approximately
one-third of the panel width.
4. Slabs with drop panels in which the total thickness of the slabs through the
drops docs not exceed one and one-half times the thickness of the slabs beyond the
drops.
Flat Slabs 83
(b) Structures having a width of less than three rows of panels, or in which the
adjacent panel dimensions vary by more than IS percent, are outside the scope of these
provisions and require special analysis.
833. Notation
The following notation applies to the design of flat slabs except when otherwise
specifically stated:
Mo = Sum of the total positive and negative bending moments at the principal
design sections in either direction, the sections being parallel to the margins
of the panels.
c = Effective diameter in feet of a round column capital, at the underside of the
slab or drop panel. No portion of the column capital should be considered
effective which Ues outside of the largest 90 deg. cone that can be included
within the outlines of the column capital. When a square, or other sym-
metrically shaped capital is used, c is the diameter of a circle whose area is
equal to the area of the base of the largest 90 deg. pyramid which can be
included within the outlines of the column capital.
/ = Span length, in feet, center to center of the columns along the panel margins,
in the direction in which moments are computed.
Zi = Span length, in feet, center to center of columns perpendicular to the direc-
tion of the span for which moments are computed.
w =^ Total dead and live load in lb. per sq. ft. of loaded area.
d = Effective depth, in inches, of the slab at any point.
/i =z Total thickness, in inches, of the slab with or without drops, at the boundary
of the column capitals.
^2 = Total thickness, in inches, of the slab beyond the boundary of the drop.
834. Panel Strips and Principal Design Sections
(a) A fiat slab panel is considered as consisting of strips in each direction as follows:
A middle strip one-half panel in width, symmetrical about panel center line and
extending through the panel in the direction in which moments are considered.
A column strip one-half panel in width occupying the two quarter-panel areas
outside of the middle strip.
(b) The critical sections for moment calculations are referred to as principal design
sections and are located as follows:
Sections for negative moment along the edges of the panel, on hnes joining the
column centers, except that they follow the perimeter of the column capital instead
of passing through it.
Sections for positive moment along the center lines of the panel.
(c) In the two-way system it is assumed that the tensile stresses due to the moments
in the various strips are resisted by the band of reinforcing bars located within the strip.
(d) In the four-way system, or any other system of reinforcement, in which a part
or all of the reinforcement is not parallel to the direction of the span, it may be assumed
that the tension due to bending moments at any section of a strip is resisted by the
components, in the direction of the span, of all the reinforcement included within the
boundary of the section under consideration.
(e) The width of the column head section for computing compression should be
taken as the width of the drop or half the width of the panel (O.S/i) where no drop
is used.
835. Bending Moments in Rectangular Flat Slabs
(a) The total bending moment M„, in the direction of cither side of the panel, is
divided between the sections of positivo nnd nrgnfivo niomcnl, I ho I)asis of division dc-
84 Report on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete
pending on the size of columns, column capitals, and dimensions of the panels. For
average conditions, approximately three-eighths of the total may be considered positive,
and five-eighths negative moment. Slabs with drops are assumed to develop about 5 per-
cent more negative moment than slabs of uniform thickness, and to have a corresponding
decrease in the positive moment. Furthermore, the column strips are assumed to take 75
to 80 percent of the total negative moment and SO to 56 percent of the total positive
moment. The detail distribution of the total moment varies to a moderate extent
depending on the system of reinforcement employed.
(b) Total Bending Moment. — For interior panels carrying an assumed uniformly
distributed load the numerical sum of the positive and negative moments at the prin-
cipal design sections in the direction of either side of a rectangular panel is given by the
formula:
M„=.09 {l — ~ cYwU (6)
3
(c) Distribution of Moments. — For interior panels the distribution of the total
moment Mo at the principal design sections is given in Table 6. This distribution agrees
with the 1924 Joint Committee Report and with well-established requirements in this
country, and is in close agreement with European practice.
Table 6 — Moments to be Used in Design of Flat Slabs for Interior Panels
Flat Slabs without Drops Flat Slabs with Drops
Strip Negative Positive Negative Positive
Slabs with Two-Way Reinforcement
Column strip
Middle strip
0.46Mo 0.22Mo 0. 50Mo 0. 20M,,
0. 16M,, 0. I6M0 O.lSMo 0. 15Mo
Slabs with Four- Way Reinforcement
Column strip
Middle strip
0. 50Mo O.2OM0 0.54M„ 0.19Mo
0. lOMo 0.20M,, O.O8M0 0. 19A/o
836. Tolerances Applicable to Table 6
(a) The moment coefficients given in Table 6 may be varied by not more than six
percent, provided the numerical sum of the positive and the negative moments at the
principal design sections is not reduced.
(b) The ratio of reinforcement at any section of any band should not be less than
0.0025.
837. Conditions of Restraint at Discontinuous Edges
The modifications of moments at discontinuous edges are based on the assumption
that the slab is restrained by the supporting beam framed into columns of adequate
rigidity. A column (or two columns- one above the other) having a stiffness factor ~r-
at least equal to IJ^ times the stiffness factor of the slab j-y may be assumed as
adequate. The moment of inertia (I) of the slab section may be computed on the basis
of a width equal to the column spacing and a depth equal to the slab thickness plus
one-third the depth of the drop.
^ Flat Slabs 85
838. Moments in Discontinuous Panels
(a) In the case of end or side panels when the slab is not continuous on one edge
or two adjacent edges, and in which the restraint at the discontinuous edge is as defined
in Sec. 837, the bending moments as given in Table 6 should be modified as follows:
1. In the column strip the negative moment at the first interior column line and
the positive moment at the center of the end panel should be increased 15 percent
over the moments given for interior panels. For the middle strip the corresponding
moments should be increased 30 percent.
2. At the wall or discontinuous edge the negative moments in the column strip
and middle strips perpendicular to such edge may be reduced by 20 percent from
those given for interior panels.
3. The half column strip adjacent and parallel to a supported edge may be
designed for one-quarter of the full column strip moment given in Table 6.
(b) In slabs supported at the discontinuous edge by bearing walls, or where they are
not restrained, the positive moments in the strips perpendicular to the wall should be
increased 50 percent.
(c) When there is a beam or bearing wall at the center line of columns in the
interior portion of a continuous flat slab, the negative moment in the middle strip per-
pendicular to the wall or beam should be increased 30 percent. The column strip adjacent
and parallel to the wall may be treated as in (a)3, the remaining strips as in Table 6.
(d) At discontinuous edges the positive and negative reinforcement should extend to
within two inches of the edge of the panel and be anchored in accordance with Sec. 828.
839. Thickness of Slab and Drop Panel
(a) The effective depth of the slab, with or without drop, is determined on the
basis of negative bending moment and shear at the support and the allowable stresses.
Since the negative moment is not uniform over the full width of the column strip, being
higher at the center line than at the edges, the thickness determined on the basis of
coefficients given in Table 6 and the allowable unit stress will result in excess com-
pressive stress at the middle of the section. The thickness computed in this manner,
therefore, is to be increased as provided in (c).
(b) In order to prevent undue deflection, and provide adequate depth where two or
more bands of reinforcement are placed in layers at any section, the thickness at the
center of the panel should not be less than the following limiting values, regardless of
the values determined under (c).
1. Floor slabs with drop panels, 4J/2 in.
Floor slabs without drop panels, S in.
2. Roof slabs with drop panels, ilA in.
Roof slabs without drop panels, 4 in.
3. Floor slabs: 2,500-lb. concrete
a. End panels, 0.030/
b. Interior panels, 0.026/
4. Roof slabs: 2,500-lb. concrete
a. End spans, 0.025/
b. Interior spans, 0.023/
5. For concrete having a 28-day compressive strength other than 2,500 p.s.i.,
3/2,500
limitations 3 and 4 may be modified by multiplying the coenicients by A/ — r, —
86 Report on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete
(c) Interior Panels. — The total thickness, /i, of the slab with or without drops, may
be determined from Formula (7) as follows:
ti = 1.2d+iy2 in (7)
in which d = the effective depth of the slab, computed on the basis of the negative
moments given in Table 6 and the assumed unit stresses governing the case under con-
sideration (using balanced reinforcement).
For slabs with drops the width of the section resisting negative bending in the
column strip should be hmited to the width of the drop. For slabs without drops the
full width of the column strip may be used.
The thickness, fz, of the slab beyond the boundary of the drop should not be less
than two thirds of ii.
(d) Exterior Panel — For exterior panels the thickness of the slabs will vary accord-
ing to the modifications in moment coefficients given in Sec. 838.*
840. Beams in Flat Slab Construction
(a) Marginal Beams Framing into Columns. — Beams or thickened margins should be
used at all discontinuous edges of fiat slabs. They may be placed above or below the
slab and should be cast monolithically with it. Such beams should be designed to carry,
in addition to the loads directly upon them, a uniformly distributed load equal to one-
fourth the total dead and live load for which the adjacent panel is designed.
(b) Interior Beams. — When an interior beam framing into columns is required for
some special load, it should be designed as a T-beam to carry in addition to the special
load a uniformly distributed load equal to one-quarter of the total load on the adjacent
panels.
Where interior beams are supported by girders that frame into columns the whole
panel should be framed to avoid uncertainty of moment and load distribution.
841. Column Capitals — Brackets — Drops
(a) The effective diameter of the column capital as defined in Sec. 833 should not
be less than 0.20/^ where / =: span length in square panels or the average span length in
rectangular panels.
(b) Brackets. — Brackets on exterior columns may be substituted for capitals, pro-
vided the sloping face of the bracket makes an angle of not more than 45 deg. with the
face of the column, and is not less in width than the column. The value of c is twice
the distance from center of column to the point where the bracket is 1^ in. in depth.
(c) Drops. — The drop should have a length in each direction not less than one-third
of the panel length in that direction. If the shearing stresses at the edge of the drop
exceed the allowable values given in Sec. 878, then the dimensions of the drop or the slab
thickness outside the drop should be increased.
(d) If drop panels are used for interior columns they should also be used for wall
columns.
842. Points of Inflection
For purposes of design the point of inflection in any line parallel to a panel edge in
interior panels of symmetrical slabs without drop panels should be assumed to be at a
distance from the' center of the span equal to three-tenths of the distance between two
sections of critical negative moments; for slabs having drop panels, the coefficient should
be 0.25. For end spans the position of the point of inflection is to be modified in
accordance with the mechanics of restrained beams.
* For end spans equal in length to interior spans, the increase in thickness is approximately 8 per-
cent. A uniform slab thickness throughout the floor construction may, therefore, be obtained by making
end panels 8 percent shorter than the interior spans.
Flat Slabs 87
843. Arrangement of Reinforcement
The design should include adequate provision for securing the reinforcement in place
so as to resist not only the critical moments but the moments at intermediate sections.
Provision should be made for possible shifting of the point of inflection by carrying all
bars in rectangular or diagonal directions, each side of a section of critical moment,
either positive or negative, to points at least one-fifeenth of the span length beyond
the assumed point of inflection as recommended in Sec. 842. Lapped splices should not
be permitted at or near regions of maximum stress. At least four-tenths of all bars in
each direction should be of such length and should be so placed as to provide reinforce-
ment at two sections of critical negative moment and at the intermediate section of
critical positive moment. Not less than one-quarter of the bars used for positive rein-
forcement in the column strip should extend into the drop not less than 20 diameters of
the bar, or in case no drop is used, should extend to a point not more than one-twelfth
of the span length from the center hne of the column or the support. Where drop panels
are used, at least half of the cross-sectional area of the negative reinforcement in the
column strip should be within the width of the strip directly above the drop panel.
844. Tensile Stress and Area of Steel Reinforcement
The tensile stress /s in the steel and the total area ^s of the reinforcement for any
critical section of design strips may be computed by the formula:
i.=J^ (8)
Wherein Ms z= the moment given in Table 6 for column strip or for middle strip.
; z= the usual ratio of the moment arm of the internal force couple to the
effective depth.
d = effective depth of slab at the point in question; that is, the distance
from the centroid of the tensile steel to the compressive face.
i4s = effective cross-sectional area of the reinforcement which crosses any of the
principal design sections and meets the requirements of Sec. &2)A(d).
The stress so computed should not exceed the allowable working stress given in Sec. 878.
845. Compressive Stresses and Compression Reinforcement
Tests indicate that stresses are not uniformly distributed along the width of the
column strip. This has been recognized in Sec. 839 where provision is made for thickness
of slab. Cases occur, however, as in the end spans, where it is desirable to maintain the
same slab thickness as for interior panels. This can be done by the introduction of
compression reinforcement at the section of maximum negative moment.
846. Shearing Stresses in Flat Slabs
See Sec. 820.
847. Bond Stresses
See Sec. 823 to 830.
848. Openings in Flat Slabs
Openings of any size may be cut through a flat slab if provision is made for the
total positive and negative resisting moments as required in Sec. 83.'5 without exceeding
the allowable stresses as given in Sec. 878.
849. Columns Supporting Flat Slabs
For requirements relating to bending moments in columns and limitation of column
dimensions in connection with flat slab construction, see Sec. 859.
83 Report on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete
850. Special Construction
(a) The preceding recommendations for the design of flat slabs should not be applied
to other than the two systems of reinforcement described, or to those systems where
brackets or column capitals are omitted, unless analysis supported by adequate test data
indicates that the stresses at the principal design and intermediate sections do not exceed
the allowable unit stresses specified in Sec. 878.
(b) For structures having a width of one or two panels, or having panels of mark-
edly different dimensions, an analysis should be made of the moments developed in both
the slabs and the columns, and the requirements recommended in the preceding sections
modified accordingly.
Reinforced Concrete Columns
851. General
(a) The following recommendations are based largely on the results of the extensive
American Concrete Institute Column Investigation. Recognizing the presence of undesir-
able column shortening due to creep and shrinkage when small percentages of vertical
steel are used, the minimum value is set at one percent; furthermore, a varying factor
of safety is used, ranging, for axially loaded spiral columns, from about 3.6 for p =z 0.01
to 2.75 for p ■=. 0.08. A similar variation from about 4.5 for p = 0.01 to 4.0 for p = 0.04
is used with tied columns.
(b) The formula for spiral columns is based upon recognition of the fact that the
strength produced by spirals is accompanied by spalling of the column shell and excessive
column shortening, hence the spiral is utihzed only as a toughening element or an insur-
ance against a sudden and complete collapse of the column. With spiral reinforcement
provided, which is somewhat stronger than the protective shell, these two elements of
strength (which cannot act simultaneously) become interchangeable, and justify the for-
mula which uses gross area of column and omits any reference to the spiral. The formulas
for tied and spiral columns are thus made identical, except that the latter is allowed 25
percent greater load-carrying capacity because of the presence of adequate spiral rein-
forcement to carry part of the load if the outer shell should spall.
(c) The design of long columns, both tied and spirally reinforced, is covered by a
single equation based on the height-diameter ratio. With the test data available, no in-
crease in accuracy would be attained by basing the slenderness ratio on the radius of
gyration.
(d) The treatment of bending in columns is intended to correlate with the methods
given in Sec. 805 for continuous beams and frames. Recent studies of creep indicate that
the current analyses of combined bending and direct stress are not accurate, and that
for cases in which the compressive stress governs the design, the theory of the uncracked
concrete section applies without serious error. The permissible combined stresses in Sec.
860-861 are based on test data; they embody the fact that permissible bending stresses
may be greater than axial stresses, and they are based on the conventional value of n,
which produces the most severe of the probable conditions that the concrete may meet
under sustained loading.
852. Limiting Dimensions
The following sections on reinforced concrete and composite columns (except Sec.
858) apply to a short column, for which the unsupported length is not greater than 10
times the least lateral dimension. When the unsupported length exceeds this value the
design should be modified as shown in Sec. 858. Principal columns in buildings should
Reinforced Concrete Columns 89
have a minimum diameter or thickness of 10 in. Posts, bearing walls, piers, or mullions,
that are not continuous from story to story should have a minimum diameter or thickness
of 6 in.
853. Unsupported Length of Columns
(a) For purposes of determining the limiting dimensions of columns, the unsupported
length of reinforced concrete columns should be taken as the clear distance between floor
slabs with the following exceptions:
1. In flat slab construction, it should be the clear distance between the floor and
the lower extremity of the capital.
2. In beam and slab construction, it should be the clear distance between the
floor and the underside of the deepest beam framing into the column in each
direction at the next higher floor level.
3. In columns restrained laterally by struts, it should be the clear distance
between consecutive struts in each vertical plane; provided that to be an adequate
support, two such struts should meet the column at approximately the same level
and the angle between vertical planes through the struts should not vary more than
30 deg. from a right angle. Such struts should be of adequate dimensions and
anchorage to restrain the column against lateral deflection.
4. In columns restrained laterally by struts or beams, with brackets used at the
junction, it should be the clear distance between the floor and the lower edge of the
bracket, provided that the bracket width equals that of the beam or strut and is at
least half that of the column, and provided further that the face of the bracket
makes an angle with the face of the column of_ at least 45 deg.
(b) For all columns, that length should be considered which produces the greatest
ratio of length to depth of section.
854. Spirally Reinforced Columns
(a) Allowable Load. — The maximum allowable axial load, P, on columns reinforced
with longitudinal bars and closely spaced spirals enclosing a circular core is given by
formula (9).*
P = 0.22S/'c.4g + A.fs (9)
Wherein i4s^ the overall or gross area of the column.
/'c =z compressive strength of the concrete, as found by tests of standard 6 by
12-in. control cylinders, as prescribed in Sec. 310.
/, = nominal working stress in vertical column reinforcement, to be taken at
40 percent of the minimum specification value of the yield point; viz.,
16,000 p.s.i. for intermediate grade steel and 20,000 p.s.i. for hard grade
or rail steel.**
As— p^Ag.
ps = ratio of the effective cross-sectional area of vertical reinforcement to the
gross area. As.
(b) Longitudinal Reinforcement — Amount and Spacing. — The ratio pg should not be
less than 0.01 nor more than 0.08. The minimum number of bars should be six, and the
minimum diameter of bar should be % in. The center to center spacing of bars within
* To be logical the area of the steel should be subtracted from .i^ in the formula. However, the
effect of the small area of concrete displaced by the reinforcement has been taken into consideration in
arriving at the coefficient 0.225 applied to /V-
** Nominal working stresses for reinforcement of higher yield point may be established 40 percent
of the yield point stress, but not more than 30,000 p.s.i., when the properties of such reinforcing steels
have been definitely specified by standards of ASTM designation. If this is done, the lengths of splice
required by (c) shall be increased accordingly.
90 Report on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete
the periphery of the column core should not be less than lYi times the diameter for
round bars or 3 times the side dimension for square bars. The clear spacing between
individual bars or between pairs of bars at lapped splices should not be less than II/2 in.
or V/z times the maximum size of the coarse aggregate used. (See Sec. 504.)
(c) Splices in Longitudinal Reinforcement.- — ^Where lapped sphces in the column
verticals are used, the minimum amount of lap should be as follows:
1. For deformed bars. — ^With concrete having a strength of 3,000 p.s.i. or above,
24 diameters of bar of intermediate grade steel and 30 diameters of bar of hard
grade steel. For bars of higher yield point, the amount of lap should be increased
in proportion to the nominal working stress. When the concrete strengths are less
than 3,000 p.s.i. the amount of lap should be one-third greater than the values just
given.
2. For plain bars. — The minimum amount of lap should be 25 percent greater
than that specified for deformed bars.
Where changes in the cross section of a column occur, the longitudinal bars
should be sloped for the full length of the column, or offset in a region where lateral
support is afforded by concrete capital, floor slab, metal ties, or reinforcing spirals.
Where bars are offset, the slope of the inclined portion from the axis of the column
should not exceed 1 in 6 and the bars on each side of the offset should be parallel
to the axis of the column.
Welded splices or other positive connections may be used instead of lapped
splices. Welded splices should preferably be used in cases where the bar diameter
exceeds iVi in. An approved welded splice should be defined as one in which the
bars are butted and welded and that will develop in tension at least the yield point
stress of the reinforcing steel used.
(d) Spiral Reinforcement. — The ratio of spiral reinforcement, p', should not be less
than the value given by Formula (10).
,.=0^4S[A_,]Z^ <,0)
Wherein p' =: ratio of volume of spiral reinforcement to the volume of the concrete
core (out to out of spirals).
Ag/A c = ratio of gross area to core area of column.
/'s = useful limit stress of spiral reinforcement to be taken as 40,000 p.s.i. for
hot rolled rod of intermediate grade, 50,000 p.s.i. for hard grade and
60,000 p.s.i. for cold drawn wire.
Spiral reinforcement should consist of evenly spaced continuous spirals held firmly
in place and true to line by at least three vertical spacer bars. For columns up to 18-in.
core diameter, the minimum diameter of spiral bars should be "%, inch. For columns
larger than 18-in. core diameter, the minimum diameter of spiral bars should be ^ in.
Anchorage of spiral reinforcement should be provided hy ly^ extra turns of spiral rod
or wire at ench end of the spiral unit. Splices, where necessary, should be made in spiral
rod or wire by welding or by a lap of 1^ turns. The center to center spacing of the
spirals should not exceed one-sixth of the core diameter. The clear spacing between
spirals should not exceed 3 in. nor be less than 15^ in. or V/2 times the maximum size of
coarse aggregate used. The column reinforcement should be protected everywhere by a
covering of concrete cast monoUthically with the core, for which the thickness should not
be less than V/z in. nor less than IJ^ times the maximum size of the coarse aggregate,
nor should it be less than required by the fire protection and weathering provisions of
R einforced Concrete Columns 91
Sec. SOS and S06. The reinforcing spiral should extend from the floor level in any story
to the level of the lowest horizontal reinforcement in the slab, drop panel, or beam above.
In a column with a capital, it should extend to the plane at which the sectional area of
the capital is twice that of the column.
(e) Limits of Column Section. — For columns built monolithically with concrete
walls or piers, the outer boundaries of the column section should be taken as a circle
lJ/2 in. outside the column spiral or as a square the sides of which are IJ/2 in. outside the
spiral. In case two or more spirals are used in such a column the outer boundary should
be taken as a rectangle the sides- of which are at any point at least V/z in. outside of
the spirals. For these types of spirally reinforced columns the value of Ag thus defined
should be used in both Formulas (9) and (10).
(f) Equivalent Circular Columns. — As an exception to the general procedure of
utihzing the full gross area of the column section, it should be permissible to design a
circular column and to build it with a square, octagonal, or other shaped section of the
same least lateral dimension. In such case, the allowable load, the gross area considered,
and the required percentages of reinforcement should be taken as those of the circular
column.
855. Tied Columns
(a) Allowable Load. — The maximum allowable axial load on columns reinforced
with longitudinal bars and separate lateral ties should be 80 percent of that given by
Formula (9). The ratio, pg, to be considered in tied columns should not be less than 0.01
nor more than 0.04. The longitudinal reinforcement should consist of at least four bars
of minimum diameter of Yf, in. placed with a clear distance from the column face of
not less than V/z in. plus the thickness of the tie, provided that when nearer a corner
than 4 in. this covering shall be increased to 2 in. Sphces in reinforcing bars shall be
made as described in Sec. ?,SA(c).
(b) Lateral Ties. — Lateral ties should be at least ^/4 in. in diameter and should be
spaced apart not over 16 bar diameters, 48 tie diameters, or the least dimension of the
column. When there are more than four vertical bars, additional ties should be provided
so that every longitudinal bar is held firmly in its designed position.
(c) Limits of Column Section. — In a tied column which for architectural reasons
has a larger cross section than required by considerations of loading, a reduced effective
area A^ not less than one-half of the total area may be used in applying the provisions
of Sec. SSS(a), but the longitudinal reinforcement should be distributed over the full
column section.
856. Composite Columns
(a) Allowable Load. — The allowable load on a composite column consisting of a
structural steel or cast-iron column thoroughly encased in concrete reinforced with both
longitudinal and spiral reinforcement, should not exceed that given by Formula (11).
P =:0.22SA,fc + Ms + frAr (11)
Wherein Ac r= net area of concrete section ^=^ Ag — As — At.
Aa^ cross-sectional area of longitudinal bar reinforcement.
At =^ cross-sectional area of the steel or cast-iron core.
/r = allowable unit stress in metal core, not to exceed 16.000 p.s.i. for a steel
core; or 10,000 p.s.i. for a cast-iron core.
The remaining notation is that of Sec. 854.
(b) Details of Metal Core and Reinforcement. — The cross-sectional area of the
metal core should not exceed 20 percent of the gross area of the column. If a hollow
92 Report on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete
metal core is used it should be filled with concrete. The amounts of longitudinal and
spiral reinforcement and the requirements as to spacing of bars, details of splices, and
thickness of protective shell outside the spiral should conform to the limiting values
specified in Sec. 854(b), (c), and (d). A clearance of at least three inches should be
maintained between the spiral and the metal core at all points except that when the core
consists of a structural steel H-column, the minimum clearance may be reduced to two
inches.
(c) Splices and Connections. — Metal cores in composite columns shall be accurately
milled at splices and positive provision shall be made for alignment of one core above
another. Transfer of loads to the metal core should be provided for by the use of bear-
ing members such as billets, brackets, or other positive connections; these should be pro-
vided at the top of the metal core and at intermediate floor levels where required.
Ample section of concrete and continuity of reinforcement should be provided at the
junction with beams and girders. The column as a whole should satisfy the require-
ments of Formula (11) at every section; in addition to this, the reinforced concrete
portion should be designed to carry, in accordance with Formula (9), all floor loads
brought onto the column at levels between the metal brackets or connections. In apply-
ing Formula (9) to a hollow core filled with concrete, the area of the concrete within
the core should not be included in the area defined as Ag. At the column base, provision
should be made to transfer the load to the footing at safe unit stresses in accordance
with Sec. 870. The base of the metal core should be designed to transfer the load from
the entire composite column to the footing, or it may be designed to transfer the load
from the metal section only, provided it is so placed in the pier or pedestal as to leave
ample section of concrete above the base for the transfer of load from the reinforced
concrete section of the column by means of bond on the vertical reinforcement and by
direct compression on the concrete.
(d) Allowable Load on Bare Metal Core.- — The metal cores of composite columns
should be designed to carry safely any construction or other loads to be placed upon
them prior to their encasement in concrete.
857. Combination and Pipe Columns
(a) Combination Columns; Steel Columns Encased in Concrete. — The allowable load
on a structural steel column which is encased in concrete at least 2^ in. thick over all
metal (except rivet heads) reinforced as hereinafter required, should be computed by
Formula (12).
^ =^'^'Al+-^^ (12)
Wherein Ar=^ cress-sectional area of steel column.
/r= allowable stress for unencased steel column.
Ac = total area of concrete section, = As — Ar.
The concrete used should develop a compressive strength, /c, of at least 2,000 p.s.i. when
tested according to the provisions of Sec. 310. The concrete should be reinforced by
welded wire mesh having wire not smaller than No. 10 gage, spaced in the vertical
direction not more than 4 in., and in the horizontal direction not more than 8 in. This
mesh should extend entirely around the column at a distance of 1 in. inside the outer
concrete surface and should be lap-spliced at least 40 wire diameters and wired at the
splice.
Special brackets should be used to receive the entire floor load at each floor level.
The steel column should be designed to carry safely any construction or other loads to
be placed upon it prior to its encasement in concrete.
Reinforced Concrete Columns 9i_
(b) Pipe Columns. — The allowable load on columns consisting of steel pipe filled
with concrete should not exceed that given by Formula (13).
P — 0.225f',A. + f',Ar (13)
The value of /r should be that given by Formula (14).
/; = [ 18,000- 70 |-]^ (14)
Wherein f'^^ allowable stress in the steel pipe section.
h = unsupported length of column.
R = radius of gyration of steel pipe section.
P tensile yield point of pipe material
~ 45,000
If the yield point is not known, the factor F shall be taken as 0.5.
If the concrete strength /' is not known it shall be assumed at 2,500 p.s.i.
858. Long Columns
(a) The maximum allowable load P' on axially loaded reinforced concrete or com-
posite columns having a length, //, greater than 10 times the least lateral dimension, d,
is given by Formula (15)
P'= p[i.3_.03-^] (IS)
Wherein P = the allowable axial load on a short column as given by Formulas (9)
and (11).
(b) The maximum allowable load P' on eccentrically loaded columns in which h/d
exceeds 10 is also given by Formula (15) in which P is the allowable eccentrically applied
load on a short column as determined by the provisions of Sec. 860-861. In long col-
umns subjected to definite bending stres.ses, as determined in Sec. 859, the ratio h/d
should not exceed 20.
859. Bending Moments in Columns
The bending moments in the columns of all reinforced concrete structures should be
determined on the basis of loading conditions and restraint and should be provided for
in the design. When the stiffness and strength of the columns are utilized to reduce
moments in beams, girders, or slabs, as in the case of rigid frames in general, the need
for recognizing column moments is obvious; in other forms of continuous construction
where column moments are unavoidable, they should also be provided for in the design.
In building frames, particular attention should be given to cases of unbalanced floor
loads on both exterior and interior columns and of eccentric loading due to other causes.
Wall columns should be designed to resist moments produced by: (a) loads on all floors
of the building, (b) loads on a single exterior bay at two adjacent floor levels, or
(c) loads on a single exterior bay at one floor level. Resistance to bending moments at
any floor level should be provided by distributing the moment between the columns
immediately above and below the given floor in proportion to their relative stiffnesses
and conditions of restraint.
850. Combined Axial and Bending Stress
(a) In reinforced concrete columns subjected to bending moments, the recognized
methods of analysis should be followed in calculating the .stresses due to combined axial
94 Report on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete
load and bending. The maximum fiber stress in compression and (in the case of large
eccentricities of loading) the tensile stress in the vertical bars will govern the design.
The gross area of both spiral and tied columns should be used in the computations.
(b) For preliminary designs it will usually give satisfactory results to compute the
combined fiber stress in compre.«;.sion on the basis of an uncracked section of the column
using Formula (16).*
U = £- — L ^J — (16)
A, 1 + (n - \)p^
Wherein e = eccentricity of resultant load, measured from the gravity axis.
c = distance from gravity axis to extreme fiber in compression.
R = radius of gyration of equivalent concrete section.
n = as given in Sec. 878.
Other terms as in Sec. 854.
The term— J- may be replaced by the value — for rectangular columns and Se/t for
R t
round columns without appreciable error {t =: overall depth of section) . This design may
then be analyzed by more accurate methods to insure that allowable stresses are not
exceeded.
861. Allowable Combined Axial and Bending Stresses
(a) For spiral and tied columns, eccentrically loaded or otherwise subjected to com-
bined axial compression and flexural stress, the maximum allowable compressive fiber
stress, /c, is given by Formula (17).
/c = /, ^ (17)
1 + C-^
R''
Wherein the notation is that of Sec. 854 and 860, and in addition, /a is the average
allowable stress on an equivalent axially loaded concrete column, and C is the ratio of /a
to the allowable fiber stress for members in flexure.
0.225/e -f- fsps
Thus, /a = for spiral columns, and 0.8 of this value for tied columns.
l+(«-l)^g
/»
0.4S/e
(b) The allowable tensile stress in the longitudinal reinforcement may equal that
specified for flexural members, provided however that splices in the tensile steel at or
near the section of maximum column moment are capable of developing fully the yield
point strength of the reinforcement.
862. Wind or Earthquake Stresses
When columns are subject to wind or earthquake stresses in addition to combined
axial load and bending, the column section need not be increased unless the allowable
stress given by Formula (17) is exceeded by more than one-third.
* This will result in a fairly accurate design if the eccentricity is less than yi the overall column
width, and the value of p n is 0.3 or more.
I
____^ Footings 9S
Footings
863. General
These recommendations include the design of wall, isolated and combined footings,
and raft foundations.
For purposes of design it is assumed that foundations may be divided into com-
binations of simple, continuous, or cantilever beams — statically determinate — and pro-
portioned accordingly.
It is recommended that projecting portions of all footings, whether isolated or com-
bined, be treated as simple cantilever beams. This differs from the practice of consider-
ing trapezoidal areas in computing bending moments, in that the moment of the forces
over the entire area on one side of any section is included in the bending moment for
that section. This provides a general method of computing cantilever moments in
irregular as ^yell as symmetrically shaped footings.
864. Unit Stresses
Footings should be designed to sustain the appUed loads without exceeding the allow-
able working stresses given in Sec. 878. It should be noted that the allowable bond stress
is reduced 25 percent in all tension regions requiring moment reinforcement in more than
one direction. See also Sec. 821-827, and 830.
865. Calculation of Stresses
(a) The bending, shearing, and bond stresses in isolated or combined footings should
be determined for the critical sections indicated in Sec. 866. For the projecting portion
of a footing the bending moment at any section may be considered as the statical moment
of the forces over the entire area of the footing on one side of a vertical plane passing
through that section. In two-way isolated footings, tensile reinforcement should be de-
termined on the basis of 85 percent of the moments thus computed; in one-way footings,
such as wall footings, the full moment should be used.
(b) For isolated footings cast as a unit, the section resisting bending in any direc-
tion may be the full vertical section cut by the plane about which bending moment is
computed, except for the cases of sloped or stepped footings, as treated below.
In sloped footings the section resisting bending may be as defined above provided
the slope of the top is not such as to require special treatment of the projecting cantilever
as a wedge-shaped beam. A slope of 1 vertical to 2 horizontal may be considered as a
satisfactory limit. The slope of the footing top need not be uniform, provided the limit
of 1 to 2 is not exceeded at any point.
For stepped footings, cast as a unit, the section resisting bending should be limited
to the lower block, or to the area falling within the boundaries of an imaginary sloped
footing which meets the above requirements as to slope and which lies entirely within the
stepped footing.
In isolated footings the reinforcement should be distributed over the entire width of
the section.
(c) In case the reinforcement does not cross at right angles a section at which bend-
ing moment is computed, only the component normal to the section should be considered
effective, that is, the normal cross-sectional area of the bar multiplied by the sine of the
angle which the bar makes with the section.
866. Critical Sections
(a) The critical section for bending in a concrete footing which supports a concrete
column, pedestal, or wall, should be taken at the face of the column, pedestal or wall.
96 Report on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete
In the case of columns other than square or rectangular the critical section should be
taken at the side of a concentric square of equivalent area. For footings under masonry
walls where bond with the footings is reduced to friction value, the critical section should
be assumed midway between the middle and the edge of the wall. For footings under
metaUic column bases the critical section should be assumed midway between the face of
the column and the edge of the metalhc base. The load may be considered as uniformly
distributed over the column, pedestal, or wall, or metaUic column base.
(b) The critical sections for bond should be taken at the same plane as those for
bending, and the shear used for computing bond should be based on the same loading
and section as for bending. Bond should also be investigated at planes where changes
of section or of reinforcement occur.
(c) The critical section for diagonal tension in footings on soil should be considered
as the concentric vertical section through the footing at a distance d from each face of
the column, pedestal, or wall. This depth d should be measured from the top of the
section to the plane of the centroid of longitudinal reinforcement.
(d) The critical section for diagonal tension for footings supported on piles should
be considered as the concentric vertical section through the footing at a distance d/2
from each face of the column, pedestal, or wall, and any piles whose centers are at, or
outside this section should be included in computing the shear.
(e) In sloped or stepped footings, analyses should be made of stresses at sections
where the slope or depth changes outside the critical section as defined in (a), (b), (c),
and (d) above.
867. Plain Concrete Footings
(a) In plain concrete footings the section should be computed as a monolithic sec-
tion of the entire width and depth measured from a plane two inches above the bottom
of the footing. The maximum tensile fiber stress in the concrete should not exceed 0.03
of the ultimate compressive strength of the concrete. The average shearing stress should
not exceed 0.02 of the ultimate compressive strength of the concrete, computed on a
concentric vertical section through the footing at a distance {d — 2 in.) from each face
of the column, pedestal, or wall, excluding 2 in. of depth nearest the bottom.
(b) The area of the top of the footing should not be less than that given by
Formula (18), Sec. 870.
868. Combined Footings .
(a) For reinforced concrete columns, the critical section for transverse bending
should be taken at the faces of the columns or pedestals. For footings under metallic
column bases, the critical section should be assumed midway between the face of the
column and the edge of the metallic base. The transverse reinforcement should be divided
into groups proportionate in sectional area to the column loads. The transverse rein-
forcement at each column should be placed uniformly within a band having a width not
greater than the width of the column plus twice the effective depth of the footing.
Longitudinal reinforcement should be distributed over the whole width.
(b) The critical sections for diagonal tension in combined footings should be taken
at the faces of the supported members for all beam elements and also for all projecting
cantilevers.
869. Raft Foundation
A raft foundation should be designed as an inverted floor system.
Footings 97
870. Transfer of Stress at Base of Column
(a) The compressive stress in the longitudinal reinforcement at the base of the col-
umn should be transferred to a pedestal or to a footing by extending the bars into the
pedestal or footing or by the use of dowels. There should be at least one dowel for each
column bar, and the total sectional area of the dowels should be not less than the sec-
tional area of the longitudinal reinforcement in the column. The dowels or column bars
should extend into the column, and into the pedestal or footing the distance required to
transfer to the concrete, by allowable bond stresses, their full working strength. Hooks
should not be considered as adding to bond resistance in compression. In addition to the
provision for the transference of load by dowels there should be provided at the top of
the footing or pedestal an area (A) which is equal to or greater than that given by the
following formula:
=[:^I-
(18)
Wherein /b = allowable working stress on the concrete in the column.
A' ■== area of the column,
/e = ultimate compressive strength of the concrete in the supporting member.
In all cases the concrete in the supporting member should be of such quality that the
ratio of /b to .25/^ does not exceed IJ^.
(b) In sloped or stepped footings, A may be taken as the area of the uppermost
horizontal surface of the footing or as the area of the lower base of the largest frustum
of a pyramid or cone contained wholly within the footing and having for its upper base
the loaded area A' and having side slopes of 1 vertical to 2 horizontal.
(c) Formula (18) may be applied to determine the area required at the top of the
footing or pedestal under a metal base. In this case /b is to be taken as the actual bear-
ing stress over the loaded area, and the limitation given in (a) for the quality of concrete
should apply.
871. Concentrically Loaded Pedestals and Pedestal Footings
Plain Concrete. — (a) The compressive stress on the gross area of a pedestal or the
upper surface of a pedestal footing should not exceed 0.25/c unless reinforcement is pro-
vided and the member is designed as a reinforced concrete column.
(b) The depth and width of a pedestal or pedestal footing should be determined by
consideration of shear and bending stresses as outlined under plain concrete footings
(Sec. 867). A pedestal footing supported directly on piles should have a mat of re-
inforcing, of cross-sectional area not less than 0.20 sq. in per ft. in each direction, placed
3 in. above the top of the piles.
Retaining Walls
872. Investigation of Stability
(a) Retaining walls, both plain and reinforced concrete, should be designed to resist
the pressures of the retained material including both dead and live load surcharge to
which they may be subjected.
(b) The wall should be designed for stability against (1) overturning, (2) sliding,
(3) maximum soil pressure, as well as for moment, shear, bond, and maximum pressure
at sections of the wall at regular intervals of height.
98 Report on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete
873. Moments and Pressures
(a) The pressures and overturning moments exerted by the retained material and
the surcharge thereon, if not determined experimentally, should be determined by means
of analysis conforming with accepted practice.*
(b) Where a retaining wall is subjected to the various pressures of different mate-
rials along its height, each height of wall should be analyzed for the filling material
behind it, the material above each plane considered being computed as surcharge.
874. Foundation Pressures
Foundation pressures should be determined from the consideration of the location,
magnitude, and direction of the resultant thrust at the base.
875. Allowable Unit Stresses and Critical Sections
(a) Retaining walls, including footings, both plain and reinforced, should be so
designed that at no section or part of wall or footing should the allowable stresses for
shear, bond, compression or tension as provided in Sec. 878 be exceeded.
(b) Critical sections in the various parts of the wall or footing should be taken as
those recommended for beams, slabs, and footings.
876. Provisions for Stability
(a) For stability against sliding, resistance should be provided for at least twice the
computed active horizontal thrust on the wall.
(b) For stability against overturning, the righting moment of the weight of the
wall, fill, and other superimposed loads should be at least SO percent greater than the
overturning moment due to the thrust of the filling material together with that due to
any dead load or live load surcharge. For walls resting on soils, the resultant pressure
at the base should fall within the middle third of the base; and where vibration occurs,
near the center of the base, to reduce unequal settlement.
(c) The maximum soil pressure resulting from the maximum thrust at the bottom of
the footing inclusive of the effect of eccentricity of such thrust should not be greater
than the permissible bearing power of the soil which supports the wall. Consideration
should be given to a possible redistribution of the soil pressure due to such eccentricity
and to the effect of possible vibration on such eccentricity and the resulting unequal
settlement.
877. Details of Design and Construction
(a) In counterforted walls the counterforts may be designed as T-beam sections and
the vertical wall computed as a continuous slab and so reinforced. Properly anchored
stirrups or tie bars should be provided of required size and spacing to resist the earth
thrust or soil pressure transferred by the slabs (wall or footing) to the counterforts.
(b) In buttressed walls the buttresses should be designed as rectangular beams and
the vertical walls should be designed as a continuous slab reinforced for continuity.
(c) In designing the wall footing, consideration should be given to the necessity of
tying the footing slab to the heel of the wall by adequate reinforcement when the down-
ward pressure of the fill and the weight of concrete exceed the upward pressure of the soil.
Where keys into the foundation are provided for resistance against sliding or for other
reasons, they should be placed monolithically with the base.
i
* Where the source of filling material is known in advance, investigation should be made of its unit
weight, its angle of internal friction under various conditions of saturation and height. Consideration
should be given to possible hydrostatic pressure and the reduction of weight of the filling material due
to buoyancy.
Unit Stresses 99
(d) Longitudinal reinforcement for volume changes due to shrinkage and to changes
in temperature should be provided in all reinforced concrete walls near the exposed face
to an amount of not less than 0.50 sq. in. area per ft. of height with a maximum spacing
of bars of 12 in. center to center.*
(e) No reinforcement should be less than two inches from any exposed face of the
wall. Where concrete is in contact with soil, the reinforcement should be at least three
inches from the surface.
(f) In reinforced concrete walls vertical construction joints with "V" notches at the
face should be provided at sections preferably not over 30 ft. apart, with reinforcement
carried through the joint. Expansion joints with grooved lock joints should be provided
not more than 100 ft. apart for reinforced concrete walls; reinforcement should not be
carried through expansion joints. In plain concrete walls similar expansion joints should
be provided, preferably not more than 30 ft. apart.
(g) Construction and expansion joints in the coping and balustrade of retaining
walls should be placed over all joints in the walls. Additional joints in balustrade and
copings may be desirable.
(h) Drainage should be provided at the backs of retaining walls, preferably by the
use of layers of broken stone extending horizontally for the full length of the wall at an
elevation where water can readily be disposed of, together with vertical layers extending
up to the coping at intervals of about 15 ft. along the wall. Weep holes at least 4 in. in
diameter should be provided about 15 ft. apart, or at least one in each panel of a
counterforted wall, at such elevation that the drainage water may readily escape.
(i) Exposed faces of walls should be given a slight batter (about Vi in. to 1 ft.) to
avoid appearance of tilting.
Unit Stresses
878. Allowable Working Stresses in Concrete and in Reinforcement
(a) The recommended unit stresses for concrete are based on the ultimate com-
pressive strength, /'., of the concrete at 28 days. The methods of control, proportioning,
and curing required to obtain the desired strength are given in Chapter III.
(b) The recommended working stresses in the steel reinforcement are based on the
consideration of two important factors:
1. The yield point of the steel.
2. The extent to which cracks may develop on the tension face of flexural
members.
The values given for tension are limited to approximately 50 percent of the yield
point of the reinforcement, but with an upper limit of 20,000 p.s.i. for important struc-
tural members, and 25,000 p.s.i. for the special case of one-way slabs reinforced with
wire mesh and small size bars. These upper limits are to apply for all grades of
reinforcement regardless of yield point.
(c) Static and Impact Loads.- — For static loads or for moving loads where appro-
priate allowances have been made for impact, the committee recommends the unit
stresses given in Table 7.
(d) Maximum Combined Stresses. — Where stresses due to wind, earthquake, or
other unusual forces, are combined with those due to static or impact loads, the sum of
the stresses should not exceed the allowable values given in Table 7 by more than
one-third.
It is desirable to use bars of small section and close spacing for this purpose.
100
Report on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete
Table 7 — Recommended Working Stresses (Static and Impact Loads)
Modular^ Ratio: n for use in flexural calculations
involving percentage of tensile steel, or tensile
stress in the reinforcement. The values given are
for concrete made from normal weight aggregates:
for lightweight concrete, the values of n should be
double those shown.
/'c =
2,000—2,400
2,500—2,900
3,000—3,900
4,000—4,900
above 5,000
=15
=12
=10
Concrete
Flexure: fc
Extreme fiber stress in compression /c=0. 45/'c
Extreme fiber stress in tension (for plain concrete footings only) fc^=O.OSf'c
Shear: v
Beams without web reinforcement and without end anchorage of longi-
tudinal steel i,,-=0. 02/'c
Beams without web reinforcement but with end anchorage of longi-
tudinal steel vc=0.03f'c
Beams with properly designed web reinforcement, but without end an-
chorage of longitudinal steel i;c=0. 06/'c
Beams with properly designed web reinforcement and with end anchor-
age of longitudinal steel (when vc, is in excess of 0.06/'c web reinforce-
ment should provide for total shear (see Sec. 817(e) ) vc=^0. 12/'c
Flat slabs at distance d from edge of column capital, or dropped panel. _z;c=0. 03/'c
Footings with longitudinal bars having no end anchorage i;c=0. 02/'c
Footings with longitudinal bars having end anchorage vc=0 . OSf'c
Combined footings and raft foundations designed as beam elements
with properly designed web reinforcement and end anchorage vc=0. 06/'<:
Bond: u
In beams and slabs and one-way footings:
Plain bars u=0. 04/'c but not to exceed 160 p.s.i.
Deformed bars u=0. 05/ 'c but not to exceed 200 p.s.i.
In multiple-way footings:
Plain bars u^O. 03/ 'c but not to exceed 160 p.s.i.
Deformed bars u=0. 0375/ 'c but not to exceed 200 p.s.i.
(When end anchorage is provided (see Sec. 826), one and one-half
times these values in bond may be used, but in no case to exceed
200 p.s.i. for plain bars and 250 p.s.i. for deformed bars.)
Bearing: fc
Full area loaded fc=0.25f'c
Load on partial area, /c variable (see Sec. 870), maximum fc=0. 375/'c
Axial Compression:
In Pedestals /c=0.25/'c
In Columns (see Sec. 854-855)
Unit Stresses 101
Table 7 — Recommended Working Stresses (Static and Impact Loads) — Continued
Reinforcement
Tension in Flexural Members, with or without axial loads:
Structural grade steel bars /^^IS.OOO p.s.i.
Structural steel shapes /i^l8,000 p.s.i.
Intermediate grade steel bars, and hard-grade bars (billet steel,
rail steel, or axle steel) /i=20,000 p.s.i.
Wire mesh or bars not exceeding 3^ in. in diameter when used in
one-way solid slabs only /s=50% of min. yield point, but not
to exceed 25,000 p.s.i.
Tension in Web Reinforcement:
All grades of steel 7^=16,000 p.s.i.
Tension in Column Spirals (see Sec. 854)
Compression in Column Verticals (see Sec. 854)
Intermediate grade steel bars /i=l 6,000 p.s.i.
Hard-grade steel bars (billet steel, rail steel, or axle steel) /i=20,000 p.s.i.
Compression in Composite and Combination Columns (see Sec. 856-857)
Compressive Reinforcement in Flexural Members (see Sec. 804(c))
k
102 Report on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete
Standard Specifications
for Concrete and Reinforced Concrete
Materials
Cement
The cement to be used shall be one or more of the following types as designated
by the Engineer.
201-S. Portland Cement
Normal Portland cement shall conform to the Standard Specifications for Portland
Cement of the American Society for Testing Materials (C9-38).
202-S. High Early Strength Portland Cement
High early strength Portland cement shall conform to Standard Specifications of the
American Society for Testing Materials (C74-39).
203-S. Special Cements
Special cements shall conform to the following requirements: (See Recommended
Practice— Sec. 202).
Admixtures
204-S. General
Materials used as admixtures shall conform to the following requirements: (see
Recommended Practice — Sec. 203).
Water
205-S. General
Water for concrete shall be clean and free from injurious amounts of oil, acid,
alkali, organic matter, or other deleterious substances.
206-S. Mortar Strength
When subjected to the mortar strength test (see Sec. 229-S for method of test) the
strength at 28 days of mortar specimens made with the water under examination and
normal Portland cement shall be at least 90 percent of the strength of similar specimens
made with the same cement and with water of known satisfactory quality. (See Recom-
mended Practice — Sec. 204.)
Fine Aggregate
207-S. General
Fine aggregate shall consist of natural sand, sand prepared from the product ob-
tained by crushing stone, gravel, or air-cooled blast-furnace slag; or, subject to thej
approval of the Engineer, other inert materials having similar characteristics. The par-
ticular type or types to be furnished shall be specified by the Engineer. (See also Secj
226-S to 228-S.)
208-S. Grading
Fine aggregate shall be graded from coarse to fine within the limits shown in the
following table. (See Recommended Practice, Sec. 20S and 206.)
Materials 103
Total Passing
Sieve Size % by Weight
^gin 100
No 4 95-100
No. 16 45-80
No. 50 . 5-30
No. 100 0-8
209-S. Uniformity
For the purpose of controlling the grading of fine aggregate from any one source, a
preliminary sample shall be submitted prior to actual deliveries. This sample shall be
representative of the material which it is proposed to furnish. Any shipment of fine
aggregate made during the progress of the work which shows a variation in fineness
modulus greater than 0.20 either way from the fineness modulus of the preliminary
sample shall be rejected or, at the option of the Engineer, may be accepted subject to
such changes in concrete proportions as may be necessary by reason of failure to comply
with the requirements of this section.
210-S. Deleterious Substances
Deleterious substances shall not be present in excess of the amounts shown in the
table below (see Recommended Practice, Sec. 205 and 208).
Permissible Limits
% by Weight
Recommended Maximum
Clay lumps 1 IJ^
Coal and lignite 34 1
Material finer than No. 200 sieve
(a) In concrete subject to surface abrasion 2 3
(h) All other classes of structures 3 5
Other deleterious substances (as may be
specified)
211-S. Organic Impurities
The fine aggregate when tested in accordance with the method of test for organic
impurities (see Sec. 229-S(c)) shall show a color not darker than the standard color
unless the material complies with the mortar strength test specified in Sec. 212-S.
212-S. Mortar Strength
Mortar specimens made with the fine aggregate when tested in accordance with the
mortar strength test (see Sec. 229-S) shall have an average compressive strength of at
least 90 percent of the strength of similar specimens made with the same cement and
Ottawa sand graded as specified in ASTM Tentative Method of Test for Compressive
Strength of Portland Cement Mortars (ASTM Designation: C 109-3 7T) when tested at
an age of not less than seven days when normal Portland cement is used and not less
than three days when high early strength cement is used.*
213-S. Soundness
(a) The fine aggregate when subjected to five alternations of the sodium sulfate
soundness test (see Sec. 229-S) shall conform to the following requirements: (See Rec-
ommended Practice, Sec. 205 and 209).
•Note: The above requirements are intended to assure the use of fine aggregate of satisfactory
quality from the standpoint of concrete strength. The 10 percent tolerance is allowed to cover unavoid-
able variations in normal testing procedure.
104
Report on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete
Average weighted loss,
Permissible Limits
Per Cent
Recommended Maximum
8 12
(b) Fine aggregate failing to meet the requirement shown in (a) above may be
accepted, provided it is shown by evidence satisfactory to the Engineer that concrete of
comparable proportions made from similar aggregate from the same source has been
exposed to natural weathering for a period of at least five years without appreciable
disintegration.
(c) The requirements for soundness given in (a) and (b) above may be waived in
the case of aggregate for use in structures or portions of structures not exposed to
weathering.
Coarse Aggregate
214-S. General
Coarse aggregate shall consist of crushed stone, gravel, air-cooled blast-furnace slag,
or, subject to the approval of the Engineer, other inert materials having similar char-
acteristics. The particular type or types to be furnished shall be specified by the
Engineer. (See also Sec. 220-S to 22S-S.)
215-S. Grading
Coarse aggregate of the sizes designated shall conform to the following requirements:
Designated
Sizes
Percentage by Weight Passi
Having Square
ng Laboratory Sieves
Openings
4-
In.
3H-
In.
2K- 2-
In. In.
In.
1-
In.
In.
K-
In.
In.
No.
4
No.
8
No. 4-)^ in.
100
90-100
35-70"
'o-i5"
90-100
25-60"
io-3o'
40-75
20-55
10^30
0-15
0-10
0-10
0-5
0-5
0-5
No. 4-M in.
100
90-100
35-70'
20-55
0-15
0-5
No. 4-1 in.
100
95-100
90-ioo
35-70
No. 4-11^ lin.
100
95-100
100
90-100
0-15
No. 4-2 in..
100
M-IK in.--
1-2 in
100
2-3 Kin. -
100
90-100
•
216-S. Deleterious Substances
Deleterious substances shall not be present in excess of the following amounts:
(See Recommended Practice, Sec. 205 and 208) .
Permissible Limits
% by Weight
Recommended Maximum
Soft fragments 2 5
Coal and lignite 34 1
Clay lumps }4 H
Material finer than No. 200 sieve J^* 1*
Other deleterious substances (as may be
specified)
_*Note: When the material finer than the No. 200 sieve consists essentially of crusher dust the
maximum amounts permitted may be raised to J4 ^"d 1 yi percent, respectively.
Materials 105
217-S. Soundness
(a) The coarse aggregate when subjected to five alternations of the sodium sulfate
test (see Sec. 229-S) shall conform to the following requirement: (see Recommended
Practice, Sec. 205 and 209).
Permissible Limits
Percent
Recommended Maximum
Average weighted loss 12 15
(b) Coarse aggregate failing to meet the requirement shown in (a) above may be
accepted, provided it is shown by evidence satisfactory to the Engineer that concrete of
comparable proportions made from similar aggregate from the same source has been
exposed to natural weathering for a period of at least five years without appreciable
disintegration.
(c) The requirements for soundness given in (a) and (b) above may be waived in
the case of aggregate for use in structures or portions of structures not exposed to
weathering.
218-S. Weight per Cubic Foot of Slag
Blast-furnace slag graded as used shall meet the following requirements: (See
Recommended Practice, Sec. 205) .
Recommended Permissible Minimum Permissible
Limits Limits
Concrete Concrete Concrete Concrete
subject to not subject subject to not subject
surface to surface surface to surface
abrasion abrasion abrasion abrasion
Weight, lb. per cu. ft.,
not less than 75 70 70 65
219-S. Resistance to Abrasion
Crushed stone and gravel to be used in concrete subject to surface abrasion, such
as pavements, heavy duty floors, structures subjected to the abrasive action of floating
ice, etc., shall meet the following requirements for abrasion loss when tested for resistance
to abrasion (See Sec. 229-S). (See Recommended Practice, Sec. 212.)
Permissible Limits
% by Weight
Material Recommended Maximum
Crushed stone 5 9
Gravel (100 per cent uncrushed) 10 20
Gravel (100 per cent crushed) 20 30
Gravel ( per cent crushed)
Rubble and Cyclopean Aggregate
220-S. Rubble Aggregate
Rubble aggregate shall consist of clean, hard, durable stone or gravel retained on a
6-in. square opening and with individual particles weighing not more than 100 lb.
221-S. Cyclopean Aggregate
Cyclopean aggregate shall consist of clean, hairl, durable stone or gravel with indi-
vidual particles weighing more than 100 lb.
106 Report on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete
Aggregates for Lightweight Concrete
222-S. General
Lightweight aggregates shall consist of pumice, lava, tufa, cinders, specially prepared
slag, coke, burnt clay, or other products having similar characteristics. Lightweight aggre-
gates shall conform to the requirements of the general specifications for grading (Sec.
208-S to 21S-S), organic impurities (Sec. 211-S), soundness (Sec. 213-S), and for
mortar strength, as specified in Sec. 212-S, except that the minimum strength of the light-
weight aggregate mortar made with aggregate in a saturated and surface dry condition
shall be at least 70 percent of that of Ottawa sand mortar. (See Recommended Practice,
Sec. 210.)
223-S. Deleterious Substances
Lightweight aggregates shall conform to the following requirements: (See Sec.
229-S for method of test).
Fine Aggregate Coarse Aggregate
Percent Percent
Clay lumps, not more than 1,5 1.0
Coal, not more than 1.5* 1.5*
Material finer than No. 200 sieve, not more tlian_ 4.0 2.0
Other deleterious substances (as may be
specified)
224-S. Weight per Cubic Foot
Lightweight aggregates shall meet the following requirements (See Sec. 210, Recom-
mended Practice) :
Pounds
Maximum weight per cubic foot, dry and loose.
Fine aggregate 70
Coarse aggregate 55
Aggregates for Use in Fireproofing
225-S. Fireproofing Aggregate
(a) Aggregates meeting the requirements of Sec. 207-S to 219-S, inclusive, or Sec.
222^ to 224-S, inclusive, of these specifications are suitable for use in fireproof con-
struction. When used in fireproof construction they shall be divided into two groups as
follows:
Group 1. — -Blast-furnace slag, limestone, calcareous gravel, trap rock, burnt clay or
shale, cinders containing not more than 25 percent of combustible material and not more
than 5 percent of volatile material, and other materials meeting the requirements of these
specifications and containing not more than 30 percent of quartz, chert, flint, and similar
materials.
Group 2. — Granite, quartzite, siliceous gravel, sandstone, gneiss, cinders containing
more than 25 percent, but not more than 40 percent of combustible material and not
more than 5 percent of volatile material and other materials meeting the requirements of
these specifications, and containing more than 30 percent of quartz, chert, flint and
similar materials.
(h) The fire protection requirements shown on the drawings are based on the use
of aggregates in Group 1, — Group 2.**
* Shall not apply to aggregate derived from coal (cinders, coke, etc.).
** The Engineer shall strike out one of the two groups indicated. See Recommended Practice Sec. 505
for recommendations regarding minimum protection of reinforcement when using aggregates of either
group.
____^ Methods of Sampling and Testing lO^
Methods of Sampling and Testing
226-S. Methods of Sampling
Methods of sampling Portland cement and high early strength Portland cement
shall be in accordance with ASTM Standard Methods of Samphng and Physical Testing
of Portland Cement (ASTM Designation: C77-39).
227-S.
Methods of sampling aggregates shall be in accordance with ASTM Tentative
Methods of Sampling Stone, Slag, Gravel, Sand and Stone Block for Use as Highway
Materials Including Some Material Survey Methods (ASTM Designation: D75-39T).
228-S. Methods of Testing
Portland cement and high early strength Portland cement shall be tested in accord-
ance with ASTM Standard Methods of Sampling and Physical Testing of Portland cement
(ASTM Designation: C77-39).
229-S.
Fine and coarse aggregate shall be tested in accordance with the following:
(a) Grading.— ASTM Standard Method of Test for Sieve Analysis of Fine and
Coarse Aggregate (ASTM Designation: C136-39).
(b) Uniformity of Grading — Fineness Modulus. — The fineness modulus of the aggre-
gate shall be determined by adding the total percentages retained on the following U. S.
Standard sieves and divicUng by 100: 3-in., 1^-in., ^-in., ^-in., No. 4, No. 8, No. 16,
No. 30, No. SO, and No. 100.
(c) Organic Impurities. — ASTM Standard Method of Test for Organic Impurities in
Sands for Concrete (ASTM Designation: C40-33).
(d) Coal and Lignite.— ASTM Standard Method of Test for Coal and Lignite in
Sand (ASTM Designation: C123-39).
(e) Fineness. — ASTM Standard Method of Test for Amount of Material Finer than
No. 200 Sieve in Aggregates (ASTM Designation: C117-37).
(f) Clay Lumps. — The percentages of clay lumps shall be determined by examining
the various fractions which remain after the test for grading. Any particles that can be
broken up with the fingers shall be classified as clay lumps and the total percentages by
weight of all clay lumps shall be determined on the basis of the total original weight of
the sample.
(g) Mortar Strength.— ASTM Standard Method of Test for Structural Strength of
Fine Aggregate Using Constant Water-Cement-Ratio Mortar (ASTM Designation:
C87-39).
(h) Soundness — Fine and Coarse Aggregate. — ASTM Tentative Method of Test for
Soundness of Aggregates by Use of Sodium Sulfate or Magnesium Sulfate (ASTM Desig-
nation: C88-39T).
(i) Resistance to Abrasion
1. Stone. — ASTM Standard Method of Test for Abrasion of Rock by Use of the
Deval Machine (ASTM Designation: D2-33).
2. Gravel.— ASTM Tentative Method of Test for Abrasion of Gravel by Use
of the Deval Machine (ASTM Designation: D289-37T).
(j) Weight per Cubic Foot of Slag.— ASTM Standard Method of Test for Unit
Weight of Aggregate (ASTM Designation: C29-39).
104
Report on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete
Average weighted loss.
Permissible Limits
Per Cent
Recommended Maximum
8 12
(b) Fine aggregate failing to meet the requirement shown in (a) above may be
accepted, provided it is shown by evidence satisfactory to the Engineer that concrete of
comparable proportions made from similar aggregate from the same source has been
exposed to natural weathering for a period of at least five years without appreciable
disintegration.
(c) The requirements for soundness given in (a) and (b) above may be waived in
the case of aggregate for use in structures or portions of structures not exposed to
weathering.
Coarse Aggregate
214-S. General
Coarse aggregate shall consist of crushed stone, gravel, air-cooled blast-furnace slag,
or, subject to the approval of the Engineer, other inert materials having similar char-
acteristics. The particular type or types to be furnished shall be specified by the
Engineer. (See also Sec. 220-S to 225-S.)
215-S. Grading
Coarse aggregate of the sizes designated shall conform to the following requirements:
Designated
Sizes
Percentage by Weight Passi
Having Square
ng Laboratory Sieves
Openings
4-
In.
3K-
In.
2y2- 2-
In. In.
In.
1-
In.
In.
In.
Vs-
In.
No.
4
No.
8
No. 4-J^ in.
100
90-100
35-70"
"o-i5"
90-100
25^60"
io-3o"
40-75
20-55
i0^30
0-15
0-10
0-10
0-5
0-5
0-5
No. 4-M in.
100
90-100
35-70"
20-55
0-15
0-5
No. 4-1 in.
100
95-100
90-100
35-70
No. 4-li^lin.
100
95-100
100
90-100
0-15
No. 4-2 in-
100
H-'^H in.--
1-2 in
100
2-33^ in...
100
90-100
216-S. Deleterious Substances
Deleterious substances shall not be present in excess of the following amounts:
(See Recommended Practice, Sec. 205 and 208) .
Permissible Limits
% by Weight
Recommended Maximum
Soft fragments 2 5
Coal and lignite M 1
Claylumps }4 H
Material finer than No. 200 sieve H* 1*
Other deleterious substances (as may be
specified)
♦Note: When the material finer than the No. 200 sieve consists essentially of crusher dust the
maximum amounts permitted may be raised to 54 ^"d 1 yi percent, respectively.
Materials 105
217-S. Soundness
(a) The coarse aggregate when subjected to five alternations of the sodium sulfate
test (see Sec. 229-S) shall conform to the following requirement: (see Recommended
Practice, Sec. 205 and 209).
Permissible Limils
Percent
Recommended Maximum
Average weighted loss 12 15
(b) Coarse aggregate failing to meet the requirement shown in (a) above may be
accepted, provided it is shown by evidence satisfactory to the Engineer that concrete of
comparable proportions made from similar aggregate from the same source has been
exposed to natural weathering for a period of at least five years without appreciable
disintegration.
(c) The requirements for soundness given in (a) and (b) above may be waived in
the case of aggregate for use in structures or portions of structures not exposed to
weathering.
218-S. Weight per Cubic Foot of Slag
Blast-furnace slag graded as used shall meet the following requirements: (See
Recommended Practice, Sec. 205) .
Recommended Permissible Minimum Permissible
Limits Limits
Concrete Concrete Concrete Concrete
subject to not subject subject to not subject
surface to surface surface to surface
abrasion abrasion abrasion abrasion
Weight, lb. per cu. ft.,
not less than 75 70 70 65
219-S. Resistance to Abrasion
Crushed stone and gravel to be used in concrete subject to surface abrasion, such
as pavements, heavy duty floors, structures subjected to the abrasive action of floating
ice, etc., shall meet the following requirements for abrasion loss when tested for resistance
to abrasion (See Sec. 229-S). (See Recommended Practice, Sec. 212.)
Permissible Limits
% by Weight
Material Recommended Maximum
Crushed stone 5 9
Gravel (100 per cent uncrushed) 10 20
Gravel (100 per cent crushed) 20 30
Gravel ( per cent crushed)
Rubble and Cvclopean Aggregate
220-S. Rubble Aggregate
Rubble aggregate shall consist of clean, hard, durable stone or gravel retained on a
6-in. square opening and with individual particles weighing not more than 100 lb.
221-S. Cyclopean Aggregate
Cyclopean aggregate shall consist of clean, hard, durable stone or gravel with indi-
vidual particles weighing more than 100 lb.
110 Report on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete
305-SA. Changes in Consistency for Mechanical Vibration
When high frequency mechanical vibration is used for compacting concrete, the
limiting consistencies in Table A may be modified subject to the approval of the Engineer.
The proportions and consistencies, however, shall be such that with the vibratory equip-
ment in use the full requirements of Sec. 304-SA shall be satisfied.
306-SA. Changes in Proportions or Materials by the Engineer
If, during the progress of the work, it is found impossible to secure concrete of the
required workability and strength with the materials being furnished by the Contractor,
the Engineer may order such changes in proportions or materials, or both, as may be
necessary to secure the desired properties, subject to the limiting requirements shown in
Table A. Any changes so ordered shall be made at the Contractor's expense, and no extra
compensation will be allowed by reason of such changes.
307-SA. Changes in Materials by the Contractor
If, during the progress of the work, the Contractor desires to use materials other
than those originally approved, or if the materials from the sources originally approved
change in characteristics, he shall submit, for approval, evidence satisfactory to the Engi-
neer that the new combination of materials will produce concrete meeting the require-
ments shown in Table A, and will not bring about objectionable changes in the color or
appearance of the structure.
308-SA. Changes in Requirements
Regardless of the limitations of Table A, at any time during the progress of the
work, the owner shall have the right to make such changes in the materials or propor-
tions, or both, as he may consider necessary to meet the requirements of the structure.
In such case, the Contractor shall be compensated in accordance with the terms of the
contract for the additional cost of materials and additional handUng and placing costs,
if any, entailed by changed materials or mixtures, or both, which are not covered by the
specification requirements shown in Table A for the respective portions of the work
involved.
309-SA, Concrete Made with High Early Strength Portland Cement
When high early strength Portland cement is used in lieu of normal Portland cement,
the requirements given in Table A shall apply, except that the "Minimum allowable
strength at 28 days" specified for normal Portland cement shall be the minimum allow-
able strength at 7 days. The ages at time of test specified in Sec. 302-SA shall be 3 days
and 7 days in lieu of the 7-day and 28-day ages specified for normal Portland cement.
Proportioning: Alternate B
Specifications Based Primarily on Designated Cement Content
301-SB. Proportions
All concrete shall be proportioned as indicated in Table B.
302-SB, Cement Factor
The cement factor given in column 3 of Table B indicates the weight of cement per
cubic yard of concrete when the concrete is in a freshly mixed condition. The volume of
the freshly mixed concrete shall be assumed to be the absolute volume of the cement,
plus the volume of the mixing water, plus the displaced volumes of the saturated, surface-
dry aggregates. The quantity of mixing water to be used in this calculation shall not
include water absorbed by the aggregates.
Proportioning
111
Table B*
Class
of
Con-
Estimated
28-Day
Compres-
sive
Flexual
Strength;
p.s.i.
*
Cement
Factor
Sacks
Cement
(94 lb.)
per cu.
yd. Con-
crete
Max.
Water
per
94 lb.
Ce-
ment;
Gal.
Max.
Size
Agg.;
In.
Fine
Agg.;
% Total
Agg. by
Weight
(range)
*
Slump,
Range;
In.
Approx. Wt3. Sat-
urated Surface-Dry
Agg. Per Sack (94
lb.) of Cement
(See note A below)
Fine
Agg. lb.
Coarse
Agg. lb.
(/)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(^)
(6)
(7)
(S)
(9)
Note A: The approximate weights in columns 8 and 9 have been determined on the assumption
that the aggregates are in a saturated, surface-dry condition and have a bulk specific gravity of 2.65.
* The Engineer should fill in the details of Table B to indicate the characteristics of the concrete
which are desired for each part of the work. See Sec. 305 and 307, Recommended Practice, for sugges-
tions. The Engineer should strike out one of the words "Flexural" or "Compressive" in column 2 as
may be required.
303-SB. Variations in Proportions
In order to obtain proper workability and a smooth, dense, homogeneous, plastic
mixture, free from segregation, the percent of fine aggregate may be varied within the
limits indicated with the approval of the Engineer. The estimated 28-day strengths indi-
cated in column 2 of Table B are the strengths used in the design calculations.
The Engineer will verify strengths by tests made during the progress of the work
and in accordance with the requirements of Sec. 321-S to 325-S. When a ratio between
7-day and 28-day strengths has been established by these tests or by preliminary tests,
the 7-day strengths may be taken as a satisfactory indication of the 28-day strengths.
In the event that cement in excess of that indicated in Table B is necessary to produce
concrete of the indicated strength or workability, the cement factor shall be increased as
directed by the Engineer, and the Contractor shall receive extra compensation for the
additional cement so used. In the event that cement less than that indicated in Table B
is sufficient to produce concrete of the indicated strength or workability the Engineer
may order a reduction in the cement factor, in which case there shall be an adjustment
in contract price equal to the actual difference in cost to the Contractor of the required
cement and aggregates.
304-SB. Water Content and Slump Range
The maximum quantity of water per 94 lb. of cement specified in Table B shall
include the free water in the aggregates; however, moisture absorbed by the aggregates
shall not be included. The slump range indicated in Table B is intended as a guide to the
Contractor for the determination of placing and compacting procedures and equipment.
Within the range specified, the slump shall be as directed by the Engineer. If the con-
crete has a greater slump than the maximum indicated, the quantity of water shall be
reduced to meet the slump requirements. If the concrete has a smaller slump than the
minimum indicated, changes in the mixture shall be made as specified in Sec. 303-SB.
305-SB. Changes in Consistency for Mechanical Vibration
When high frequency mechanical vibration is used for compacting the concrete, the
proportions and consistencies in Table B shall be modified as required to produce the
type of concrete specified in Sec. 303-SB and 304-SB.
112 Report on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete
306-SB. Concrete Made with High Early Strength Portland Cement
When high early strength Portland cement is used in lieu of normal Portland cement,
the requirements given in Table B shall apply, except that the estimated 28-day strength
indicated for normal Portland cement concrete shall be the estimated 7-day strength
when high early strength Portland cement concrete is used. The ages at time of test
specified in Sec. 303-SB shall be 3 days and 7 days, respectively, in lieu of the 7-day
and 28-day ages specified for normal Portland cement.
310-S. Measurements of Materials
(a) Materials shall be measured by weighing, except as otherwise specified or where
other methods are specifically authorized by the Engineer. The apparatus provided for
weighing the aggregates and cement shall be suitably designed and constructed for this
purpose. Each size of aggregate and the cement shall be weighed separately. The accu-
racy of all weighing devices shall be such that successive quantities can be measured to
within one percent of the desired amount. Cement in standard packages (sack) need not
be weighed, but bulk cement and fractional packages shall be weighed. The mixing
water shall be measured by volume or by weight. The water measuring device shall be
susceptible of control accurate to plus or minus ^ percent of the capacity of the tank.
All measuring devices shall be subject to approval.
(b) Where volumetric measurements are authorized by the Engineer, the weight
proportions shall be converted to equivalent volumetric proportions. In such case, suit-
able allowance shall be made for variations in the moisture condition of the aggregates,
including the bulking effect in the fine aggregate.
Mixing
311-S. Equipment
The mixing equipment shall be capable of combining the aggregates, cement, and
water within the specified time into a thoroughly mixed and uniform mass, and of
discharging the mixture without segregation.
312-S. Machine Mixing (at Site or at Central Mixing Plant)
Unless otherwise authorized by the Engineer, the mixing of concrete shall be done
in a batch mixer of approved type which will insure a uniform distribution of the
material throughout the mass. The equipment at the mixing plant shall be so constructed
that all materials (including the water) entering the drum can be accurately propor-
tioned and be under control. The entire batch shall be discharged before recharging. The
volume of the mixed material per batch shall not exceed the manufacturer's rated
capacity of the mixer. Except as qualified in Sec. 314-S, mixing of each batch shall
continue for the periods indicated below* during which time the drum shall rotate at a
peripheral speed of about 200 ft. per min. The mixing periods shall be measured from
the time when all of the soUd materials are in the mixer drum, provided that all of the
mixing water shall be introduced before one-fourth of the mixing time has elapsed.
Mixing time shall be as follows:
1. For mixers of a capacity of one cubic yard or less — 1 min.
2. For mixers of capacities larger than one cubic yard, the time of mixing shall
be increased IS sec. for each additional half-cubic yard capacity or fraction thereof.
* When, in the judgment of the Engineer, longer mixing times are necessary he should so specify.
Mixing 113
313-S. Truck Mixing
Truck mixers, unless otherwise authorized by the Engineer, shall be of the revolving
drum type, watertight, and so constructed that the concrete can be mixed to insure a
uniform distribution of materials throughout the mass. All solid materials for the con-
crete shall be accurately measured in accordance with Sec. 310-S and charged into the
drum at the proportioning plant. Except as subsequently provided, the truck mixer shall
be equipped with a tank for carrying mixing water. Only the prescribed amount of water
shall be placed in the tank unless the tank is equipped with a device by which the quan-
tity of water added can be readily verified. The mixing water may be added directly to
the batch, in which case a tank shall not be required. Truck mixers may be required to
be provided with means by which the mixing time can be readily verified by the Engi-
neer. The maximum size of batch in truck mixers shall be in accordance with the speci-
fied rating.* Truck mixing shall be continued for not less than 50 revolutions after all
ingredients, including the water, are in the drum. The speed shall not be less than
4 r.p.m., nor more than a speed resulting in a peripheral velocity of the drum of 225 ft.
per min. Not more than 150 revolutions of mixing shall be at a speed in excess of
6 r.p.m. Mixing shall begin within 30 min.** after the cement has been added either to
the water or aggregate.
314-S. Partial Mixing at the Central Plant
When a truck mixer, or an agitator provided with adequate mixing blades, is used
for transportation, the mixing time at the stationary machine mixer may be reduced to
30 sec. and the mixing completed in a truck mixer or agitator. The mixing time in the
truck mixer or agitator equipped with adequate mixing blades shall be as specified for
truck mixing in Sec. 313-S.
315-S. Time of Hauling Ready-Mixed Concrete
Concrete transported in a truck mixer, agitator, or other transportation device shall
be discharged at the job within V/^ hoursf after the cement has been added to the water
or the aggregates. The maximum volume of mixed concrete transported in an agitator
shall be in accordance with the specified rating.
316-S. Hand Mixing
When hand mixing is authorized it shall be done on a watertight platform and in
such a manner as to insure a uniform distribution of the materials throughout the mass.
Mixing shall be continued until a homogeneous mixture of the required consistency is
obtained.
317-S. Retempering
The retempering of concrete or mortar which has partially hardened, that is, mixing
with or without additional cement, aggregate, or water, will not be permitted.
* See Sec. 308 of Recommended Practice.
•* When cement is charged into a mixer drum containing water or surface-wet aggregate and when
the temperature is above 90 deg. F., or when high early strength Portland cement is used, this limit
shall be reduced to 15 min.; the limitation on time between the introduction of the cement to the aggre-
gates and the beginning of the mixing may be waived when, in the judRment of the Engineer, the
aggregates are sufficiently free from moisture, so that there will be no harmful effects on the cement.
t See Sec. 308 of Recommended Practice.
114 Report on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete
Curing of Concrete
318-S. Protection
(a) All concrete, except as noted under (c) below, placed under these specifications
shall be so protected that the temperature at the surface will not fall below 50 deg. F.,
or that there will be no loss of moisture from the surface for the periods indicated below.
1. Where normal Portland cement is used — seven days.
2. Where high early strength Portland cement is used — three days.
(b) The Contractor shall submit for the approval of the Engineer the methods he
proposes to use for protecting the concrete against low temperatures.
(c) The requirement in (a) and (b) above concerning the temperature at the sur-
face is intended to apply to the placing of concrete in those seasons of the year, or in
such places where the possibilitj' of freezing or continued low temperatures is to be
expected. It is not intended to apply where temperatures below 40 deg. F. are a rarity.
In any case, however, concrete must be protected from freezing temperatures at any
time during the first 72 hours where normal Portland cement is used, or 24 hours where
high early strength Portland cement is used.
(d) Protection against loss of moisture from the surface of the concrete shall be
accomplished by keeping the surface continuously wet. One of the following methods
shall be used:*
Field Tests of Concrete
320-S. Field Tests
During the progress of construction the Engineer will have tests made to determine
whether the concrete as being produced complies with the standards of quality specified
in Sec. 301-S(A or B). These tests will be made in accordance with Sec. 321-S to
32S-S. The Contractor shall cooperate in the making of such tests to the extent of
allowing free access to the work for the selection of samples and storage of specimens,
and in affording protection to the specimens against injury or loss through his operations.
321-S. Test Pieces
Three cylinders or beams will generally be made for each class of concrete used in
any one day's operation. In special cases this normal number of control specimens may
be exceeded when in the opinion of the Engineer such additional tests are necessary. The
Contractor, however, shall not be required to furnish for such additional tests more than
2 cu. ft. of concrete from each 100 cu. yd. of concrete being placed.
322-S. Sampling and Curing of Test Pieces
Samples of concrete for test specimens shall be taken at the mixer, or in the case
of ready mixed concrete, from the transportation vehicle during discharge. When, in the
opinion of the Engineer, it is desirable to take samples elsewhere, they shall be taken
as directed by him. The test specimens shall be molded immediately after the sample is
taken, placed in a protected spot and kept under moist curing conditions at approxi-
mately 70 deg. F. for 24 hours, whereupon they shall be removed to the testing labora-
tory.** In the laboratory they shall be kept under standard moist curing conditions at
70 deg. F. (±5 deg. F.) until time of test and shall be tested in the damp condition.
* The Engineer shall list the methods which he is willing to approve. See Recommended Practice
Sec. i09(b) for suggestions.
** The temperature and other storage conditions of the test specimens during the first few days is a
vital factor in the strength results. It is the intent of these specifications that the requirements herein
specified shall be complied with minutely; however, the exact details of storage and transportation
facilities shall be those best suited to the individual requirements.
Field Tests of Concrete US
323-S. Age
The tests shall be made at the age of the concrete corresponding to that for which
the strengths are specified in Tables A or B.
324-S. Compression Tests
For compression tests, the size of cylinder and the manner of molding, capping, and
testing shall be in accordance with the ASTM Standard Method of Test for Compressive
Strength of Concrete (ASTM Designation: C39-39).
325-S. Flexure Tests
For flexure tests, the size and shape of specimens and the manner of molding and
testing shall be in accordance with the ASTM Standard Method of Test for Flexural
Strength of Concrete (Laboratory Method Using Simple Beam with Third-Point Load-
ing), (ASTM Designation C78-39).
Enforcement of Strength Requirements
326-SA. Failure to Meet Requirements
Should the strengths shown by the test specimens made and tested in accordance
with the provisions of Sec. 320-S fall below the values given in Sec. 301-SA, the Engi-
neer shall have the right to require changes in proportions as outlined in Sec. 306-SA to
apply on the remainder of the work. Furthermore, the Engineer shall have the right to
require additional curing, as specified in Sec. 328-SA, on those portions of the structure
represented by the test specimens which failed. In the event that such additional curing
does not give the strength required the Engineer shall have the right to require strength-
ening or replacement of those portions of the structure which fail to develop the
required strength.
327-SA. Definition of Failure
The specimens will be considered to have failed when the average strength for any
period of placing is less than the values indicated in the following table:
Percent of Strength Specified
No. Days Consecutive Placing of Any One Class of in Section
Concrete 301-SA
1 85
2 ._ 90
3 95
5 or more 100
328-SA. Additional Curing
When additional curing of portions of the structure is ordered by the Engineer in
accordance with Sec. 326-SA, it shall be done at the Contractor's expense and no claim
for extra compensation for such additional curing shall be allowed. Such additional cur-
ing shall consist in an extension of the periods of protection specified in Sec. 318-S as
may, in the judgment of the Engineer, be necessary. In no case, however, shall the
Contractor be required to provide such additional curing beyond a total of 21 days,
except where the average strengths of specimens, representing concrete placed on any
three consecutive days, fall below 80 percent of the value specified in Table A, Sec.
301-SA. In this case, curing shall be continued until cores drilled from portions of the
116 Report on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete
structure involved show an average strength equal to that specified in Table A. Cores
for this purpose shall have a diameter of approximately three times the maximum size
of aggregate and shall be secured, capped, and tested in accordance with Standard Methods
of Securing Specimens of Hardened Concrete from the Structure, (ASTM Designation:
C42-39).
Forms and Placing
Forms
401-S. General
Forms shall conform to the shape, lines, grades, and dimensions of the concrete as
called for on the drawings. Lumber used in forms for exposed surfaces shall be dressed
to a uniform thickness, and shall be free from loose knots or other defects. Joints in
forms shall be horizontal or vertical where appearance of the finished surface is of
importance. For unexposed surfaces and rough work, undressed lumber may be used.
Lumber once used in forms shall have nails withdrawn, and surfaces to be in contact
with concrete thoroughly cleaned before being used again.
402-S. Design
(a) Forms shall be sufficiently tight to prevent leakage of mortar. They shall be
properly braced or tied together so as to maintain the desired position and shape during
and after placing concrete. In the case of very long spans where no intermediate sup-
ports are possible, the probable deflection in the forms due to the weight of the fresh
concrete shall be taken into account so that the finished members shall conform accu-
rately to the desired line and grade. If adequate foundation for shores cannot be
secured, trussed supports shall be provided.
(b) Bolts and rods shall preferably be used for internal ties; they shall be so
arranged that when the forms are removed no metal shall be within one inch of any
surface. Shores supporting successive stories shall be placed directly over those below,
or so designed and placed that the load will be transmitted directly to them.
403-S. Moldings
Unless otherwise specified suitable moldings or bevels shall be placed in the angles
of forms to round or bevel the edges of the concrete.
404-S. Oiling
The inside of forms shall be coated with nonstaining mineral oil or other approved
material, or in case of wood forms they shall be thoroughly wetted (except in freezing
weather). Where oil is used, it shall be applied before the reinforcement is placed.
405-S. Inspection
Temporary openings shall be provided at the base of column and wall forms and
at other points where necessary to facilitate cleaning and inspection immediately before
depositing concrete.
406-S. Form Removal
The removal of forms shall not be started until the concrete has attained the neces-
sary strength to support its own weight and any construction live loads.
Forms and Placing 117
Depositing Concrete
407-S. General
(a) Before beginning placement of concrete, hardened concrete and foreign mate-
rials shall be removed from the inner surface of the mixing and conveying equipment.
(b) Before depositing concrete, debris shall be removed from the space to be occu-
pied by the concrete; forms if constructed of lumber shall be thoroughly wetted (except
in freezing weather) or oiled. Reinforcement shall be thoroughly secured in position and
approval by the Engineer obtained before concrete is placed.
408-S. Removal of Water
Water shall be removed from the space to be occupied by the concrete before
concrete is deposited, unless otherwise directed by the Engineer. Any flow of water into
an excavation shall be diverted through proper side drains to a sump, or be removed by
other approved methods which will avoid washing the freshly deposited concrete. If
directed by the Engineer water vent pipes and drains shall be filled by grouting or
otherwise after the concrete has thoroughly hardened.
409-S. Handling
(a) Concrete shall be handled from the mixer, or in the case of ready-mixed con-
crete, from the transporting vehicle, to the place of final deposit as rapidly as prac-
ticable by methods which shall prevent the separation or loss of the ingredients. (See
Sec. 31S-S.) Under no circumstances shall concrete that has partially hardened be de-
posited in the work. Concrete shall be deposited in the forms as nearly as practicable in
its final position to avoid rehandling. It shall be so deposited as to maintain, until the
completion of the unit, a plastic surface approximately horizontal. Forms for walls or
thin sections of considerable height shall be provided with openings or other devices that
will permit the concrete to be placed in a manner that will prevent segregation and
accumulations of hardened concrete on the forms or metal reinforcement above the level
of the concrete.
(b) Concrete regardless of the type of transporting vehicle, shall have when deposited
in the forms the quaUty required.
410-S. Chuting
When concrete is conveyed by chutes, the equipment shall be of such size and design
as to insure a continuous flow in the chute. The chutes shall be of metal or metal lined
and the different portions shall have approximately the same slope. The slope shall not
be less than one vertical to two horizontal and shall be such as to prevent the segrega-
tion of the ingredients. The discharge end of the chute shall be provided with a baffle
plate to prevent segregation. If the distance of the discharge end of the chute above the
surface of the concrete is more than three times the thickness of the layer being deposited,
but not more than five feet above the surface of the concrete, a spout shall be used, and
the lower end maintained as near the surface of deposit as practicable. When the opera-
tion is intermittent, the chute shall discharge into a hopper. The chute shall be thoroughly
cleaned before and after each run and the debris and any water used shall be discharged
outside the forms.
411-S. Pneumatic Placing
(a) Where concrete is conveyed and placed by pneumatic means the equipment
shall be suitable in kind and adequate in capacity for the work. The machine shall be
located as close as practicable to the place of deposit. The position of the discharge end
118 Report on Concrete and Reinforc ed Concrete
of the line shall not be more than ten feet from the point of deposit. The discharge
lines shall be horizontal or inclined upwards from the machine.
(b) At the conclusion of placement the entire equipment shall be thoroughly cleaned.
412-S. Pumping
Where concrete is conveyed and placed by mechanically applied pressure the equip-
ment shall be suitable in kind and adequate in capacity for the work. The operation of
the pump shall be such that a continuous stream of concrete without air pockets is pro-
duced. When pumping is completed, the concrete remaining in the pipeline, if it is to be
used, shall be ejected in such a manner that there will be no contamination of the
concrete or separation of the ingredients. After this operation the entire equipment shall
be thoroughly cleaned. (See Recommended Practice, Sec. 403.)
413-S. Compacting
(a) Concrete during and immediately after depositing shall be thoroughly com-
pacted by means of suitable tools. For thin walls or inaccessible portions of the forms,
where spading, rodding, or forking is impracticable, the concrete shall be worked into
plac^ by vibrating, or hammering the forms lightly opposite the freshly deposited con-
crete. The concrete shall be thoroughly worked around the reinforcement, and around
embedded fixtures, and into the corners of the forms.
(b) Accumulations of water on the surface of the concrete due to water gain, segre-
gation or other causes, during placement and compacting, shall be prevented as far as
possible by adjustments in the mixture. Provision shall be made for the removal of such
water as may accumulate so that under no circumstances will concrete be placed in such
accumulations. (See Recommended Practice, Sec. 404.)
( shall ) *
(c) Concrete } may I be compacted by mechanical vibration.
( shall not j
When mechanical vibration is used the number and type of vibrators shall be subject to
the approval of the Engineer.
414-S. Depositing Continuously
Concrete shall be deposited continuously, or in layers of such thickness that no con-
crete will be deposited on 'concrete which has hardened sufficiently to cause the formation
of seams and planes of weakness within the section. If a section cannot be placed con-
tinuously, construction joints may be located at points as provided for in the drawings
or approved by the Engineer. Such joints shall be made in accordance with the pro-
visions in Sec. S08-S to SlO-S.
415-S. Depositing in Cold Weather
Concrete when deposited shall have a temperature of not less than 50 deg. F. nor
more than 120 deg. F. In freezing weather, suitable means shall be provided for main-
taining the concrete at the temperature and for the periods specified in Sec. 318-S, or
until the concrete has thoroughly hardened. Before placing the concrete, the forms shall
be free from frost and ice, and after the concrete is placed it shall be protected on all
exposed sides by straw, tarpaulins, or other means. Manure, if used for such protection,
shall not come in contact with the concrete. The methods of heating the materials and
protecting the concrete shall be approved by the Engineer. Salts, chemicals, or other
foreign materials shall not be mixed with the concrete for the purpose of preventing
freezing.
* The Engineer shall indicate which of these requirements is to apply.
Forms and Placing 119
416-S. Bonding
Before depositing new concrete on or against concrete which has hardened, the
forms shall be retightened. The surface of the hardened concrete shall be roughened as
required by the Engineer, in a manner that will not leave loosened particles of aggregate
or damaged concrete at the surface. It shall be thoroughly cleaned of foreign matter and
laitance, and saturated with water. To insure an excess of mortar at the juncture of the
hardened and the newly deposited concrete, the cleaned and saturated surfaces, including
vertical and inclined surfaces, shall first be thoroughly covered with a coating of mortar
or neat cement grout against which the new concrete shall be placed before the grout
has attained its initial set.
417-S. Protection and Curing
The concrete shall be protected and cured in accordance with requirements of
Sec. 318-S.
418-S. Placing Cyclopean Concrete
Cyclopean aggregate shall be thoroughly embedded with no stone closer than one
foot to any surface, and with a space of at least six-inch between adjacent stones.
Stratified stone shall be laid on its natural bed. Cyclopean aggregate shall be carefully
placed to avoid injury to forms or adjoining masonry.
419-S. Placing Rubble Concrete
Rubble aggregate shall be thoroughly embedded in the concrete.
The individual stones shall not be closer than four inches to any surface or adjacent
stones. Rubble aggregate shall be carefully placed to avoid injury to forms or adjacent
masonry.
420-S. Depositing Concrete Under Water
(a) When it is necessary to deposit concrete under water the methods, equipment,
materials, and proportions of the mixture to be used shall be submitted to and be
approved by the Engineer before the work is started.
(b) Concrete shall not be placed in water having a temperature below 35 deg. F.
The temperature of the concrete, when deposited, shall not be less than 60 deg. F. nor
more than 120 deg. F.
(c) The concrete shall contain not less than 7 sacks or 658 lb. of cement per cubic
yard. The volume or weight of the coarse aggregate shall not be less than one and one-
half, nor more than twice that of the fine aggregate. The concrete shall be mixed with
sufficient water to produce a concrete having a slump of not less than four inches and
not more than seven inches.
(d) Cofferdams or forms shall be sufficiently tight to reduce the flow or current of
water to ten feet per minute through the space into which concrete is to be deposited.
Cofferdams or forms in still water shall be sufficiently tight to prevent loss of mortar
through the walls. Pumping will not be permitted while concrete is being placed, nor
until 24 hours thereafter.
(e) Concrete shall be deposited continuously until it is brought to the required
height. While depositing, the top surface shall be kept as nearly level as possible and
the formation of seams avoided. The methods to be used for depositing concrete under
water shall be one of the following:
1. Tremie. — The tremie shall be watertight and large enough to allow a free
flow of concrete. It shall be kept filled with concrete at all times while depositing.
120 Report on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete
The concrete shall be discharged and spread by so moving the tremie as to maintain
as nearly as practicable a uniform flow and avoid dropping the concrete through
water. If the charge is lost, while depositing, the tremie shall be withdrawn and
refilled. The slump of concrete shall be maintained between five and seven inches.
2. Drop Bottom Bucket. — The top of the bucket shall be open. The bottom
doors shall open freely downward and outward when tripped. The bucket shall be
completely filled and slowly lowered to avoid backwash. It shall not be dumped
until it rests on the surface upon which the concrete is to be deposited and when
discharged shall be withdrawn slowly until well above the concrete. The slump of
concrete shall be maintained between four and six inches.
3. Bags. — Bags of at least one cubic foot capacity, of jute or other coarse
cloth, shall be filled about two-thirds full of concrete and securely tied. They shall
be placed carefully in header-and-stretcher courses so that the whole mass is inter-
locked. Bags used for this purpose shall be free from deleterious materials.
(f) To minimize the formation of laitance great care shall be exercised to disturb
the concrete as little as possible while it is being deposited. Upon completion of a section
of concrete, all laitance shall be entirely removed before work is resumed.
421-S. Depositing Concrete Exposed to Corrosive Waters or Soils
Where concrete may be exposed to the action of corrosive waters or soils, special
care shall be taken to place it in accordance with Sec. 407-S to 416-S. Wherever pos-
sible placing shall be continuous until completion of the section or until the concrete is
at least 18 in. above ground or water level. Corrosive waters or soils shall be kept from
contact with the concrete during placement and for a period of at least 72 hours
thereafter.
422-S. Pneumatically Applied Mortar
(a) GcMem/.— This section refers to premixed sand and cement pneumatically applied
by suitable mechanism and competent operators, and to which mixture the water is
added immediately previous to its expulsion from the nozzle.
(b) Quality of Materials. — The quality of cement, sand, and water shall be in
accordance with Sec. 201-S to 213-S.
(c) Proportions. — The proportions of cement to sand shall be based on dry and
loose volumes and shall not be less than one to four for encasement of steel members,
one to three for concrete repair, nor one to four and a half for canal linings.
(d) Water Content. — The water content shall be maintained at a practicable mini-
mum and not in excess of three gallons per sack of cement as placed.
(e) Mixing. — The cement and sand shall be thoroughly mixed before being charged
into the machine. The sand shall contain not less than four percent moisture.
(f) Nozzle Velocity. — ^The velocity of the material as it leaves the nozzle must be
maintained uniform at a rate determined for the given job conditions to produce
minimum rebound.
(g) Nozzle Position. — The nozzle shall be held in such a position and at such dis-
tance that the stream of flowing material will impinge at approximately right angles to
the surface being covered without excessive impact.
(h) Rebound Sand. — Rebound or accumulated loose sand shall be removed from
the surface to be covered prior to placing of the original or succeeding layers of mortar.
(i) Forms. — The forms shall be structurally sufficient and of such design that
rebound or accumulated loose sand can freely escape or be readily removed. Shooting
I
Details of Construction 121
strips should be used at corners, edges, and on surfaces where necessary to obtain true
lines and proper thickness.
(j) Joints.— The pneumatically applied mortar at the end of any day's work or
similar stopping periods shall be sloped ofif to a thin edge. Before placing an adjacent
section this sloped portion shall be thoroughly cleaned and wetted.
(k) Bond. — Surfaces to which pneumatically applied mortar is to be bonded shall
be thoroughly cleaned of dirt, paint, grease, organic matter and loose particles. Absorptive
surfaces shall be wetted before the application of the mortar.
(I) Curing. — Pneumatically applied mortar shall be so appUed, protected, and cured
as to prevent its temperature falling below 50 deg. F., or a loss of moisture from the
surface for the periods indicated below.
1. Where normal Portland cement is used, seven days.
2. Where high early strength Portland cement is used, three days.
Pneumatically applied mortar shall be appUed only with the permission of the Engineer
when the air temperature is SO deg. F. or less.
(m) Reinforcement. — The reinforcement when required shall be adequate from the
standpoint of structural requirements and shall consist of mesh or round bars, spaced
not less than two inches nor more than four inches apart either way, and having a
diameter not less than that of No. 12 wire. The area of the reinforcement shall be at
least 0.2 percent of the cross-sectional area of the mortar. The reinforcement shall be at
least % in. from the unexposed surface of the mortar and at least ^ in. from the
exposed surface.
Note: For recommended practice for pneumatically apphed mortar see Sec. 406.
Details of Construction
Handling Metal Reinforcement
501-S. Cleaning
Metal reinforcement before being positioned shall be free from loose mill and rust
scale and from coatings, including ice, that destroy or reduce the bond. Where there is
delay in depositing concrete, reinforcement shall be reinspected and cleaned when
necessary.
502-S. Fabrication
Reinforcement shall be accurately formed to the dimensions indicated on the draw-
ings. Stirrups and tie bars shall be bent around a pin having a diameter not less than
two times the minimum thickness of the bar. Bends for other bars shall be made
around a pin having a diameter not less than six times the minimum thickness except
for bars larger than one inch in which case the bends shall be made around a pin of
eight bar diameters. All bars shall be bent cold.
503-S. Straightening and Rebending
Metal reinforcement shall not be straightened or rebent in a manner that will injure
the material. Bars with kinks, or bends not shown on the drawings, shall not be used.
Heating of the reinforcement will be permitted only when the entire operation is
approved by the Engineer.
122 Report on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete
504-S. Placing Reinforcement
(a) Metal reinforcement shall be accurately positioned and secured against dis-
placement by using annealed iron wire ties or suitable clips at intersections, and shall be
supported by concrete or metal supports, spacers or metal hangers. Where indicated on
the drawings or required by the specifications, metal clips or supports shall not be placed
in contact with the forms.
(b) The minimum center to center distance between parallel bars shall be 2J^ times
the diameter of round or 3 times the side dimensions for square bars, but in no case
shall the clear spacing between the bars be less than IJ^ times the maximum size of the
coarse aggregate nor less than 1 inch in beams and girders, nor less than 1^ inch in
columns. Bars parallel to the exterior surface of any member not exposed to the weather
shall be embedded at least one bar diameter for round bars, or diagonal dimension for
square bars, but in no case less than ^ inch from the exterior surface, nor less than
shown on the drawings, or as required by Sec. 50S-S.
505-S. Moisture Protection
(a) At those surfaces of footings and other principal structural members in which
the concrete is deposited directly against the ground, metal reinforcement shall have a
minimum covering of 3 in. of concrete. At other surfaces of concrete exposed to the
ground or to severe weathering conditions, metal reinforcement shall be protected by not
less than 2 in. of concrete for bars over % in. in diameter, and l]^ in. for bars 5/g in.
in diameter or less. At underside of slabs exposed to weather one inch shall be provided.
506-S. Splicing of Reinforcement
When it is necessary to splice reinforcement at points other than shown on the
drawings, the character of the splice shall be determined by the Engineer. In such splices
the bars shall be placed in contact and wired. Sphces in adjacent bars shall be staggered.
507-S. Future Bonding
Exposed reinforcement intended for bonding with future extensions shall be effectively
protected from corrosion.
Construction Joints
508-S. Location of Joints
(a) Columns. — Joints in columns shall be made at the underside of floor members
and at floor levels. Haunches and column capitals shall be considered as part of and
continuous with the floor or roof. At least two hours shall elapse after depositing con-
crete in columns or walls before depositing the concrete in the floor system.
(b) Floors. — Construction joints in the floor system shall be located at or near the
middle of the span in slabs, beams, or girders, unless a beam intersects a girder at this
point, in which case the joint in the girder shall be offset a distance equal to twice the
width of the beam and provision satisfactory to the Engineer shall be made for shear by
the use of inclined web reinforcement across the joint.
509-S. Procedure in Forming Joints
The procedure specified in Sec. 416-S for bonding new concrete to old shall be fol-
lowed in the formation of all joints. The reinforcement shall continue through the joint.
For concrete without reinforcement, shearing strength shall be provided by means of a
concrete key or dowel bars as the Engineer may direct.
Details of Construction 123
510-S. Extra Steel at Construction Joints
Where a construction joint is required in a section of a building more than 100 ft.
long or more than 100 ft. between expansion joints, special reinforcement shall be placed
at right angles to the joint and extending in both directions from the joint 40 diameters
in the case of deformed bars and 50 diameters in the case of plain bars. This reinforce-
ment shall be placed near the face of the member opposite from the main tensile
reinforcement. The cross-sectional area of such reinforcement shall not be less than
O.S percent of the section of the members cut by the joint.
511-S. Watertight Construction Joints
(a) Where a horizontal construction joint is required to resist water pressure, special
care shall be taken in finishing the surface to which the succeeding concrete is to be
bonded. The consistency of the concrete shall be carefully controlled so that it can be
placed with a minimum of puddling with no free water showing. The surface shall be
protected from loss of moisture and from mechanical injury. In applying the new
concrete the procedure specified in 416-S shall be followed.
(b) Vertical construction joints shall not be made in watertight construction unless
shown on the plans or authorized by the Engineer.
124
Report on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete
Appendices
Appendix 1 — Effect of Various Substances on Portland Cement
Concrete and Suggested Protective Treatments
Where Required
Substance
Effect on Unprotected
Concrete
Protective Treatment
Petroleum Oils
Light feul oils above 30°
None — some loss from
Fluosilicate, spar varnisn.
Baume
penetration
linseed oil, sodium silicate
Volatile oils — kerosene,
None — considerable loss
Fluosilicate, spar varnish.
benzine, naphtha, gas-
from penetration.
sodium silicate, phenol-
oline
formaldehyde varnish
Heavy oils — 30° Baum(^
None — very slight pene-
None
or heavier
tration
Coal-tar Distillates
Phenol, cresol, lysol, cre-
Attack concrete slowly
Fluosilicate, sodium silicate,
osote, carbolineum
spar varnish, phenol for-
maldehyde varnish
Benzol, toluol, xylol and
None — some loss from
Fluosilicate, sodium silicate,
cumol
penetration
linseed oil, spar varnish
Pitch, anthracene, car-
None
None
bonzol and paraffin
Inorganic Acid
Sulphuric, nitric
Disintegrates
Glass, vitrified brick or tile
laid in litharge, lead, and
rubber give effective pro-
tection for temperatures
below 150° F. and for con-
centrations of 50 % or less.
Sulphurous
>>
Glass, vitrified brick or tile
laid in litharge, lead, and
rubber give effective pro-
tection for all concentra-
tions.
Hydrochloric
"
Lead, rubber only for tem-
Hydrofluoric
peratures below 150°F and
for concentrations of 50%
or less.
J
Appendices
125
Appendix 1 — Continued
Substance
Effect on Unprotected
Concrete
Protective Treatment
Organic Materials
Acetic
Disintegrates slowly
Bituminous enamel, phenol-
formaldehyde varnish,
spar varnish, rubber
Carbonic in water
Attacks concrete slowly
Asphalt, bituminous, or coal-
tar paints, fluosilicate, so-
dium silicate, spar var-
nish, phenolformaldehyde
varnish, resin
Lactic or tannic
Attacks concrete slowly
Above group; also linseed
oil, and paraffin
Fish oil
Very slight attack
Fluosilicate, sodium silicate,
linseed oil
Above group
Lard and lard oil
>> t> »
Foot oil
>> »> j>
)i >>
Linseed
Slight attack
None
Resin
" "
j>
Cocoanut
»» ft
Fluosilicate, sodium silicate,
linseed oil
Olive
>> >»
Above group; also spar or
Bakelite varnish
Rape seed
>> >»
Above group; also spar or
Bakelite varnish
Cotton seed
i> >>
None
Almond •
>> i»
Fluosilicate, sodium silicate,
linseed oil, varnish
Poppy seed
Very sUght attack
Above group
Walnut
Soy-bean
i> >» »>
>> >>
Peanut
" "
Oxalic
None
None
Carbonic (dry)
Salts
Soluble inorganic salts attack concrete to a greater or less extent in the following
order: sulphates, sulphides, nitrates, chlorides, and carbonates.
Sulphates of calcium, po-
Actively attack concrete
Suggested treatments are:
tassium, sodium mag-
fluosilicate, sodium sDi-
nesium, copper, zmc.
cate, linseed oil, bitumi-
aluminum, manganese.
nous, applications, glass.
iron, nickel, cobalt.
vitrified brick or tile laid
in litharge cement and
rubber
Sulphates of ammonia
Disintegrate
Above group
Chlorides of magnesium.
Slight attack
iron, mercury, copper
and ammonia
Nitrate of ammonia
Disintegrates
" "
Sulphide ores and pyrite
Slight attack
126
Report on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete
Appendix 1 — Continued
I
Substance
Effect on Unprotected
Concrete
Protective Treatment.
Acid sulphate
Strong attack
Suggested treatments are:
fluosilicate, sodium sili-
cate, linseed oil, bitumi-
nous applications, glass,
vitrified brick or tile laid
in litharge cement and
rubber.
Chlorides of sodium,
potassium, calcium,
strontium
None
None
Nitrates of calcium,
potassium and sodium
>>
»>
Soluble sulpirides except
sulphide of ammonia
"
"
Carbonates
>»
"
Fluorides
>f
"
Silicates
>>
Miscellaneous
Molasses
Slight attack
Suggested treatments are:
fluosilicate, sodium sili-
cate, linseed oil, bitumi-
nous applications, glass,
vitrified brick or tile laid
in litharge cement and
rubber
Sulphite liquor
>» >>
Above group
Milk
Attacks slowly
Corn syrup and glucose
Slight attack
" "
Silage juices
Attack slowly
»» »>
Ammonia water
None
None
Wood pulp
"
"
Tanning liquors (non acid)
>>
"
Alcohol
i>
Appendix 2 — Support Moments in Continuous Beams and Frames
A number of methods of frame analysis are available to the designer such as
Moment Distribution, Slope Deflection, Virtual Work, etc. For preliminary designs and
also for final designs in the ordinary cases, the following approximate general method
may be used. The method is based in moment distribution and is approximate to the
extent that it includes only two cycles of distribution* for fixed end moments at three
successive supports or joints.
* For a more complete treatment of this method, see Continuous Frames of Reinforced Concrete,
by Cross and Morgan (John Wiley and Sons, N. Y., 1932).
Appendices
127
The method is general in that it is applicable to the fixed end moments for any type
of loading in the four spans adjacent to the three supports or joints under consideration.
For notation refer to the following diagram and definitions:
A-o A-
Let joints 1, 2, and 3 in the order shown mark the ends of two spans h and h.
Let 3/^2 1 = fixed end moment at the left of joint 2 due to the loads in the span
between supports 2 and 1.
3/^2— ■; = fixed end moment at the right of joint 2 due to the loads in the span
between supports 2 and 3.
U2 = algebraic sum of the fixed end moments at joint 2, i.e. MF,_, -f
Similarly.
Ui =: algebraic sum of the fixed end moments at joint 1,
Us = algebraic sum of the fixed end moments at joint 3.
Fixed end moments are to be given positive sign if they tend to produce clockwise
rotation of the joint and negative sign if counter clockwise.
The signs of Ui, U2, and Us result from the addition of the two terms. If the clock-
wise term is the greater, the sign will be positive; if the counter clockwise term is
greater, the sign will be negative.
Kiz=— := stiffness factor for span 1-2.
/i ^ - — for all members intersecting at joint 1.
Similarly for other joints.
I>i_or= Distribution factor at joint 1 =
D„_,= Distribution factor at joint 2 =: -1^
J2
£>2_:., ^ Distribution factor at joint 2 =
D :;__; =: Distribution factor at joint 3 =
£1
J2
El
J.
Jil
/a
128 Report on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete
With this notation, the iinal moment M2_i at the left of joint 2 can be obtained
from the following equation:
iW,_i = MF,_, _ Z)2_if/2 _j^^^^2£l+ :^2_i (£, j/^ ^ D;.._^Uz) (1)
2 2
Similarly,
M2_3= MF2_3_ D^_,,U2 —^l=^ + £l=l'{D,_.,U, + Z),_of/i) (2)
2 2
Collecting terms, these equations can be written,
M,_,=z MF,_,-£a=^£i + £i^(D,_2U. + D.,_^U, — 2U^) (3)
2 2
Mj_3,= MF,_3 - ^ ^'^ ^^ + .^ (D i_2 1/. + Z>3-2«7, - 2C/.) (4)
Appendix 3 — Maximum Moment Coefficients for One-Way Slabs
(Solid or Ribbed) of Equal Spans Carrying Uniformly
Distributed Loads
The coefficients given in the table below are for the special case of equal spans and
uniformly distributed loads. They are based on the assumption of continuity over the
supports with negligible restraints at end and intermediate supports. The numerical
values given are coefficients of vo-i.V' and WiV, respectively, in which Wi equals the dead
load, and Wi equals the live load per unit of area.
I
No.
Spans
Rnd Support
Neg.
End Span
Mid-Span
Pos. Neg.
First Int.
Support
Pos. Neg.
Interior Sp
Mid-Span
Pos. Neg.
an
Typical
Support
Pos. Nei
1
2
3
4 or
more
—.040
—.040
—.040
—.040
.125
.075
.085
.080
Dead Load
—.125
—.100
—.110
.030
.040 I
. 046* \
— . 0
1
2
3
4 or
more
—.040
—.040
—.040
—.040
.125
.100 -
.105 -
. 105 -
.000
-.030
-.025
-.020
Live Load
. 000 — . 125
.017 —.120
.015 —.120
. 080 — . 050
. 085 — . 045
. 036 — . 1
115
* .046 for 5 or more spans.
To adapt the table for use in cases where the dead load is slightly different on the
several spans Wi may be taken as the least dead load carried by one span of the series
under consideration, and Wt as the difference between Wi and the greatest unit total load
on any of the spans in the series.
Appendices
129
*
Appendix 4 — Curing Portland Cement Concrete
1. General
These specifications for Heat Curing and Wet Curing are based on requirements when
normal Portland cements are used.
When moderate low-heat cements are used, the curing time herein specified shall be
increased 25 percent.
When high early strength Portland cement is used, the curing period shall be not less
than 40 percent of that specified for normal Portland cement.
2. Heat Curing
Concrete, when deposited in massive structures, shall have a temperature of not less
than 40 deg. F.
When deposited in structures less than six feet in thickness the following table for
temperatures will govern:
Minimum Temperature of
Temperature of Air Concrete When Placed
Degrees F. Degrees F.
Below 30 70
Between 30 and 45 60
Above 45 45
In freezing weather, or when there is likelihood of freezing temperatures, within the
specified curing period, suitable and sufficient measures must be provided for maintaining
all concrete surfaces at a temperature of not less than 50 deg. F. for a period of not less
than 5 days after the concrete is placed, when normal Portland cement is used, and not
less than 48 hours when high early strength Portland cement is used.
The temperature of concrete surfaces shall be determined by thermometers placed
against the surfaces of the concrete.
Provision shall be made in form construction to permit the removal of small sections
of forms to accommodate the placing of thermometers against concrete surfaces at
locations designated by the Engineer.
After thermometers are placed, the apertures in forms shall be covered in a way to
closely simulate the protection afforded by the forms.
In determining the temperatures at angles and corners of a structure, thermometers
should be placed not more than eight inches from the angles and corners.
Temperature readings shall be taken and recorded at intervals to be designated by
the Engineer, over the entire curing period specified, and the temperatures so recorded
shall be interpreted as the temperature of the concrete surfaces where thermometers were
placed.
When protection from cold is needed to insure meeting these specification require-
ments, all necessary materials for covering or housing; must be delivered at the site of
the work before concreting is started and must be effectively applied or installed, to-
gether with such added heat furnished as may be necessary without depending in any
way upon the heat of hydration during the first 24 hours after concrete is placed, when
normal Portland cement is used, or the first 18 hours when high early strength Portland
cement is used.
When heat is supplied by steam or salamanders, covering or housing of the structure
shall be so placed as to permit free circulation of air above and around the concrete
•Manual Am. Ry. Eng. Assn., 1939; Specifications for Portland Cement Concrete, Plain and
Reinforced, Sec. 8. page 25.
130 Report on Concrete and Reinforced Concrete
within the enclosure, but to the exclusion of air currents from without, excepting that
where salamanders are used, sufficient ventilation shall be provided to carry off gases.
Special care shall be exercised to exclude cold drafts from angles and corners and from
all projecting reinforcing steel.
When salamanders are used, water vessels must be placed over them or other means
provided to maintain a high humidity within enclosures.
3. Wet Curing
When not otherwise specified, all concrete surfaces when not protected by forms,
must be kept constantly wet for a period of not less than 7 days after concrete is
placed, when normal Portland cement is used, and not less than 67 hours when high
early strength Portland cement is used.
The wet curing period for all concrete which will be in contact with brine drip, sea
water, salt spray, alkali or sulfate bearing soils or waters, or similar destructive agents,
shall be increased to SO percent more than the periods specified for normal exposures.
When wood forms are left in place during the curing period they shall be kept
sufficiently damp at all times to prevent openings at the joints and drying of the concrete.
Inspection shall be made of all exposed surfaces at intervals as directed by the
Engineer, and job records shall be kept indicating whether surfaces were wet at times of
inspection, and if not wet, stating reasons why.
When wet curing is impracticable, liquid surface applications to prevent or minimize
evaporation may be used in lieu of wet curing only when approved by the Engineer.
Appendix 5 — List of Specifications Cited
American Society for Testing Materials*
A7-39 — Specifications for Steel for Bridges and Buildings
A15-39 — Specifications for Billet-Steel Bars for Concrete Reinforcement
A16-35 — Specifications for Rail-Steel Bars for Concrete Reinforcement
A44-39T — Specifications for Cast-Iron Pit-Cast Pipe for Water and other Liquids
(Tentative)
A82-34 — Specifications for Cold-Drawn Steel Wire for Concrete Reinforcement
A160-39 — Specifications for Axle-Steel Bars for Concrete Reinforcement
A184-37 — Specification for Fabricated Steel Bar or Rod Mats for Concrete Rein-
forcement
A185-37 — Specifications for Welded Steel Wire Fabric for Concrete Reinforcement
C9-38 — Specifications for Portland Cement
C29-39 —Method of Test for Unit Weight of Aggregate
C39-39 — Method of Test for Compressive Strength of Concrete
C40-33 — Method of Test for Organic Impurities in Sands for Concrete
C42-39 — Method of Securing Specimens of Hardened Concrete from the Structure
C74-39 —Specifications for High-Early-Strength Portland Cement
C 7 7-39 —Methods of Sampling and Physical Testing of Portland Cement
C78-39 —Method of Test for Flexural Strength of Concrete (Laboratory Method
Using Simple Beam with Third Point Loading)
C87-39 —Method of Test for Structural Strength of Fine Aggregate Using Constant
Water-Cement-Ratio Mortar
f .u* ^AD^.'^P'^'^r containing the specifications and methods of test listed may be obtained by members
ot the AREA at 50 cents per copy by addressing the American Society for Testing Materials, 260 South
Broad Street, Philadelphia, Pa.
Appendices 131
C88-39T— Method of Test for Soundness of Aggregates by Use of Sodium Sulfate or
Magnesium Sulfate (Tentative)
C 1 09-3 7T— Method of Test for Compressive Strength of Portland Cement Mortars
(Tentative)
CI 17-37 —Method of Test for Amount of Material Finer than No. 200 Sieve in
Aggregates
C 123-39 — Method of Test for Coal and Lignite in Sand
C136-39 — Method of Test for Sieve Analysis of Fine and Coarse Aggregates
D2-33 — Method of Test for Abrasion of Rock by Use of the Deval Machine
D75-39T — Methods of SampHng Stone, Slag, Gravel, Sand, and Stone Block for Use as
Highway Materials, Including Some Material Survey Methods (Tentative)
D271-37 — Methods of Laboratory Samphng and Analysis of Coal and Coke
D289-37T^Method of Test for Abrasion of Gravel by Use of the Deval Machine
(Tentative)
INDEX
Admixtures
Recommended
Practic^— Sect. No.
203,612..
Specifications
Sect. No.
204S
Aggregates
Abrasion Resistance . . .
Blast-Furnace Slag . . .
Coarse
Colored
Cyclopean
Deleterious Substances
Fine
Fireproofing
Grading
Lightweight
Mortar Strength Tests
Organic Impurities . . .
Rubble
SampUng and Testing .
Size, Maximum
Soundness
Wearing Surfaces
Weight per cu. ft
Alkali and Corrosive Fluids,
Exposure to
Construction Details for
Depositing Concrete
Protection of Concrete
" " Reinforcement
Water-Cement Ratio Requirements
Allowable Unit Stresses
Anchorage (see Bond and Anchorage)
Beams and Girders
Anchorage of Reinforcement . . . .
Beams in Flat Slab Construction
" " Two-Way Slab "
Bending Moments
Compression Reinforcement . . . .
Lateral Supports
T- and L- Beams
Wedge-Shaped Beams
I
Bending Moments
Beams and Girders
Columns
205-212
212 219S, 229S
218S, 229S
207 214S-219S
728
221S
208 210S, 216S, 223S
206 207S-213S
211 22SS
206, 207 208S, 209S, 21SS
210 222S-224S, 229S
212S, 229S
211S, 229S
220S
226S-229S
307
209 213S,217S, 229S
712
218S, 224S,229S
4218
303,
Table 1
App.
1
501
609
506
303
878
804-808
826-830
840
815
808, App. 2, 3
804
804
804
822,825
App. 2, 3
808
859-862
133
1
134
Index
Flat Slabs, Discontinuous Panels
" " Rectangular
Frames
Retaining Walls
Slabs, One-Way (Solid or Ribbed) . .
" Two-Way (Supported on 4
Sides)
Supporting Beams in Two-Way Slabs
Bond and Anchorage
Working Stresses . . . .
Recommended
Practice — Sect. No.
838
835, 836
805
873
806, 807
Specifications
Sect. No.
Bonding New and Old Concrete
Cement
Portland
High-early-strength
Special
811,812
815
823-830
878
508.
202(a)
202(^0;, 306.
202(b)
416S
201S
202S, 309SA, 306SB
203S
I
I
Cleaning Concrete Surfaces
703, 724
Color in Concrete
Aggregates ,
Pigments
Paints ,
Columns, Reinforced Concrete
Bending Moments
Combined Axial and Bending Stress .
Combination and Pipe Columns ,
Composite
Limitations
Long
Reinforcement Details
Spirally Reinforced, Allowable Load . . .
Tied, Allowable Load
Transfer of Loads to Pedestals
Unsupported Length ,
Wind or Earthquake Stresses
Compression Reinforcement
Beams
Flat Slabs
Consistency and Workability of Con-
crete
Construction Details
Cyclopean Concrete
727-731
728
727
729-731
851-862
859-862, App. 2
860, 861
857
856
852
858
854
854
855
870
853
862
S04(cJ
845
307
501-514
304SA, 305SA, 305SB
221S,418S
Index
Recommended
Practice — Sect. No.
Curing Concrete 309
Additional Curing to Meet Strength
Requirements
Am. Ry. Eng. Assn. Specifications ... . 309, App. 4
Field Test Specimens 311
Methods and Requirements 309
Dampproofing 607
Decorative Finishes (see also Surface
Finishes) 704-709
Ornaments 70S, 706
Definitions 102
Deleterious Substances (see Aggregates)
Depositing Concrete (see Placing)
Diagonal Tension and Shear 816-822
Beams and Girders 817
End Anchorage 826-829
Footings 821
Slabs, Flat 820
" Two-Way 813
Web Reinforcement, Beams and
Girders 818, 819
Wedge-Shaped Beams 822
Working Stresses 878
Drop Panels (see Flat Slabs)
Durability of Concrete 303
Earthquake
Loads 803
Stresses 862, 878
Expansion and Contraction of Con-
crete (see also Joints) 501
Exposure Requirements for Con-
crete 303
Field Tests of Concrete 310, 311 .. .
Finishing (see Surface Finishes)
Fireproofing 211
Fire Protection Requirements
Aggregates 211
Reinforcement SOS
135
Specifications
Sect. No.
318S
328SA
320S-32SS
136
Index
Footings
Combined
Critical Sections
Diagonal Tension and Shear . . .
Pedestal and Pedestal Footings
Plain
Raft
Transfer of Load from Column
Working Stresses
Recommended
Practice — ^Sect. No.
863-871
Specifications
Sect. No.
Forms
Frames
Bending Moments
Girders (see Beams and Girders)
Impact
Joints (see also Bonding Old and New
Concrete)
Construction
Expansion and Contraction
Location
Long Buildings
L-, T-, or U-Shaped Buildings
Retaining Walls
Watertight
Lightweight Aggregates . .
Loads, Superimposed
Measurement of Materials
Mixing Concrete . . . .
Equipment
Hand
Ready-Mixed Concrete
Time of Mixing
Truck
Mortar (see also Pneumatically Applied
Mortar)
Strength Tests (see Aggregates)
Used for Waterproofing
Paints
Pavement Concrete, Quality
Pedestals
866
821
871
867
869
870
864, 865, 878
401,702 401S-406S
804-808
80S, App. 2, 3
803
513 S08S-S11S
509
509 508S
510
510
511,877
514 511S
210 222S-224S, 229S
803
310S
311S-316S
311S-314S
316S
308 312S,314S,31SS
308 312S-314S
313S
611
729-731
303
870, 871
Index
137
Placing Concrete
Chuting
Cold Weather (see also Curing)
Consistency Required
Handling
Pneumatic
Pumping
Vibration
Recommended Specifications
Practice — Sect. No. Sect. No.
402-406 30SSA, 305SB,
407S^22S
410S
415S
307
409S
402.406 411S
403 412S
307, 404
Pneumatically Applied Mortar
For Moisture Protection
Reinforcement for
Proportioning Concrete
By Strength and Water Content
(Alternate A)
By Fixed Mixes (Alternate B)
Wearing Surfaces
Protective Treatments for Concrete
(see also Paints)
Ready-Mixed Concrete (see Mixing)
Reinforced Concrete Design
Reinforcement, Metal
Clearance and Embedment . .
Columns, Spiral Reinforcement
Compression in Beams
Fabricating and Placing
Fire Protection
Flat Slab Construction
Moisture Protection . . :
Offsets, Column Reinforcement
Pneumatically Applied Mortar
Recommended Sizes
Splicing
Web
Working Stresses
Retaining Walls
Retempering Concrete
Rubble Concrete
Sea Water, Concrete Exposed to
Construction Details
Exposure Requirements
Protection for Reinforcement
406 422S
506
406(m)
302
302, 304, 312 301SA-309SA
302, 305 301SB-306SB
713
601, 605-614, App.l
801-878
213-216 230S, 231S
504. 854
854. 855
804
501S-504S
505
843-845
506,608 S05S
503, 854(c)
406(m) 422S('jn;
216
502 506S
818,819,830
878
872-877
317S
220S, 4198
501
303
507
138
Index
Recommended
Practice — Sect. No.
Shear (see Diagonal Tension and Shear)
Shrinkage (see Expansion and Contrac-
tion)
Specifications
Sect. No.
Slabs, One-Way
Two-Way
Flat
Soundness of Aggregates
Steel (see Reinforcement)
Strength Specifications : Enforcement
of Requirements
Surface Finishes (see also Paints) ....
Surface Treatments (see also Protective
Treatments)
Terrazzo
Testing
Aggregates
Concrete .
Unit Stresses
Vibration
Water-Cement Ratio
Water
Watertightness
Wearing Surfaces
Weathering, Protection for . .
Web Reinforcement
Wind or Earthquake Stresses
Workability of Concrete
(see Consistenc)')
804-808
809-815
831-8S0
209 213S, 217S,229S
304ra;,312.
701-731
613
716-726
326SA-328SA
310,311
878
307,404,405.
301-305
204
601-614
710-726
606
818,819,830
862,878
226S-229S
320S-325S
305SA, 305SB
301SA-303SA,
304SB
20SS,206S
Working Stresses
878
Seventh Progress Report
Committee on Stresses in Railroad Track
1940
139
TABLE OF CONTENTS
I. Introduction
Page
1. Preliminary ^41
2. Previous Progress Reports 141
3. Acknowledgment 142
II. Track, Locomotives, Cars, Apparatus, and Methods of Testing
4. Purposes of the Tests 142
5. Tfie Track and the Test Layout 143
6. I^ocomotives and Cars 145
7. Testing Equipment 146
8. Operation of the Tests and Reduction of the Data 154
III. Stresses, Moments, and Depressions in Rail with the Electric
Locomotive and the Cars
9. Stresses and Moments in Rail 155
10. Depression of Track 168
IV. Tests of Rail Joints
11. Rail Joints and Their Action 173
12. The Joint Bars and the Test Schedules 176
13. Laboratory Tests to Find Gage and Stress Relations and Conversion Ratios 180
14. Stresses in Rail Joints in Track 185
15. Values of Moments in Rail Joints in Track 189
16. Effect of Camber in Joint with No Re-tamping 192
17. Discussion of Type and Condition of Bar 194
18. Relation of Speed to Type and Condition of Bar 201
10. Vertical and Longitudinal Movements between Joint Bars and Rails 204
20. Recapitulation and General Discussion 213
V. Other Tests
21. Effect of Flat Wheel 217
22. Effect of Batter in the Rail Surface 222
23. Rail Stresses and Depressions with a Steam Locomotive 232
VI. Other Activities
24. Other Activities 246
140
Seventh Progress Report
Special Committee on Stresses in Railroad Track
A. N. Talbot, Chairman, F. S. Hewes Louis Yager, V ice-Chairman,
C. B. Bronson G. W. Kittredge W. H. Penfield
W. J. Burton P. M. LaBach G. J. Ray
Robert Faries** F. R. Layng Albert Reichmann
C. W. Gennet, Jr. J. de N. Macomb H. R. Safford
F. M. Graham G. M. Magee F. E. Turneaure
H. E. Hale John V. Neubert* J. E. Willoughby
Committee.
* Died June 4, 1940.
** Died September 8, 1940.
To the American Railway Engineering Association:
The Special Committee on Stresses in Railroad Track herewith presents its seventh
progress report.
I. Introduction
1. Preliminary.— Since its organization in 1914 this committee has conducted
analytical and experimental investigations on the action of railroad track under the
loads of locomotives and cars running at various speeds and for a variety of conditions.
The study has been supplemented by numerous laboratory tests. The field, laboratory
and office work has been carried on by the staff of the committee. Through its con-
tinuing organization the committee has been able to outline constructive programs,
carry out field and laboratory tests, and interpret results in a coordinated and
impartial way.
At the beginning the committee was a joint committee of the American Railway
Engineering Association and the American Society of Civil Engineers, with most of its
membership common to the two societies and with funds contributed from both
sources. In recent years, however, the connection with the American Society of Civil
Engineers has been only nominal and the activities have been wholly those of the
American Railway Engineering Association with the financial support coming entirely
from the Association of American Railroads.
2. Previous Progress Reports. — Six progress reports have been published de-
scriptive of the investigation and its results and various additional supplementary
reports have been made. Experimental data in various stages require further work before
being reported.
The six progress reports may be found in the Proceedings of the American Railway
Engineering Association as follows: First Progress Report, Vol. 19, 1918, page 873;
Second Progress Report, Vol. 21, 1920, page 645; Third Progress Report, Vol. 24, 1923,
page 29S ; Fourth Progress Report, Vol. 26, 1925, page 1081 ; Fifth Progress Report,
Vol. 31, 1930, page 65; Sixth Progress Report, Vol. 35, 1934, page 65.
An outline of the topics reported on in the first four progress reports is given in
the Fifth Progress Report, and a short statement on the topics in the Fifth Progress
Report is included in the Sixth Progress Report. Most of these outlines of content are
in sufficient detail, taken together with the tables of contents, to enable a reader to
find the location of the subjects considered in the various progress reports.
141
142 Stresses in Railroad Track
3. Acknowledgment. — The tests herein reported were made possible through the
cooperation of the Pennsylvania Railroad in making a combined effort to obtain in-
formation on the action of various types of rail joints in track when subjected to the
loads of locomotives and cars at speeds up to 90 miles per hour. The committee wishes
to express appreciation to the railroad management for the opportunity to cooperate
in this important series of tests and for the various services given. The opportunities
were especially valuable because of the availability of the splendid equipment of mag-
netic strain gages, oscillographs and auxiliary apparatus, representing an investment of
a number of thousands of dollars and especially designed and constructed for the
purposes of such investigations. This unusual testing equipment enabled tests to be
made accurately and expeditiously in a way that had not been accomplished before. It
should be added too that the extensiveness of the tests and the great amount of detail
in the large accumulation of data imposed a very considerable undertaking in the
reduction of data and the analysis and interpretation of results.
Appreciation is expressed to W. D. Wiggins, chief engineer, and to Robert Faries,
assistant chief engineer maintenance, Pennsylvania Railroad, for their support in making
the conduct of the tests successful. Special credit should go to F. M. Graham, assistant
engineer of standards, who was actively instrumental in planning, designing and pur-
chasing the instrumental equipment. His part in planning and supervising the tests
was in itself a most important contribution to the successful conduct of the tests.
Several members of the testing staff of the Pennsylvania Railroad gave valuable service
throughout the tests. Credit should likewise be given to the General Electric Company
for their effective interest in the development and construction of special testing
apparatus.
Members of the staff of the Stresses in Track investigation engaged in the field,
laboratory and office work should likewise be given credit. E. E. Cress, assistant
engineer of tests in charge of conduct of field and office work, because of experience
with details, grasp of the problems and helpfulness in the study and preparation of
the data, has given service of particular value. Randon Ferguson, assistant engineer,
through technical skill and industry and insight in field and laboratory work and in
the preparation of material for the report, has made contributions of value. R. L.
Jordan and V. C. Norman have likewise been especially helpful in all the work on tests
and report. Other members have given loyal and useful service.
The University of Illinois has continued to cooperate in the work by giving the
use of laboratory, shop and office facilities, and through the service of members of the
staff of the Engineering Experiment Station from time to time.
Appreciation is expressed to the Association of American Railroads for the financial
support given to the investigation. The payment of the salaries of the staff and the
cost of developing and purchasing testing equipment, including apparatus obtained since
the tests herein reported were made, have come from the appropriations made by the
association. It must be realized that research investigations of the nature of those
carried on involve the expenditure of considerable sums and the continuing effort of a
sizable and capable and experienced technical staff.
II. Track, Locomotives, Cars, Apparatus, and Methods of Testing
4. Purposes of the Tests. — The tests were undertaken particularly to obtain
information on the action of different forms of rail joints in track under the traffic of
locomotives and cars running at various speeds and to learn the magnitude of the
bending moments developed in the joint bars as compared with those developed in the
Track and Test La \' out
143
full rail away from a joint. The ratio of the bending moment in the bar? of a joint to
that in the full rail (called the joint moment ratio) may be considered a measure of
the usefulness of the joint as a load-carrying beam, and under similar conditions of
rail support the joint moment ratio will give information on the relative stiffness of
rail and joint and thus on the extent to which the ties at the joint will have higher
pressures or lower pressures applied to them than are given to ties away from the joint.
Information was also desired on the relative longitudinal movement between rail and
bar at the upper fishing surfaces in the several forms of bar with the passage of a
wheel over the joint, as tending to produce wear and increased deterioration of joint,
and also information on the relative vertical movement between rail and bar at points
along the length of the bar, whether with well fitting or poorly fitting bars or even
worn bars. It was also desired to learn if possible how speed of train affects these
various matters. To serve as a basis of comparison, the stresses and moments and
depressions of the full rail in the same track under the action of the same locomotive
and cars were needed.
With the availability of track and locomotive and the setup of testing equipment,
advantage was taken of the opportunities to make a number of tests to judge the
feasibihty of obtaining results of some significance on various other matters, including
the effect of batter of rail and flat spots and out-of-roundness of wheel upon stresses
in rail, and also to make a number of tests on the effect of counterbalance of a steam
locomotive on the stresses developed in rail and the corresponding rail depressions.
S. The Track and the Test Layout. — The tests were conducted on Track 4
(southbound passenger) at a point about one-half mile north of the station at Elkton,
Md. A distance of more than five miles (slightly down grade) to the north was avail-
able for attaining the highest speed used and an adequate distance to the south for
stopping the locomotive. The test site was on a 14-min. curve to the right with super-
elevation of V/i in. Ahead of and behind this curve the compound curve became
i3> min. The total curve extended over a distance of about a mile. New 131-lb. R.E.
rail was placed in track over the distance A in Fig. 1 on May 28, 1937; these rails had
been predrilled for the stress gages. The normal tie spacing was 22 ties to the 39-ft.
rail, but in February, 1937, the ties were slightly re-spaced at gage locations 4, S and 6
in order that the instruments might be attached to the base of the rails at ten-foot
intervals. The test site is situated on a relocation of the main line built in 1934, at
Southbound
i B -
Ballasted Deck Bridge
^East Rail
Track No. 4
' lOrlO'r
IChi
Jt. Loc. 2
J. Loc. I Jt. Loc. 3
Gage Location 4 t) 6
-A
H
Pole 44.26
'West Rail
D
B
0°-l4' Curve to the
1 2 in. superelevation.
Test House
right
ki
A. New 131-lb. R.E. rail placed
in track May 28, 1937.
Worn rail and bars from RR.R.
Middle Division (131- lb R.E. May 1933)
put in track July 2, 1937. The worn
rails still in track July 17.
Fig. 1. — Sketch Showing General Layout of the Test Location on the Pennsylvania
Railroad near Elkton, Md.
144
Stresses in Railroad Track
which time entirely new track was laid. Large trap rock ballast is reported to extend
18 in. under the bottoms of the ties on four feet of cinders. The sawn oak ties arc
7 in. by 8 in. by 8 ft. 6 in. The heavy double-shoulder tieplates are lYz in. by 14)4 in.
Generally four driven spikes were used at a tieplate. At the test location there is about
IS ft. of fill to the west of Track 4, and S ft. of fill to the east of Track 1. The track
had been maintained in excellent condition; in all, it was a stiff substantial track well
above the ordinary. The track carried many fast passenger trains. There was the usual
Fig. 2.
-General View of Test Site on the Pennsylvania Railroad near
Elkton, Md.
variation in play along the track from tie to tie between rail and tie plate or between
rail and the ballast always found even on high grade track. At the places where the
track depression was measured, the modulus of elasticity of rail support u averaged
2,500 lb. per in. In all it was a very stiff track even though the fill was relatively new
and not fully compacted.
The general layout of the test location is shown in Fig. 1 and a view in Fig. 2.
The test house was conveniently located close to the positions on the track where the
recording instruments were placed. The wire leads extended from the instruments on
the track to the recording apparatus in the test house. The six gages measuring longi-
tudinal stress at the middle of the base of the rail and the six solenoid rail depression
gages were located on opposite rails at gage locations 4, S and 6 spaced at 10-ft. intervals.
The tests on the rail joints were made at joint Locations 1, 2 and 3, Locations 1 and 3
being consecutive joints in the west rail and Location 2 being in the east rail between
the other two. The special test joint bars were installed from day to day in the track
at these three locations. Generally three pairs of bars of identical sections were placed
in the three joint locations. One type of measuring gage was placed on the bars in
joint Location 1, another type on the bars at Location 2, and the remaining gages on
Locomotives and Cars
145
the bars in Location 3, all three sets of gages operating for a locomotive test run.
Later the gages were twice interchanged so that all three types of gage were used on
each joint, and runs were repeated for each of the three arrangements.
6. Locomotives and Cars. — In the principal tests Electric Locomotive 4779 of
the PSa class (4—6-4) was used, except that Locomotive 4790 of the same class was
substituted for one day. The wheel spacing and the average of the weighed wheel loads
lor each axle are given in Fig. 3. A view of the locomotive is shown in Fig. 4. This
passenger locomotive has nominal wheel loads of 19,300 lb. on the front truck wheels,
38,000 lb. on the driving wheels, and 22,400 lb. on the rear truck wheels. The spacing
of the 72-in. drivers is seen to be 10 ft. and the rigid wheel base is 20 ft. The frame
Electric Locomotive 4779, PSa Class
■6'- IO"4-8'- /"—I— 10' 0"—\~IO'- 0'^\-a'- l'~\-6'-IO'-\
49'- 10'
Diameter of drivers 7Z in
Locomotive 6718, Mia Class
DIomtler of dritrers 72 in.
Crank pin radius 15 In,
Fig. 3. — Diagrams of Wheel Spacings and Wheel Loads of Locomotives Used in the Tests
on the Pennsylvania Railroad near Elkton, Md.
.^
Fig. A. — View of Electric Locomotive 4779.
146 Stresses in Railroad Track
supports a single cab that extends the length of the locomotive. A twin armature motor
is mounted over each of the three driving axles. The armature shafts are geared to
quills which turn the wheels through spring cups. The three motors will develop
3,750 hp. continuously. There are no mechanical connections between the driving axles.
The power is supplied from an overhead line of 11,000 volts at 25 cycles.
The individual wheels of Locomotive 4779 were weighed on locomotive scales in
1935. For the right side, starting at the front end, the wheel weights were 16,300, 16,000,
41,800, 40,200, 39,500, 19,700 and 19,700 lb., respectively. For the left side, also starting
at the No. 1 end, the wheel weights were 22,400, 22,600, 34,200, 36,300, 36,100, 25,100
and 25,100 lb., respectively. It is to be expected that the individual wheel weights will
vary from time to time. The weights given above differ from the nominal weights.
The unsprung weight for each driving axle was reported to be 13,500 lb.
Steam Locomotive 6718, a fast freight engine of the Mia class (4-8-2), was used
for one set of tests with the rail stress and depression gages at speeds of 5 and 75
miles per hour. The locomotive had the individual wheels weighed on scales in 1935.
For the right side, starting at the head end, the wheel weights were 14,700, 14,600, 30,900,
33,800, 34,600, 34,900 and 26,100 lb., respectively. For the left side the corresponding
loads were 13,500, 14,000, 33,000, 34,700, 31,900, 36,300 and 34,600 lb. The wheel spacing
and the average of the weighed wheel loads for each axle are shown in Fig. 3. The 72-in.
driving wheels were reported to have an unsprung weight of 8,250 lb. for each main
wheel and from 6,500 to 6,850 for the others. Both the second and third pairs of driving
wheels are equipped with flangeless tires. The center of gravity of the locomotive is
given as isyz in. above the rail. The tender is especially large and heavy, holding
22,000 gallons of water and 31 tons of coal. When loaded the weight on each of the
12 tender wheels would average 32,000 lb. At the start of the test day there were
21,000 gal. of water and a full load of coal in the tender. After the last run about
7,000 gal. of water and 11 tons of coal had been used.
In several tests the electric locomotive pulled a heavy and a light car. The heavy
car was a 70-ton coal hopper car (class H21a) overloaded with company coal, the
average weight per wheel being 26,500 lb. The light car used in several tests was an
empty steel box car equipped with non-harmonic truck 2DF12 with combination helical
and eUiptical springs. The average weight per wheel was about 6,000 lb.
7. Testing Equipment. — The magnetic strain gages and the greater part of the
auxiliary equipment used in the tests were the property of the Pennsylvania Railroad.
Much of this equipment was developed jointly by the Pennsylvania Railroad Laboratory
and the General Electric Company and constructed by the latter. The testing equip-
ment constitutes a marked advance in the means for obtaining information on high
speed phenomena.
The test equipment consisted chiefly of three types of magnetic strain gages
designed for the measurement of (1) stresses, (2) small movements and (3) depressions
of track and also auxiliary apparatus required for the operation of these three types
of gages. The auxiliary electrical apparatus consisted principally of two six-element
oscillographs for recording gage indications, various power supplies, and necessary
meters, switches, resistances and miscellaneous instruments and tools. A darkroom fitted
out for the development of the films was one of the valuable facilities on the test
location. Special instruments and tools were on hand for such static tests and incidental
measurements as were required. A small work shop at the test stretch and various
portable machine tools aided in the conduct of the tests and the maintenance of
equipment.
Testing Equipment
147
A magnetic circuit in which the lines of magnetic force must travel through both a
magnetic material and an air gap has a major part of its reluctance in the part of the
path that is through the air gap even if that part of the path is very short. Therefore,
a small change in the length of the air path will have a relatively large effect on the
total reluctance of the circuit and on the current in the windings. This fact is the basis
of all the magnetic strain gages used in these tests and previous tests.' * Three types of
gages were used that differed principally in the range of movement they were designed to
measure, their sensitivity and the mounting attachments for applying them to the
test pieces.
A diagrammatic circuit for one gage is shown in Fig. 5. The indicating gage, it
may be noted, is a part of an alternating current bridge circuit with a power supply
to the bridge of 2,000 cycles frequency and 4 to 24 volts. Sixteen volts provided suffi-
cient sensitivity and was used throughout the tests. This high frequency extends the
frequency response range of the gage and increases the sensitivity. The balancing gage
shown in the other side of the bridge circuit is an exactly similar gage but is set to a
definite and fixed air gap and mounted in the test house. This duplication of the
indicating gage was necessary to obtain the proper balancing of the bridge. The
Motor Generator 'jet
2000 Cycle Rller
Fig. S. — Diagrammatic Circuit of One Magnetic Strain Gage.
balance of an alternating current bridge is affected not only by the bridge proportions
but by the wave shape and phase relations of the currents as well. The other two arms
of the bridge marked 'Balancing Transformer" are designed to give to this part of the
bridge electrical characteristics similar to the two gages in the other two arms. The
oscillograph galvanometer is connected between the two gages and the balancing
transformers, and with the bridge balanced no current or a very small current will flow
through the galvanometer. Interposed between the galvanometer and the bridge arms
is seen a rectifier and filter circuit. The rectifier makes the 2,000-cycle current from the
' Sixth Progress Report, Special Committee on Stresses in Railroad Track, Proceedings, American
Railway Engineering Association, Vol. 35, 1934, page 130, Chapter III. "Tests of Rail Joints on the
Pennsylvania Railroad."
* "Rail Stresses and Locomotive Tracking Characteristics Found in Tests on the Great Northern
Railway" by J. Paul Shamberger and B. F. Langer, Bulletin No. 339 (September, 1931) American
Railway Engineering Association.
148 Stresses in Rai Iroad Track
bridge uni-directional and the filter which has a high impedance to current of 2,000
and 4,000-cycle frequency smooths out the rectified current including any second order
harmonics. The bridge is, of course, not operated by adjusting the galvanometer current
to zero when an unbalance results from a stress change, but instead the variation of
current from the unbalance is recorded by the oscillograph and these variations are
interpreted by the calibration curves as will be discussed later. This description covers
the essentials of the gage circuit. Of course, various resistances, meters, switches and
other equipment aided in the adjustment and control of the setup but were merely
details incidental to the efficient operation of the apparatus.
For the tests there were available twelve 2J4-in. strain gages of the sensitivity
required for the measurement of stress. A view of two of these strain gages for measur-
ing stresses attached to a joint bar at position B and C is shown in Fig. 6. As the effec-
tive range of travel was limited, each individual gage was calibrated to be used at a
place where the highest values of the stresses were always tension or compression, as
the case might be, depending on the position of the given gage on the test piece. The
reason for this practice will be shown more clearly later. These gages for stress measure-
ment were calibrated for three sensitivities: the gages gave a deflection on the film of
approximately 1 in. for 10,000, 20,000, or 30,000 lb. per sq. in. stress. The sensitivity
used for most of the tests was 1 in. deflection for a stress of 20,000 lb. per sq. in.
Six gages were designed to measure movements between the bar and the rail at
the upper fishing surfaces, two gages being for the measurement of the relative longi-
tudinal movement at the rail ends and four gages to measure the vertical movement
at the two rail ends and the two ends of the bar. These gages are suitable to measure
a greater range of movement than those used for stresses and had a lesser sensitivity.
The range of movement that can be measured with this type of gage is about 0.05 in.
and the sensitivity was adjusted so that a change of 0.01 in. gave 1 in. deflection on
the film. Views of the movement gages attached to a joint bar are shown in Fig. 7.
The gages for measuring longitudinal movement {Ls and Z-e) are shown in the upper
view and those for measuring vertical movement, (Fi, V2, Va and V4) in the lower view.
In both views a gage for measuring stress is attached to the lower part of the bar
at position C, also indicating the position of the wheels along the track for interpretation
of the movement records.
Six magnetic gages called solenoid depression gages were available for measuring
depressions of the rail. The solenoid depression gages, so far as known, are the first
instruments to record satisfactorily the depressions of rail at such high speeds as 90
miles per hour. The construction of these gages differs from the magnetic strain gages
for measuring stresses and small movements, as can be seen in the views shown in
Fig. 8. The upper view is the gage itself and the lower view shows it attached to the
rail and to a channel supported on steel posts fixed in the roadbed. The part marked A
in the upper view is attached to the base of the rail when in use and the cylindrical
armature B moves up or down in the solenoid coil C, the coil being mounted on the
channel D. The movement of the armature has an effect on the current in the bridge
circuit similar to the change of the air gap in the other type gages. The channel sup-
porting the coil part of the instrument was mounted on the posts in such a manner
that the passage of the locomotive caused little deflection of the channel. The channel
was mounted on posts driven deep into the earth below the track. These posts were
driven through pipes that freed them from contact with the ballast and other track
support for a distance of about six feet below the base of the rail. These solenoid
gages are relatively insensitive compared with the other gages but have a much larger
Testing Equipment
149
Fig. 6. — ^View of Two Magnetic Gages Attached to a Joint Bar at Positions B and C.
Fig. 7. — Views of Two Longitudinal Movement Gages and Four N'crtical Movement
Gages on a Rnil-Joint.
150 Stresses in Railroad Track
effective range of indication. Movements of one inch can be measured without de-
parture from the straight Kne portion of the calibration curve to any serious extent.
For the tests a sensitivity was used that gave a four to one magnification of the rail
movement on the film.
The indications of the gages were recorded on two six-element portable oscillo-
graphs designated as Oscillographs A and B for these tests and located in the test
building. The oscillograph galvanometers have very small mirrors that rotate propor-
tionally to the current in the circuit and the deflections of a light beam from the mirror
due to this rotation are recorded on a moving strip of film six inches wide by five feet
in length. The film in the oscillographs was driven from a shaft common to both
oscillographs so both films had similar time scales. A timing vibrator in each oscillograph
made a timing record on the film from a clock giving half-second intervals or from
the power line giving one-sixtieth second intervals. Fig. 9 is a picture taken inside
the test building showing the oscillographs, which may be seen on the bench to the
right center, and the various balancing gages, resistances, transformers, meters and other
equipment. At the extreme right beside the oscillographs may be seen a gear box in
the film driving system that made available ten driving speeds for the film to suit
the various speeds used in the tests. The darkroom for developing the fi m was in
this building but is not visible in the picture.
The 2,000-cycle current for the gages was obtained from a motor-generator set
operated from a utility power line extended to the test site for the tests. Direct current
was available in large quantities with voltages up to 80 volts from a group of car
lighting batteries. A tungar charger operating on the power line kept these batteries
charged.
The gages for measuring stresses and movements were attached to the rails or bars
by means of studs that screwed into tapped holes in the rails or bars or spacer blocks.
Because of the large number of joints tested and the number of gages used, the
drilling, tapping and facing of the various bars, rails and spacer blocks was a major
item of the labor incidental to the tests. Various portable drills, facing tools, templets
and jigs were available for this work.
The several types of electric strain gages were in general calibrated by mounting
the gage on some mechanical device by which the gage length could be changed by
known increments of movement and readings of galvanometer deflection observed on
the ground glass screen of the oscillograph. This deflection corresponded to that which
would be recorded on the film when the film replaced the ground glass screen. For the
calibration of the strain gages for indicating stress a modification of the purely me-
chanical method of calibration was used. Johansson gage blocks gave standard readings
by means of a very sensitive magnetic strain gage and microammeter. The gage and
meter were then used as a sensitive secondary standard to move the gage being calibrated
a known increment. These calibrations and certain preliminary work to determine some
characteristics of the equipment and the relative importance of some of the details of
operation occupied a considerable time. However, this work gave the members of the
staff a thorough familiarity with the capabiHties and limitations of the equipment and
it was possible from the results of the work to avoid some important sources of error
that would have arisen from an incomplete knowledge of the equipment.
The calibration of the strain gages for measuring stress required the greatest
amount of care and accuracy. For a given calibration the balancing gage in the test
house was set to a definite air gap, the optimum amount of which was determined as
a result of the preUminary experimental work mentioned above and the resistance
adjusted by a few trials to give the required sensitivity. The indicating gage was then
Testing Equipment
ISl
Fig. 8. — ^Views of Solenoid Depression Gages.
Fig. 9. — Recording and Auxiliary Equipment in Test Building.
152
Stresses in Railroad Track
|J3
■a; p
0
\
V
y
y
/
^
\
.
c
.o
3
/
y
/
y
\
k
•
^
5
?,
/
/
—
.H'
/
c'\
■
^
/
ft
Compression
\
Tension
^ 1
* i
\
,
/
\ 1 " '
,r ,1 ,
\
z
z
/
1 . 1
-40
-30 -20 -10
0\ 10
-10 /O \ iO \ 20 1 30
40
Working Stress
\\
A Working Stress
! 1
|t\
/^ i ! 1
1
60 50 40 30 20 10 0 10 20 50 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
Stress in Thousands of lb. per sq. in
Fig. 10. — Typical Calibration Curves of One Gage.
compared with the high sensitivity secondary standard instrument through the useful
range of travel of the gage. A typical calibration curve thus obtained is shown in Fig. 10,
The ordinates are deflections of the galvanometer on the oscillograph screen in inches
and the abscissas are changes in the air gap of the gages converted for greater con-
venience into stress in pounds per square inch for a 2j4-in- gage length. Ordinarily a
calibration was run for only the right or left half of the curve. The side used depended
on the position selected for the gage to be used. The nominal constant for the curve
shown is 20,000 lb. per sq. in. stress for a deflection of 1 in. on the film.
Inspection of the calibration curve in Fig. 10 reveals several important characteris-
tics of this gage governing the reduction of any data taken from it. The deflection
never reverses direction but reaches a minimum value called the electrical zero. This
electrical zero in the figure is practically the zero deflection of the galvanometer in-
dicating a very small current and good bridge balance. There is no reversal of galvano-
meter deflection because the rectifier in the galvanometer circuit always converts the
alternating current from the gage in the same manner so that only the amount of
current varies and not its direction. It is desirable to have this minimum deflection as
small as possible. A large deflection shows a lack of balance in the bridge and if
caused by unbalanced harmonics may cause a wide trace on the film. In the vicinity
of the point of minimum deflection the line is curved and the instrument relatively
insensitive to changes of stress so that this region is unsuitable for use in measuring
stress. On the right side of the figure the curve is approximately straight between
points c and t and this part was selected for the operating range of the gage when the
maximum values of the stresses to be measured were in tension. If the reverse condition
of stress prevailed, a similar portion on the left side was selected as indicated by the,
points c' and t' . \
A point 2 (or z') was picked on the straight line portion of the curve as the point
of zero load stress with the gage in position on the test piece with no load so that the
maximum limits of tension t and compression c expected would fall on suitable parts of
Testing Equipment 153
the calibration curve. The adjustment of the deflection to the proper value for zero
stress was effected by adjusting the air gap of the indicating gage with no load on the
test piece. If the point s is located too far up on the curve as would be necessary
when the gage is located in such a position that the compression stresses are the greater,
the larger current flowing in the gage circuit during calibration causes errors in the
indications that are dependent on the length of time the power is applied to the gage.
This difficulty was avoided by using the other side of the curve for cases where the
highest stresses are compressive and locating a similar point 2' of zero load stress as
low as feasible on the left hand portion of the curve.
With the position of zero load stress properly selected a calibration constant can
be determined from the slope of a straight line through 2 drawn to minimize as much as
possible the effect of the slight curvature in the calibration curve. The value of error
selected as permissible was ± 500 lb. per sq. in. To keep within this limit it was usually
necessar>' to use a different slope to determine the constant for compressive stress reduc-
tion than the slope for tensile stress reduction. Of course, the calibration curve itself
could have been used for the determination of the stress from every individual deflection
and thus have eliminated the error caused by the curvature but the volume of data
taken would have made the reduction unduly long and the refinement was deemed
unnecessary. The range of travel of the gage can be judged from the figure. For gage
lengths other than 2% in. it should be remembered that the range of unit stress
measured will be in inverse proportion to the change of gage length.
During the tests the location of the point 2 (point indicating zero load stress in the
member) was found to shift. This was due to one or all of several causes, the most
important of which were change of temperature and adjustment of newly applied joint
bars under traffic. It was therefore essential to take readings at the oscillograph screen
from time to time to determine the position of the point 2 on the calibration curve, and
get the proper calibration constant for this position to reduce the results from the
records affected. This procedure was necessary to keep the accuracy of the reduction
within the limits of ± 500 lb. per sq. in. When the point z shifted unduly it was reset
to the most desirable position. The shift was made by resetting the air gap of the
indicating gage in the track according to the directions of the oscillograph operator.
The resetting was facilitated by the telephone system between the test building and the
gage locations. An effort was made to keep the shift below such amounts as would
require the use of a different calibration constant but since four to seven runs were
made on a film before the positions could be checked the shift sometimes exceeded
the limits desired. It is obvious from the above discussion that a continuous and
accurate record must be kept in regard to the position of the point of zero stress on
the calibration curve to use these gages and keep within the limits of accuracy required
for most purposes.
The gages were found to be rugged and unaffected by vibration. They were
reliable and it is judged they gave sufficiently accurate results with the proper manipula-
tion and understanding of their capabilities and limitations. The complication of the
auxiliary apparatus and its quantity limit the applicability of the gages for many
purposes. However, the gages are a very valuable tool for measurements of small
changes of length that take place rapidly and in many cases the information obtainable
by their use will justify the expense and time involved. The method of recording gives
a definite time scale and if desired the time scale can be enlarged to separate changes
occurring very quickly.
Various instruments and equipment were u:ed for incidental mea.'^urements and
tests. These include portable strain gages for static measurements of movements or
154 Stresses in Railroad Track
strains, profile indicators for the rail running surface and the bar fishing surfaces, a
level rod graduated in 0.01 in. for measuring static depressions, a camera equipped with
a 20-in. telephoto lens for measuring depression of the track, and various dial gages,
electrical meters and other equipment.
8. Operation of the Tests and Reduction of the Data. — The test equipment
used was complicated and elaborate. Before the start of the field tests the entire equip-
ment was assembled at the test plant at Altoona and calibrated. All contemplated field
operations were thoroughly coordinated at this time. By this procedure the members
of the field party became so familiar with the apparatus and its operation that practically
no trouble or delay was experienced throughout the field tests due to the apparatus.
So far as known, the testing equipment is the most elaborate ever assembled for a
study of the action of railroad track.
In making a typical test the duties of each member of the operating staff of eight
men were definite. Two experienced men operated the two oscillographs and auxiliary
equipment in the test houses; before the runs were made it was their duty to adjust
and space the records on the films in such a manner that the path of a record of one
instrument would be expected to cause little or no interference with companion records.
Before a set of locomotive runs was started each magnetic strain gage on the rail or
joint bars was set in proper balance by a third man who adjusted the gage. Coordina-
tion of adjustment between the gage and its proper recording space on the film record
were set by the gage man and an oscillograph operator by telephone headsets from their
respective places; these adjustments were checked several times during the day. The
oscillographs were started in operation just before the test locomotive reached the
instruments on the track and turned off just after it had passed. A gear box driving
the oscillographs made it possible to select a proper length of film record to correspond
to the speed of the test locomotive. It was possible to record four or five runs on a
60-in. film. After the last run had been recorded on the pair of films, they were removed
from the oscillographs and immediately developed by a photographer in the small dark
room in the test house. After the films were dry a draftsman lettered the proper
information on the films so that they could be readily identified and studied.
Two machinists were kept busy preparing the joint bars for testing by drilling
the holes for the gages, transferring the gages from one test location to another and in
the preparation of material for many of the auxiliary tests.
As the tests were made up of almost 600 individual test runs and as the gages
were changed from point to point 42 times during the tests, usually from one set of
joint bars to another, it was necessary to record in systematic detail all the operations
that were made. Printed form data sheets aided the recorder in listing details of the
test. As the tests were conducted on a very busy main line track, an operator
(dispatcher) located at the test site made it possible to use the test track efficiently
without interfering much with regular traffic.
In the calibration a proper amount of resistance was placed in each magnetic strain
gage circuit to make a deflection of one inch on the film equivalent to a stress of 20,000
lb. per sq. in. For the six gages measuring longitudinal and vertical movements between
rail and joint bars a deflection of 1 in. on the film usually corresponded to a move-
ment at the gage of 0.01 in. The resistances in the solenoid gage circuits were set so
that a deflection of 1 in. on the film corresponded to a rail depression of 0.25 in.
After the testing was completed, the deflections were measured from the films in
the office. Light was projected through the film and a scale cross section paper was
placed behind the film and the amount of deflection in one-hundredths of an inch at
Stresses, Moments and Depressions in Rail ISS
each wheel was measured and recorded. The negative values approximately one-half
way between wheels were also read. After the deflections were thus taken from the
films, the values were multiphed by the proper constants to reduce stress to pounds
per square inch, rail depression to inches and movements between rail and joint bars
to inches. For a group of runs the tabulated values were then averaged and plotted
so that the data could be studied and interpreted.
In almost all of the films, even for the runs at 90 miles per hour, the deflections on
the film could be read accurately to 0.02 in., which would correspond to a stress accuracy
of about 400 lb. per sq. in. Naturally the measuring, recording, transferring to proper
units, averaging and plotting of the more than 120,000 individual measurements was
time-consuming. Measuring the values from the films was found to be more rapid and
a more pleasant task than measuring a like number of readings from any of the
mechanical recording gages with which the test party has had experience.
The extremely large volume of data taken in the field tests and a large amount
of data in the laboratory test to correlate with the field tests required time for reduc-
tion. The analyses of the results and their interpretation, as checking the many ways in
which the variable factors apply to findings, occupied the attention of the staff for a
considerable period. In fact, this part of the preparation of the report was time-consuming
and had to be handled with extreme care.
III. Stresses, Moments and Depressions in Rail with the
Electric Locomotive and the Cars
9. Stresses and Moments in Rail. — The excellent testing equipment available
gave opportunity to measure the stresses and depressions in rail developed under speeds
ranging up to 90 miles per hour with a locomotive that was free from some of the
complications given by the ordinary steam locomotive. The absence of unbalanced rotat-
ing parts in the electric locomotive also gave an opportunity to learn something of the
variation in the load applied to the two rails through the transfer of vertical load from
one of the wheels of an axle to its companion wheel. The main purpose of the measure-
ment of stress in the rail, however, was to find the stresses and moments developed
in the rail to serve as a basis of comparison for the discussion of the stresses and
moments developed in the joint bars. The data obtained, although too limited to estab-
lish fully some of the relations between the action of the locomotive and the rail, will
be found to be useful information.
The magnetic strain gages were placed at the middle of the bate of rail ; the reading
then gives the mean longitudinal stress in the base of rail. As the six gages were placed
opposite one another (three on each rail as shown in Fig. 1) with a spacing of ten feet
(the same as the spacing of the driving wheels) simultaneous stress values are always
obtained for the two wheels on one axle, and besides, at the instant the six driving
wheels are over the six gages, simultaneous values of rail stress for all six driving wheels
become available for this position, as well as simultaneous values for first and second
wheels and second and third wheels at other instants. It should be appreciated, however,
that the varying nature of the rail supports will result in some difference in the values
even for identical wheel loadings. It should also be recognized that differences in the
stiffness of the support and the amount of play at the three places or locations where
the instruments were placed will develop differences in values besides those caused by
the changing "attitude" of the locomotive and its wheels in passing from one test
location to another. Such variations are inevitable in railroad track and rolling stock,
156
Stresses in Railroad Track
— noO O O
Q Q
Run 31, Osc. B
3 lOOOOps.
* ' ^Tension
dU-W\i2
5 m.p.h.
Compression
Rail Stress
•\ ?
Q O O OOo O
I
I
Fig. 11. — Typical Records of Rail Stress and Rail Depression at 5 and 90 Miles
per Hour — Pennsylvania Railroad Electric Locomotive 4779 — Elkton, Md.
even though the magnitudes of the variations will vary greatly with the quality and
condition of both track and rolling stock.
Two typical films of stress and depression records are shown in Fig. 11. The upper
record is for a speed of 5 miles per hour and the lower for 90 miles per hour, the
highest speed run. These records are for right rail only. They are numbered 1 to 6
Stresses, Moments and Depressions in Rail
157
from bottom to top, the first, second and third representing stresses in the middle of
the base of rail and the fourth, fifth and sixth depressions of the rail. The stress given
by 1 and the depression by 4 are at the same gage location (Location 4 right rail).
Similarly 2 and 5 are for the next location (Location 5 right rail) and 3 and 6 the last
location (Location 6 right rail). A zero line of stress has been drawn on the film.
Tensile stress is indicated above this line and compressive stress below it. The approxi-
mate scale of the records is indicated in the diagram. The film for 90 miles per hour
has a timing wave of 60 cycle per second at the bottom edge; the 5 miles per hour
film has half-second interval peaks. These two films were made by the six galvano-
meters of one of the oscillographs and are for the right rail. The other oscillograph
running from a common driving shaft was simultaneously making similar records for
the left raQ.
The left end of the records is the head end of the locomotive, and the wheels pass
over the instrument in the order represented above the diagram. The stress and depres-
sion records are thus made from left to right as the wheels move to the left. For those
a
oO o o
O O
^82'-^ 97"-4- 120" --^^ 120" -^ 97'^^ 82"^
— Left Side 25100 25100 36100 X300 34200 22600 224O0
•- -Right Side 19700 ISfTOO 39500 40200 41800 '6000 16300
-. 400
300
2O0
100
I -200
'0.2
' 0.3
^-
■^
***=
^"V
^"''^
"i*
Fig. 12. — Calculated Moments and Stresses and Depressions in Rail
for Wheel Scale Weights — Electric Locomotive 4779.
not familiar with interpretation of such records, it may be said that the peaks of the
records are taken to be formed when a wheel is directly over the instrument. For the
peak and immediately on each side the stresses in base of rail are tensile stresses. For
the middle part of the space between wheels the stress is compressive and the record
has a rounded form. For the spacing of the driving wheels of this locomotive the
maximum compressive stress in base of rail at a point halfway between two driving
wheels is about one-half of the maximum tensile stress, which occurs directly under
the wheel. It may be remarked that the oscillograph records of stresses in rail were
remarkably smooth and definite. As the scale of the record was perhaps three times
"that of Fig. 11, measurement of the magnitude of the stresses was a comparatively
easy task.
In Fig. 12 are given the calculated magnitude and distribution of the moments
and stresses and depressions in the 131 -lb. rail along the length of the electric locomotive
158
Stresses in Railroad Track
used, as determined analytically with static loading using the wheel weights reported
as existing two years before the tests were made. The full line represents values for
the left rail; for the right rail a dotted line is shown for stresses and moments whenever
it differs enough from the full line to differentiate it in a reproduction. The stresses in
base of rail at the driving wheels so calculated are 14,700 and 11,600 lb. per sq. in. for
the first driving wheel, 13,700 and 12,700 for the second driving wheel, and 13,500 and
12,000 for the third. The corresponding bending moments in the rail are 400,000 and
320,000, 380,000 and 350,000 and 370,000 and 330,000 in.-Ib. for the several driving
wheels. It will be seen that the stresses recorded in Fig. 11 and the calculated values in
Fig. 12 are quite similar in the characteristics of their magnitude and distribution,
though of course variations may be expected because of possible variations in rail
support along the track and inaccurate knowledge of the wheel loads, as well as the
effect of speed and the ever present changes in the way the locomotive weight is applied
to the track.
Table 1 gives the average stresses in the base of each rail at each gage location for
each driving wheel at speeds of 5, 60 and 90 miles per hour. The given values are the
averages for 10 runs at 5 miles per hour, 7 runs at 60 miles per hour, and 5 runs at
90 miles per hour, making 30 stress observations for each rail at S miles per hour, 21
at 60 miles per hour, and IS at 90 miles per hour. The number of observations for each
rail and each wheel is sufficient to furnish reliable average values of stresses and also to
permit a study of the variation in stress for the three gage locations and the
three speeds.
From the values in Table 1 it is found that for all driving wheels and all speeds
the average stress for the left and right rails at Location 4 is 15,000 lb. per sq. in., for
Location 5, 13,500 lb. per sq. in., and for Location 6, 13,700 lb. per sq. in. The average
values at Location 4 are then about 10 percent greater than those at locations S and 6.
Table 1
Values of Average Measured Stresses tn the Left Rail and the Right
Rail for All Runs at 5, 60 and 90 Miles per Hour at Each Driving
Wheel at Each Gage Location.
Electric locomotive 4779 of Pennsylvania Railroad at Klkton, Md.
Values are given in thousands of pounds per square inch.
Speed
Driver
Rail Location
Average
in
Miles
No
4
5
6
Left
Right
per
Hour
Left
Right
Left
Right
Left
Right
5
1
15.4
15.2
13.9
15.5
13.9
16.3
14.4
15.3
2
13.8
15.1
12.1
14.2
12,3
14.4
12.7
14.6
3
15.2
13.2
13.2
12.4
15.4
12.4
13.9
12.7
Av.
14.8
14.5
13.1
14.0
13.2
14.0
13.7
14.2
Av. 14.6
13.5
13.6
13.9
60
1
16.1
15.5
15.3
15.5
15.0
14.4
15.5
15.1
2
14.7
14.8
12.3
14.7
12.3
14.5
13.1
14.7
3
15.1
13.4
14.4
13.6
15.0
11.6
14.8
12.9
Av.
.15.3
14.6
14.0
14.6
14.1
13.5
14.5
14.2
Av. 14.9
14.3
13.8
14.3
90
1
16.9 1 15.2
13.3
15.9
12.7 1 17.1
14.3
16.1
2
13.5
17.5
7.5
15.9
10.7
15.2
10.6
16.2
3
13.2
17.2
9.3
15.0
12.8
13.5
11.8
15.2
Av.
14.5
16.6
10.0
15.6
12.1
15.3
12.2
15.8
Av, lb, 5
12.8
13.7
14.0
Grand
Average 15.0
13.5
13.7
14,1
Stresses, Moments and Depressions in Rail
159
The play between rail and tie and tie support at gage location 5 was found to be less
than at the other two locations. Differences in stress at the three locations may be
due not only to variations in rail support but also to the general movement of the
locomotive at the points of the three locations.
The average of all the stresses in the left rail for the three driving wheels and
for the three speeds is 13,500 lb. per sq. in. and that in the right rail is 14,700 lb.
per sq. in. As the weighed load at the driving wheels on the right side was about
10 percent greater than that on the left side and as the superelevation of IJ/2 in. on
the left rail resulted in an application of greater load by the three driving wheels on
the right rail at the low speed amounting to perhaps 5 percent, the difference in stress
in the two rails is less than might be anticipated. With the lack of information on the
actual wheel loads at the time of tests definite discussion on the source of the variation
is not possible.
Stresse:^ in base of rail with a modulus « of 2,500 lb. per in. per in. have been
computed on the basis of the reported scale weights on the wheels of the locomotive
and have been multiplied by 14/13ths to give the same grand average as the stresses
measured at five miles per hour and thus permit a comparison in the distributions of
stress. The values for the nominal wheel loads have been computed in the same way.
Table 2
Measured Stress's and Adjusted Computed Stresses In Base of Rail
for Reported Scale Weights and for Nominal Weights
BU.ectrlc locomotive 4779 of Pennsylvania Railroad at Elkton, Md.
Values are given in thousands of pounds per square inch.
Left RaU
Right Rail
Location
6
5
4
6
6
4
Driver
1
2
3
1
2
3
Measured stress (5 m.p.h.)
Calculated from scale weights
Calculated from nominal weights
13.2
14.5
14.0
14.2
14.8
14.2
15.3
15.8
13.9
15.2
12.9
14.0
12.1
13.7
14.2
13.9
12.4
13.9
Table 3
Values of Averaged Measured Stresses in the Left Rail and
the Right Rail for All Runs at 5, 60 and 90 Miles per Hour
at Each Driving 'Awheel — Average of Three Cage Locations
Electric locomotive 4779 of Pennsylvania Railroad at Elkton, Ud.
Values are given in thousands of pounds per equare Inch.
Driver Number
Average
Average
Speed
Left
Right
Left and Right
of
Three
1
2
3
1
2
3
1
2
3
Drivers
6
60
Av.
14.4
lb 5
1-^.1
13.3
ie.7
i-''.l
1 '. ■ . 0
12.1
13.9
14.6
ll .n
13.5
15.3
15.1
Ic. 1
15.5
14.6
14.7
i e . -
15.4
13.0
1 ..■-
13.-'
14.9
15. .3
14. r'.
14.9
13.7
13.9
U.4
13.7
12.7
13.9
1.-..4
13. e
14.4
14.0
160
Stresses in Railroad Track
20
18
'' 16
j-
i»
14
^
12
10
8
18
16
14
12
10
8
18
16
14
12
10
8
5 m.p.h.
Left Rail Right Roil
'SJ- «0 U) ^ If) ^
60 m.p.u.
Left Rail Right Rail
^ vo <* ^ lO <x»
• 90 m.p.h. «
Left Rail Right Rail
^ »o u> ^ >r) ^o
«fi» •• Mf
oo
•Mvm
ooo
First Driver
c8d
>^
^
V)
9t^x>
^^t^
^
O Second Driver
O
txr
g:^
d*
^
tW
-CO-
^«r
M^
9P
r/)/r<y Or/Ver •
9>
Fig. 13. — Individual Values of Measured Stresses in Left and Right Rail for Each Run
and Each Driver of Electric Locomotive 4779 at Gage Locations 4, 5 and 6
at 5, 60 and 90 Miles per Hour.
The results are given in Table 2. A comparison with the corresponding averages for the
measured stresses for each pair of driving wheels at five miles per hour shows that the
average of the measured stresses is somewhat greater than the calculated ones at the
first and third pairs of driving wheels and somewhat less at the second pair of wheels.
A comparison of the average of the stresses for the left and right wheels on the same
axle (Table 3) shows that the variations for the speeds of S, 60 and 90 miles per hour
are slight, the three speeds differing for each axle not more than 700 lb. per sq. in.
from the average for the given axle. The uniformity is in the average of the stresses
for two companion wheels; marked variations for the individual wheels of an axle are
apparent, as is brought out more fully farther on.
Stresses, Moments and Depressions in Rail 161
In Fig. 13 are plotted individual points representing the stress in base of rail for
each run for each driving wheel at each gage location for each of three speeds. The
diagram gives a general idea of the distribution and spread of the individual values.
It will be noted that each group of points has a similar variation; except for a few
scattered points the values in a group in general come within a range of 2,000 lb. per
sq. in. or less. Each group however occupies an individual position. The points for each
gage location have a position and value that depend upon the driving wheel and the
speed producing the recorded value. The six driving wheels show dissimilarity in the
position of the plotted points. Notwithstanding the uniformity in the values of the
averages and grand averages of the stresses at a given driving wheel, there are variations
of some magnitude in the individual values at the six gage locations. Especially at the
speed of 90 miles per hour are the wider variations noticeable at the different wheels
and for the different locations.
At 90 miles per hour one of the largest ranges in stress for the three gage locations
is found under the second driving wheel, which has a total range of about 3,000 lb.
per sq. in. above and below the average. At 90 miles per hour it is apparent from the
values shown in the figure that some action is taking place that makes substantial
changes in the forces applied to the track during the time the locomotive travels the
distance of 10 ft. from Location 4 to Location 5, and a further 10 ft. to Location 6.
With the locomotive traveling at 90 miles per hour only about 1/7 sec. is required to
cover the total distance of 20 ft. As an example, at 90 miles per hour, for the second
driving wheel on the left rail the stresses average 13,500 lb. per sq. in. at Location 4.
When the wheel gets to Location 5 the stresses are only 7,500 lb. per sq. in. but rise
to 10,700 lb. per sq. in. with the wheel at Location 6. At the same time for the second
driving wheel on the other rail (right rail) the stresses shown average about 17,500,
15,900 and 15,200 lb. per sq. in. for locations 4, 5 and 6 successively, all values bein'4
high with respect to the other rail. These stresses indicate not only a rapid variation at a
given wheel but also some transfer of load from one side to the other.
The rapidity with which these changes take place would indicate that it is doubtful
that the changes can be caused by movements of the locomotive as a whole. Any forces
from movements involving such heavy masses as the whole locomotive could hardly
be expected to change so quickly. A possible source of these variations is in the action
of the running gear itself.
Three individual runs were selected that represent the general range of all the
individual values shown in Fig. 13; these are plotted in Fig. 14. The sequence of values
of stress for a given run may there be followed as the locomotive passes each of the
three locations. Values for a given run and driving wheel have been connected
by lines.
It is definitely shown by the figure that on a given run there are in some cases
marked changes in the stress or moment developed by a driving wheel within the
distance of ten feet between instrument locations. The greatest changes from place to
place are found for runs at 90 miles per hour; it can be seen that on a given run the
driver that gives the highest stress of the group at one gage location may give the
lowest stress at the next location. Some variation in the trends of the several runs is
seen but in general the stress changes in the same manner for a given driver at a
given speed. This similarity indicates the probabiHty that the changes from place to
place are governed mostly by the action of some parts of the locomotive, which in
turn is influenced by the variations of the track as the instrument locations are
approached. The locomotive apparently has the same action for each run at a given
location and speed, but this action varies widely at the several locations.
162
Stresses in Railroad Track
20
18
16
\lO
^ a
o
o
iS 14
.c
C 12
CQ
18
5 m.p.h.
Left Rail Right Rail
^ lO <45 ^ T) <x»
60 m,p.h.
Left Rail Right Rail
^ ID U) ';^ U-) ^i)
■ 90 m.p.h. 1
Left Rail Right Rail \
^ lO <^ '^ lO U5 I
^16
CO 14
12
10
Fig. 14. — Stresses in Rail in Sequence at Gage Locations 4, S and 6 for Each Driver on
Given Runs — Electric Locomotive 4779.
The test setup permitted a measurement of the stresses and depressions developed
simultaneously by each of the six driving wheels at the six gages. The spacing and
number of the instruments for measuring stresses and depressions corresponded with
the spacing and number of the driving wheels. Thus, at one certain instant as the
locomotive passed over the test setup all the driving wheels were recording simultaneous
values with the wheels directly over the gages. The stresses and depressions then represent
the effects at this one instant of all vertical loads or forces from the driving wheels.
Fig. 15 gives these simultaneous values of moment obtained from the measured stresses
for three runs that represent the range of values for each speed. Of course, the differ-
ences in support at the several locations and the inequalities in the loads on the wheels
caused variations in the moments developed, but it is apparent that in at least one
case there is some action that causes a greater variation than the differences referred to
Stresses, Moments and Depressions in Rail
16.5
[- 5 m.p.h. ■
Driver no. 3 2 I 3 2 I
Left Rail Right Rail
^ lO to '!I- 10 vo
« 600
M. 500
o
-g 400
I 300
200
100
— ■ 60 m.p.h. —
2 13 2
3
Left Rail Right Rail
'^ lo <£) <g- IT) to
90 m.p.h. •
3 2 13 2 1
Left Rail Right Rail
^ lo to 'vj- lo to
5 a
3 -3
Fig. IS. — Simultaneous Moments in Rail at Each Driver at 5, 60 and 90 Miles per
Hour — Electric Locomotive 4779.
produce. Between S and 60 miles per hour there are only minor changes in the magni-
tude of the moments for any wheel at a given gage location. At 90 miles per hour,
however, the moment in the left rail under the second driving wheel is markedly lower
at gage Location 5 than elsewhere. The moment values at the other locations (4 and 6)
over which the third and first driving wheels are passing at the instant are also lower
at 90 miles per hour than at S and 60 miles per hour, but they have not decreased so
greatly as at Location 5. All moment values on the right rail have risen at 90 miles
per hour but it is seen that the increases have been approximately equal at the three
locations.
From Fig. 13 and Fig. 14, showing individual stresses and sequence of values for
selected runs on each driver, it is seen that the same decrease in moment (or in stress"*
was shown by each driving wheel at 90 miles per hour in passing Location 5 t^.'i the
left rail. The moments in the right rail at 90 miles per hour were in general higher
than those for the runs at the lower speeds, though generally there were not the marked
variations between gage locations found in the left rail. The fact that the several
drivers on the left rail exhibit the same or similar characteristics on passing Location 5
would indicate that there is probably some peculiarity of support or alinement that
influences the behavior of the locomotive action at that point. It is possible the pecul-
iarity is not at Location 5, but some action may be initiated before reaching Location 5
and attain a somewhat increased state of development at that location.
The three locations had varying amounts of play between the rail and its support.
Location 5 had the least play, the amount being about half that found at the other two
locations. Location S in general showed lesser magnitudes of stresses and moments.
In Fig. 16 are plotted the moments in the left and right rail at each driving wheel
for various speeds and all gage locations. The values given are averages of all runs.
The diagram shows that at a speed of five miles per hour the moments in the two rails
for a given driving wheel and location are similar or not greatly different. For the first
and second driving wheels the moment for the right side is somewhat the greater, as
is to be expected from the weighed loads previously given, but the third driving wheel
on the left side gives the larger moment contrary to the relation expected. The moments
164
Stresses in Railroad Track
500
400 ^
Location 4
Location 5
\rRight Rail\^-^^
Location 6
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Speed in Miles per Hour
Fig. 16. — Moments in Left and Right Rail at Each Driver for Various
Speeds — Electric Locomotive 4779.
in the rails at the higher speeds are seen to maintain their similarity to those at S
miles per hour in most cases, with only small changes up to a speed of 60 miles per
hour. Above 60 miles per hour greater changes take place in the moments; some of
the largest differences between the two rails occur at 90 miles per hour. As an example
the second driving wheel at Location 5 for 90 miles per hour developed 205,000 in.-lb.
in the left rail and 435,000 in.-lb. in the right rail. The moments shown at 90 miles
per hour are the average of five runs and most of the values for individual runs have
as small variation as could be reasonably expected. It should be stated that for runs
other than at 5, 60 and 90 miles per hour the values shown include only one or two
runs at each given speed. However, the agreement with the general trend of the values
for 5, 60 and 90 miles per hour was reasonable enough to include them with the
averages.
It may be noted in Fig. 16 that changes of moment in one rail are generally
matched by approximately equal and opposite changes in the other rail so that, what-
ever the action, a transfer of load from one rail to the other occurs. If the values for
the two rails are averaged the points he close to a horizontal line. The changes in
either side are evidently a result of the transfer of load from one rail to the other,
with a negligible speed or impact effect even at 90 miles per hour. The excellent condi-
tion of the track and the use of an electric locomotive probably were important factors
in this lack of speed effect.
It may be well at this point to review in part the mechanics involved in the transfer
of vertical load from one rail to the other.* The purpose of an analysis is to show the
possibility of what in effect may be considered a transfer of load from one wheel to the
other on the same axle when lateral forces are applied to the wheels or the axle. The
lateral forces may be applied by the locomotive or car, or the corresponding lateral
A discussion of the possible transfers of load from one side to the other on curved track was
given by Dr. S. Timoshenko in Volume 26, 192S, Proceedings of American Railway Engineering
Association in connection with the Fourth Progress Report of the committee.
Stress e s , Moments a n fl Depressions in Rail
165
H\H'
H'
t
W
2W\
Fig. 17. — Vertical and Lateral Forces
Applied to a Pair of Locomotive
Wheels or Car Wheels.
reaction forces may be applied by the rails through such a source as poor alinement.
In Fig. 17 vertical and lateral forces and reaction forces are shown as acting on a pair
of locomotive wheels or car wheels, b is the assumed horizontal distance between centers
of bearing of the wheels on the rails. The total vertical load transmitted to the axle is
given as 2W, and the actual individual vertical loads applied at the two rails are given
as W' and W". H' + H" is the sum of the lateral (horizontal) forces applied to the
axle and wheels by the bearings of the locomotive or car, considered to be applied at
the level of the axle. The position of the points of application of H' + H" is uncertain
but for purposes of the demonstration the distance above the rail may be taken as
equal to r, the radius of the wheel. At the top of the rail are corresponding lateral
reaction forces {H' and H") transmitted from rail to wheel through friction, or for one
wheel possibly partly by a wheel flange.
Taking moments about the right rail bearing, for equihbrium,
Wb-W'b-{H' + H"}r = 0
whence
W' = W~{H'-\-H")-~- .(68)
Similarly, taking moments about the left rail bearing,
W" = W+ (H' + H") -y- (69)
It is apparent from these two equations that the application of a lateral force
to the axle or pair of wheels may change the relative pressures on the two rails from
equal magnitudes to unequal amounts. Regardless of the relative values of the lateral
forces H' and H", the vertical reaction forces acting on the rail {W and W") will
depend on the magnitude of the lateral force H' + H" applied at the level of the axle,
and an increase in the vertical pressure on one rail beyond one-half of the vertical
load 2W will be accompanied by a corresponding decrease in the pressure on the
other rail.
As an example assume the following conditions: 2H^=: 80,000 lb., H' + H" =
20,000 lb., r=36 in., and 6 = 58.5 in. For these assumptions, W"= 27,700 lb. and
W^"= 52,300 lb. With no laterally applied load the vertical reaction forces W and W"
would, of course, have equal magnitudes and each would be equal to one-half of the
166 Stresses in Railroad Track
applied load 2W, or 40,000 lb. each. It is seen then that the lateral force of 20,000 lb.
applied at the axle will decrease the vertical left rail reaction (W) approximately 31
percent and increase the right rail reaction {W") by the same amount. The transfer
of load between rails for these assumed conditions has about the same proportions as
the measured moments in the two rails under the second driving wheel at Location 5
for the speed of 90 miles per hour, as given in the preceding discussion of Fig. 16.
The moment developed in the left rail was 205,000 in.-lb. and the simultaneous moment
developed in the right rail was 435,000 in-lb., indicating a change of about 36 percent
from an equal division of load on the left and right rail.
The magnitude of possible transfer of load or pressure on rail from one wheel to
the other on the same axle may be judged from consideration of possible limiting values
of the frictional and other forces that may be developed between wheel and rail. For
certain conditions it may be assumed that the lateral force is transmitted laterally at
the top of the rail wholly by friction between wheel and rail and that the coefficient
of friction developed is the same at the left wheel and rail as at the right wheel and
rail. Call / the value of the coefficient of friction developed laterally between wheel
and rail at any instant. Then
2fW — H' + H"
Substituting this expression in equations (68) and (69),
W'^W{\-j~) (70)
W" = PF(1 + / y- ) (71)
AI.o, H'=:jW' = W(j—^) (72)
H" = fW" = WU-h-f) (73)
The foregoing equations take into account only the lateral frictional forces develop-
able between wheel and rail. Worn treads and also contour and flange contacts against
the rail may add to the developable lateral forces. Still other conditions may increase
the magnitudes. How large a lateral force may be brought into action under conditions
of traffic is of course not known, but the presence of lateral forces apphed at the rail
provides an explanation of the large variation in the stresses and bending moments
developed in the two rails in the runs above 60 miles per hour.
From the data presented and the preceding discussions it is apparent that the
electric locomotive develops some action at the higher speeds that causes substantial
transfers of load between wheels on the same axle. Since the stresses were taken only
at the middle of the base of the rail definite information on the presence or amount of
any lateral moments developed in the rail is lacking. The locomotives of this class
have been found in other tests to develop substantial lateral forces at the higher speeds.
Changes of considerable magnitude in lateral forces applied to the track were found
to occur in distances as small as 20 ft. It seems unlikely that such rapid changes in
force can be the result of movements of the locomotive as a whole because of the
large mass involved. The wheels and other unsprung parts would seem a more probable
source of lateral forces capable of developing the rapid transfers of load evident in
these tests.
It should be stated that the magnitude of the mean stresses measured in the rails
was moderate. The small variation of the individual stresses of any run from the
Stresses, Moments and Depressions in Rail
167
average value for a given wheel and location indicated that the locomotive is con-
sistent in its variable action when all conditions are similar. It is quite possible that
this action, whatever its nature, is started by some definite irregularity of the track
not necessarily at the gage locations and occurs with a frequency mainly dependent on
the characteristics of the locomotive parts affected so that as the test speed is varied
the locomotive arrives at a gage location in different parts of its cycle of variation.
The data are of interest and value in giving information on the variability in rail
stress and load with this electric locomotive, but must be regarded as insufficient for a
complete understanding of the action of the locomotive. The variability shown by the
several drivers at the three gage locations brings out one of the difficulties in using the
data as a basis of compar-ison for the rail joint tests. The large range of stresses a'ong
400
Location 4
Location 5
Location 6
Right Rail
^y,
■-Left
Rail
ocK
First Wt)eei
H^^
1 V
Second Wlieel
• rr^
r^^
\
8^
k-V
Third Wl
wet
oSH
H^.
V
Fourth Wheel
,/^
1
Left Roil
A
Wc
Right Rail
First Wheel
cO-^^o-^j>o-^
1 1
Second Wheel
*x
u
U
'<W-!
■^^
'
Thi
'd Wheel
^
••-(
1
Fourth Wheel
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 DO 0 20 40 60 80 100
Speed in Miles per Hour
Fig. 18. — Moments in Left and Right Rail at the Wheels of the Heavy Car
for Various Speeds.
the track given at the higher speeds by this electric locomotive with no unbalanced
rotating or reciprocating parts suggests a reason for the apparently erratic distribution
of stresses with respect to the counterweight position that has been found with steam
locomotives at comparable speeds. The presence of lateral forces of similar magnitudes
with the steam locomotives would cause changes in vertical loads comparable to the
effects of counterbalance.
For the tests up to and including 60 miles per hour two cars were attached to the
locomotive, one with an average load of 26,500 lb. per wheel and the other with an
average load of 6,000 lb. per wheel. The moments developed in the two rails at the
three locations with the heavier loading are shown in Fig. 18. As would be expected
the moments are seen to be somewhat less than those developed by the locomotive.
168 Stresses in Railroad Track
There are no consistent or general increases in moment with increased speed and some
wheels develop lower moments at some locations at 60 miles per hour than at the
lower speeds. This fact would indicate that the car, like the locomotive, has some
swaying or oscillation that results in changes in the load distribution among the
wheels, though not to such an extent as was found with the electric locomotive at
speeds higher than 60 miles per hour.
The heavy car at Location 4 developed moments of about 400,000 in.-lb. in
several instances and moments of 300,000 in-lb. were found frequently at the three
gage locations. The variations in moment as between the two wheels of an axle at
the various speeds are not as great as found with the locomotive. In some cases
simultaneous increases or decreases in moment for both the left and right rails occurred,
indicating the load was not transferred between wheels of the same axle. It should be
noted that the maximum speed of the car was 60 miles per hour rather than 90 miles
per hour. A moment of 400,000 in.-lb. was used in the fifth and sixth progress reports
of the committee as a design moment for joint bars and has also been used in the
laboratory tests including the rolling load tests of rail joints now being conducted.
It is of interest to find that such magnitudes of moment are at times actually developed
in the rail at these speeds by a freight car and that the joints are called upon to carry
stresses of the same order of magnitudes as those used for design purposes.
The values for the light car are not shown here but it may be stated that practi-
cally all moments under the light car were less than 150,000 in.-lb. and most of them
were 100,000 in.-lb. or less. The records for the light car were quite ragged in form,
indicating vibrations in the rail from some source. Although the amount of stresses
produced in the rail by these vibrations was small, the effect of the vibrations on
rolling stock or lading may be important. A possible source of this vibration is from
rough wheels. However, records taken under traffic indicate similar effects from other
light cars and it may be that the lesser mass of the car body when not loaded allows
vibrations in the car parts to develop.
It may be noted that the first wheel of the heavy car developed lower moments
at all locations. This low moment is probably due to a greater negative effect at the
first wheel from the locomotive truck and adjacent car wheel than at any of the
other wheels. None of the other wheels had a relatively heavy wheel load on both sides.
10. Depression of Track. — Immediately adjacent to the points where the mag-
netic strain gages were attached for measuring rail stresses six solenoid depression gages
were placed to record the depression of the rail with respect to a support fixed in the
roadbed. These instruments were described in Article 7 and views of them are shown
in Fig. 8. Typical records of stresses and depressions taken at S and 90 miles per hour
were shown in Fig. 11. These records are for the right rail. Values for the other rail
were simultaneously recorded by the second oscillograph.
The rail depression records for five miles per hour shown in Fig. 11 may be com-
pared as to general form and magnitude with the depressions shown in Fig. 12, which
were calculated from the weighed wheel loads. At a speed of 90 miles per hour the
load distribution among the several wheels was found to vary considerably. The long
driver spacing (ten feet) permits the rail depression at points between wheels to vary
to a greater extent than has been found with the usual wheel spacing. The general
shape of the record along the length of the locomotive is markedly similar to the
calculated curves and the magnitudes of the depressions at and between drivers are
similar.
Depression of Track
160
0.10
0.15
u, 0.20
^ 0.10
"~ 0.15
c
.o
^ 0.20
Q.
Q 0.10
P 0./5
Location 4
Location 5
^feM4^
0.25
,Left Rail
Right Rail
First Driver
Second Driver
0.20 CO^f^^o^-cj)—
Third Driver
*•-!.
Location
6
1 1
J Left Rail
j><S-O.J).ff/g/7r Rail
First Driver \ *
r
•-•
cPt^
k
\ -
P
Second Dr/Ver ] O^
^
f^
&fc
r-^
)-•-! ^
Third Dr
^'e/'
L
^
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Speed in Miles per Hour
Fig. 19. — Gross Depression of Left and Right Rail at the Drivers of Electric
Locomotive 4779 at Various Speeds.
The depression of the rear wheels of the truck are greater than those of the front
wheels, both on the records and on the calculated curves.
The depression of the right and the left rail for each of the three driving wheels
at the three gage locations is plotted in Fig. 19 with respect to speed. The values
plotted are the average of 3 to 10 runs for the speeds of 5, 60 and 90 miles per hour
and 1 or 2 runs for the other speeds. The depressions for 5 to 60 miles per hour are
about 0.20 in. on locations 4 and 6 and O.lS in. on Location S. There is little difference
between the two rails at locations 4 and S ; at Location 6 the right rail depresses about
0.04 in. more than the left rail. These depressions of course are gross depressions. The
play between rail and ballast varied somewhat at the several locations, Location 5
having the least. As far as could be judged from the measurements, the play between
the rail and its support was similar for the two rails at a given location. The play was
about 0.14 in. for Location 4, O.OS in. for Location 5 and 0.14 in. for Location 6.
The depressions are seen to vary little with speed up to about 60 miles per hour.
.\bove 60 miles per hour the depressions for the two rails differ appreciably from each
other in most instances. At these higher speeds an increase of depression of one rai!
relative to its depression at the lower speed generally is matched by an approximately
equal decrease of depression of the other rail. Examples of this sort of change are
seen in the case of the first driving wheel on locations 4 and .'5 and the third driving
wheel also on locations 4 and S. In some instances the relative positions of the plotted
points for right and left rails shift with respect to each other ( ne or more times in the
range of speed from 5 to 90 miles per hour.
The relative values of the depres.-ion in tlic two rails and the manner in which
they change for the several speeds indicate that part of the wheel load may be trans-
ferred from one driver to another, generally to the wheel on the same axle, decreasing
one driver load and increasing the other load. Further, there is no increase in the
average depression for all the wheels as the speed incrca-^es — that is for the locomotive
170 Stresses in Railroad Track
as a whole. This indicates a general lack of speed effect, or of impact effect, or increase
of applied wheel pressures due to inertia forces. It would seem too, that the locomotive
acts at a given location in a way that is governed by the speed at which the gage
location is approached and acts similarly for each run at a given speed, since the
individual runs showed good agreement with each other. The vertical bending moments
shown in Fig. 16 also indicate the same similarity in action. Comparison of this figure
for the bending moments with Fig. 19 for the depressions shows that an increase of
moment is accompanied by an increase of depression.
So far as known, measurements have not been made previously that recorded
rail depression at high speeds. It has been a question whether the rail and ties and
ballast depress at high speeds in just the way they do at low speeds and static loading.
Does the track behave elastically at high speeds and return immediately to an unloaded
position? Possibly the action of the track at high speeds may be affected by the mass of
its parts, frictional resistance, and relative movement of ballast particles. If the ballast
does not return to the unloaded position as quickly as it is depressed, a lesser slope
would be found in the depression records behind the locomotive wheels than ahead of
them, if the loads and other factors do not differ. Another way of stating this is that if
the rate of doing work in depressing the ballast were greater than the rate of recovery
of the energy accumulated during the depression, the net result would be a loss of
CTiergy so far as the locomotive and cars are concerned and this loss would increase
the power required for traction.
Careful examination of the depression records for the locomotive gave some evi-
dence that there was a delay in the return of the track to an unloaded position. How-
ever, the delay was about the same for lower speeds as for the higher speeds, which
gives reason to believe that the play in the track may have been a principal factor.
Difficulty in judging this action was also caused by the transfers of load and some
irregularities in the records. For these reasons definite conclusions on some of the
questions on the action of the ballast must be deferred.
The runs at speeds up to and including 60 miles per hour were made with a heavy
and a light car behind the locomotive. The rail depressions given by the wheels of
the heavy car at all locations for both rails are shown in Fig. 20. The depressions at
Location S are seen to be somewhat less than at the other locations. Location S had
the least amount of play and the difference in depression there is probably due to
the lesser play rather than to a higher value of the modulus of the support.
In general there is seen to be little increase with speed in the amount of the
depressions under the car up to the highest speed used, and in some cases a decrease.
The depression at Gage Location 4 shows the largest increase in depression with increase
in speed. The larger increases and decreases in depression were generally accompanied
by similar changes in the moments developed, as shown by a comparison of Fig. 20
with Fig. 18.
From the discu.=sion and the diagrams it is evident that the recorded depressions
were similar in form and magnitude to the calculated depressions for both the locomo-
tive and the cars. There appears to be little if any increase in depression due to speed
alone. The changes are apparently due to the action of the locomotive or car as
influenced by the conditions of the track traversed prior to passing the instrument
positions. The locomotive, especially at the higher speeds, has oscillations or lateral
movements as a whole or in its parts that cause considerable variation in the load
applied by the individual wheels and likewise transfers of load between the wheels on
the same axle. Similar action by the locomotive was indicated by the stresses and
moments discussed in Article 9 "Stresses and Moments in Rail."
Depression of Track
171
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.10
^ 0.15
(J
"^ 0.20
,c
.1 0.10
<D
^0.15
Q
CO 0.20
^ 0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
Location 4
Location 5
Location 6
First Wlieel
•_•-•-
Second Wheel
^^^^
Third Wheel
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100.
Speed in Miles per Hour
Fig. 20. — Gross Depression of Left and Right Rail at the Wheels of the Heavy
Car at Various Speeds.
(a)
(b)
(c)
0
R
fip- —
Q
iillMlk
0
R
R R
Fig. 21. — Diagram Showing Vertical
Load Pressures and Reactions on Joint
Bars, (a) Single Reaction Bearings for
Positive Moment, (b) Double Reaction
Bearings for Positive Moment, (c)
Single Reaction Bearings for Negative
p^" Moment.
R
..if
172
Stresses in Railroad Track
400000
200 000
20 16 12 8 4 0 4 8 12 16 20 16 12 8 4 0 4 8 12 16 20
Distance in Inches from Mid- length
Fig. 22. — Typical Positions and Values of Bearing Loads and Reactions That
Would Develop the Moments Observed in Two Bars at Sections
along the Joint Bars.
Rail Joints and Their Action ^^^L
By means of an engineer's level and a special leveling rod, measurements of the
depression of the right rail with a light and a heavily loaded car were made for the
determination of the modulus of elasticity of the rail support, «. The method used wa?
similar to that described at page 197 of the Sixth Progress Report, AREA Proceedings,
Vol. 35, 1934. The end wheels were spotted at gage Location S. The wheel loads averaged
6,000 lb. and 26,500 lb., respectively. The heavy load gave a gross depression of 0.20 in.
The play of the right rail at Location 5 was estimated from these measurements to be
0.05 in. The modulus was calculated to be 2,500 lb. per in. per in.
IV. Tests of Rail Joints
11. Rail Joints and Their Action. — The action of the joint bars in a joint
is discussed at some length in the Fifth Progress Report under the title "II. General
Structural Action of the Rail Joint" and in other places in that report and also in
the Sixth Progress Report. It will be of advantage here to review briefly some ele-
mentary matters regarding some of the principal forces developed in the rail joint
between rail and bars and their probable position.
The forces and pressures and reactions developed in the interaction between rail
and bars due to the wheel load and the bending action of the joint on the tie supports
may be represented as in Fig. 21. For positive moment (downward deflection of joint),
the bars will act as beams with loads or vertical forces applied to the top fishing
surface of the bar by the under side of the rail head for short distances back from
the rail ends as indicated at Q in (a), and with reactions applied by the rail base to
the lower fishing surface of the bar at points toward the ends of the bar as indicated
at R. In many or most cases with close fit there are two sets of the reactions, one set
towards the ends of the bars at R" and R" and the other set R' and R' closer to the
middle of the bar but outside of the position of the loads Q, as indicated in (b). The
position of the loads and reactions and their centroids is dependent upon the length
of the bar and particularly on the fit between bar and rail. The moment of resistance
developed in the bars is the sum of the products of R' and R" on one-half of the bars
by their respective horizontal distances to the line of action of Q, and this resisting
moment is equal to the bending moment applied or developed by the wheel loads,
whatever that may be. For negative moment (upward bending), the positions of the
loads and reactions applied to the bar are reversed, as indicated in (c).
It is apparent that all these loads and reactions applied to the bar exist in addition
to the interactions between bar and rail produced by the existence of the tension in the
bolts. In fact, the resultants of all the forces applied to a bar will increase or decrease
the pressure between bar and rail at a given point materially and may in places even
relieve contacts between surfaces.
To give a conception of the magnitude and position and variety of the vertical
loads and reactions applied to the bars by the rails Fig. 22 is given, taken from Figs. 82
and 83 of the Sixth Progress Report. The values and positions of these loads and
reactions were calculated from strain-gage measurements in laboratory tests and field
tests and from the resulting magnitude and distribution of the moments calculated
therefrom. It is apparent that the magnitude of the load applied to a bar by the rail
(bearing pressure) depends not only on the wheel load but also on the fit between rail
and bar, and especially on the positions of the centroids of the reaction forces as they
may be developed in the joint. For example, if the horizontal distance from the centroid
of bearing pressure on the top of a bar to the centroid of the reaction force R' is small
and the magnitude of R' in Fig. 21 is relatively large with respect to that of R", the
bearing pressure Q will be relatively greater than otherwise, and if this bearing pressure
174 StressesinRailroadTrack
is distributed over a small bearing area the intensity may be unduly great. It follows
that the presence of a relatively small R' will result in a smaller Q and thus that the
wear between bar and rail head will be decreased.
In Fig. 23 is given a diagrammatic division of moment between rail and joint bars
for an assumed total moment produced by a wheel load applied at the mid-length of a
joint; AB represents the part taken by the joint bars and BC that taken by the rail.
In Fig. 24 are shown values of moments in the two bars at eleven sections along their
length as a load is advanced across a joint.* It is apparent that bending moment is
developed in sections all along the length of the bars well before a wheel load reaches
a point over the bars and therefore curvature in the bars commences in advance. Thus, in
case of worn or ill-fitting joints the vertical movement to give loading contact between
bar and rail will take place before the joint is reached and the shock is minimized.
The foregoing discussion assumes known conditions of span and supports, as are
obtained in a laboratory test. In track, the condition of the supports at a joint are
more variable than along the rest of the rail. Even if originally the joint ties had as
even bearing and as uniform supporting stiffness as may be found over the rest of the
rail length, the lesser stiffness of the rail joint (resistance to rail deflection) will result in
Total moment y7\\. Moment taken
developed in rail // \^by rail
and rail -joint
Moment taken by ^.^ 23.-Division of Moment between
jomt bars ^^y ^^^ j^^^^ g^j.^
higher loads being transmitted to the joint ties and ballast and therefore finally in
greater permanent depression of the joint support. Furthermore, as play and uneven
wear between rail and bars will permit downward movement of the joint without de-
veloping correspondingly greater bending resistance in the joint itself, the support at
the joint will become still further depressed. These conditions and the smaller vertical
stiffness of the rail joint as a whole will result of course in the joint giving the effect
of a softer spot in the track as compared with the rest of the rail length. In tests of
track, one of the ways by which this softness or reduction in stiffness may be judged is
through the value of the ratio of the bending moment found to be developed at the
joint to that ordinarily developed in the full rail. Obviously the more nearly this joint
moment ratio approaches unity the less the opportunity for low joints and for
rail batter.
A conception of the changes in moments and depressions of a rail joint having
well-fitting bars and little play between rail and tie, as one of a group of wheels passes
over the joint, may be obtained from the closely similar developments of moment and
depression of the full rail as shown by analysis or by the oscillograph records of
stresses and depressions for rail away from a joint. The changes will depend upon such
matters as wheel spacing and stiffness of rail support. In a general way a wheel of a
group may be expected to be 20 to 30 in. or more from the rail end when the positive
bending in the bars begins and it will travel this distance before the wheel is at the raU
gap and the bars are given their maximum moment. For electric locomotive No. 4779
this distance was probably about 24 in.
" See Article 8 "Action of a Rail Joint under an Advancing Load" in Sixth Progress Report,
AREA Proceedings, Vol. 35, 1934, page 110.
Rail Joints and Their Action
175
to
Designation of Position of Lnnd
O D E F G H I
- 100 000-
-200 000
WO 000
0
200 000
100000
o
300 000
200 000
100 000
0
•c 4 00 000
^ 300 000
^" 200 000
~ 100 000
% 0
0 3 00 000
c 200000
1 100 000
I 0
2 00 000
100 000
0
100 000
0
0
- 100 000
-200 000 _^^.^ _ig.^ _i^.^ _gj^ g Qj^ ,2/V». I8in. 24in.
fbsition of Section with Respect to /\/ticf- length of
Joint Bar
Fig. 24.— Moments in Two Bars at Various Sections on Applying a
Load of 3,3,300 lb. at Middle of 48-in. Span with
Rail Joint Advancing.
u.
^
I 1 1 1 ' 1
Joint Inverted
1
4^
/\
!
u
JOi
1
18 in. north of rail ends
\
a
1
\
^
^
•t
>-<
I
V
rr
Looa
12 i
D
1
1
no
rth
1 ^
A
/
\
S[
-
^
f^
N^
s
S
J
Load 6i
n. no
rtl
^
E
/
/
\
V
/
1
(
^
s
-
-
i
^
S^
s
>
1
1
\
\
i
i
1
„_
4
in.
-
-
. )
y
N
(
-
Load at
mid
-sec
lionj
\
(
^
i
N
\
-
(
M
<
t
N
1
;
s,
H
^
I
,
G
Li
la
i
5i
1.
sc
7Ut
f)
/
\
k
N
r^
/
u
\
>
i
ou
)
V
n'
S
s
^
Loa
1
d
12
in
th
f^
^
r^
/
>
N
)
1
1
jr- 1
s
1 1
Load
1
8 in.
s
ou
h
/
V
V
r-"
s
k
1
I'
i
—^
y
\
^
1
J
oil
\l Inverte
i
\
V
r
/
-
176 Stresses in Railroad Track
It should be understood that aside from being a connecting link between adjoining
rails and acting to preserve continuous alinement and surface, it is highly desirable
that the rail joint should approximate to uniform continuity of beam action over its
supporting ties and ballast and should furnish to as great a degree as possible the same
stiffness of beam as does the rail. This means that its construction should be such
that it will apply as closely as possible the same loads and pressures to the ties as are
given throughout the rest of the rail. The value of any particular form of rail joint
is dependent, of course, upon its behavior in these respects and upon its resistance to
wear and other deterioration throughout its Hfe.
It is apparent that with the variations in support provided in track and with the
differences in types and conditions of joint bars there will be wide variations in the
magnitude of the bending moments developed in rail joints. For similar conditions of
track the magnitude of the bending moment developed becomes a measure of the effec-
tiveness of the joint. The stresses measured at two gage lines in the upper and lower
part of a section at mid-length of the joint bars offer the best means for finding the
magnitude of the bending moment developed in the joint bars at the rail gap.
In Articles 13 and 14 of the Fifth Progress Report (Proceedings American Railway
Engineering Association, Volume 31, 1930, pages 99-112) analyses are given of the
flexural action of both the symmetrical and the unsymmetrical types of joint bar. On
the assumption that the strains measured in joint bars are representative of the
bending stresses, the bending moment developed in a joint may be calculated by
substituting in Equation (67)° of the Fifth Progress Report measured stresses Si and S2 of
any two gage lines used such as B and C in the tests under discussion. This equation
takes into account any inclination of the neutral axis from the horizontal. As brought
out in Article 13 "Laboratory Tests to Find Gage and Stress Relations and Conversion
Ratios", various deformations of the bars due to forces other than the forces assumed
in ordinary beam analysis introduce variations from the assumptions of the analysis.
In Article 13 the empirical use of conversion ratios is presented for use in making
calculations of the bending moments developed in the field tests.
Some readers may find interest in Articles 47-55 of "VII. Discussion of Tests of
Rail-Joints" in the Sixth Progress Report (AREA Proceedings, Vol. 35, 1934, pages
244-277).
12. The Joint Bars and the Test Schedules. — The tests in track were made
with bars of four different sections as follows: Pennsylvania Railroad F-4 symmetrical
bar, Baltimore & Ohio Railroad B-19 symmetrical bar, Norfolk & Western Railway
A-39 angle bar, and Chesapeake & Ohio Railway B-43 head-free bar. The sections of
these bars and the location of the gage lines for the field tests are shown in Fig. 25.
The position of the gage lines was the same on both inner and outer bar. Geometrical
properties are given in Table 4. The last three bars may be termed heavy bars, the
F-4 being somewhat lighter. The moment of inertia about the horizontal axis (h)
ranges from 12.20 to 19.63. The product of inertia (Jxy) ranges from 0.75 to 4.17. By
'' Equation (67) is
"-=i:M^''+-is^'- <">
where M^ is the vertical moment (resisting moment in the vertical plane), x^ and y^ are the abscissa
and the ordinate of the point in the section for gage line 1 taken with reference to the horizontal
and vertical geometrical axes of the section, and x^ and y^ are similarly the coordinates for gage line
2, and s^ and s^ are the corresponding measured stresses, respectively, at the two gage lines. I^ and /
are the moments of inertia of the section of the bar with respect to its horizontal and vertical gravity
axis, respectively, and J is the product of inertia with respect to the two axes.
Joint Bars and Test Schedules
177
Table 4
Description and Geometrical Properties of the Joint Bars
Units are inches and pounds. All values are for a single bar.
Bars are for 131-lb. R.E. rail. The subscript denotes the axis
to which the properties correspond.
Name
Type of
Section
Length
of
Bar
h
h
^xy
Section
Modulus
Area
P.R.R.. F-4
Symmetrical
. 36
12.20
0.80
0.75
4.81
5.20
B. &. 0., B-19
N. i W., A-39
Symmetrical
Angle bar
£4
end 36
36
16.69
19.63
1.85
3.77
1.06
4.17
6.52
7.14
6,58
6.52
C. & 0., B-43
Head-free
36
16.05
1.70
2.12
6.32
6.26
Table 5
Analytical Properties of the Joint Bars.
Values are based on analyais given in Fifth Progrecs Report,
Article 1^. K^ '.epresents the vertical bending moment and !ty
the lateral bending moment. (X is the angle of inclination
gf. the neutral axis from the horizontal.
Name and Section
Free Bending
Value of
for Given
value
required
of tan ex
Tan ex
ex
0
0.3
0.75
P.R.R., F-4
.938
43*'-10'
.061
.043
.013
B. &. 0,, B-19
.572
29°-47'
.063
.030
N. i V;., A-3&
1.104
47''-50'
.C12
.165
.081
C. &. 0., B-43
l.o48
510-18'
.132
.104
.058
the analyses for bending given in the Fifth Progress Report and the discussions and
interpretations given in the Sixth Progress Report", the F^ and B-19 may be con-
sidered for ordinary purposes to be symmetrical bars. Substitution of the values of Ix
and Jxy in equations (47) and (51) of that report will indicate the extent to which
the other two bars depart from symmetrical action.
The bars were generally used in the condition in which they came from the mill.
The term full bearing (FB) is given to bars having continuous bearing fishing surfaces
along their length. Bars having bearing restricted to certain portions of the length
of fishing surfaces are termed controlled bearing bars (CB). Bars used in the condition
received from the mill are termed "as is" (AI). Bars were machined to true and
straight fishing surfaces along their length and these are termed machine fit bars (MF).
After machine fit bars had been tested in track the top fishing surface through the
middle portion was ground down O.OS in. at mid-length and tapered uniformly to zero
at a point 4 in. from the leaving rail end also to zero at a point 6 in. from the
receiving rail end; these are termed simulated wear bars (SW). Two pairs of F-A bars
were selected from stock as representing greater than usual camber of bars as obtained
from the mill and are termed high camber bars (HC). Two pairs with downward con-
•AREA Proceedings, Vol. 31, 1930, page 65; and Vol. 35, 1934, page 66.
178
Stresses in Railroad Track
N.aW. Ry. A-39
B.aO.R.R. B-19
CaO. Ry. 8-43
Fig. 25. — Sections of Joint Bars and the Positions and
Designation of the Gage Lines Used.
Outer Bar
Inner Bar
Fig. 26. — Position of Four lY^-in. Magnetic
Strain Gages at Mid-Length of
Joint Bars.
Joint Bars and Test Schedules
179
Schedules of Rail-Joint Tests
Stresses, vertical movements, and longitudinal movements were
measured unless otherwise noted.
Schedule
Run No.
Condition
Bearing
Length
Loca-
Speeds
No.
of Bar
Inches
tions
Pennsylvanie
F-4 Bars
5,6,7
78 - 116
AI
re
36
1,2.3
5,40,60,90
33*
391 - 399
AI
FB
36
1
5,60,90
11,12,13
155 - 203
IIT
FB
36
1.2.3
5,40,60,90
20,21,22
267 - 294
SW
FB
36
1.2,3
5,60,90
2, 2a, 3, 4
35 - 77
AI
CB
36
1.2
5,40,60,90
8, 9, lot
117 - 154
ICF
CB
36
1,2
5,40,60,90
31*
372 - 380
SW
CB
36
1
5,60,90
34,35,36*
400 - 431
w
CB
36
1.2.3
5,60,90
37*
432 - 440
w
CB
36
1,2.3
5,60,90
31*
372 - 380
HC
CB
36
2,3
5,60,90
i2,i.3°
39*
381 - 399
HC
CB
36
2
5,60,90
450 - 463
HC
CB
36
2.3
5,60,90
30*
363 - 371
NC
CB
36
2,3
5,60,90
Baltimore k Ot
lo B-19 Bars
17, 18, 19*
38i
240 - 266
AI
FB
36
1,2.3
5.60,90
441 • 449
AI
FB
36
1.2,3
5,60,90
14,16,16
204 - 239
MF
FB
36
1,2,3
5,40,60,90
23,24,25
295 • 326
UF
FB
24
1,2,3
5,60,90
26,27,28
327 - 353
SW
FB
36
1,2
5,60,90
26.27,28
29*
327 - 353
SW
FB
24
3
5,60,90
354 - 362
MF
CB
36
1
5,60,90
30*
363 - 371
JJF
CB
24
1
5,60,90
NorfolK i Weste
rn A-39 B
ars
29*
354 - 362 1 AI
FB
36
2,3
5,60,90
Chesapeake (l Oli
lo B-43 B
ars
2, 2a, 3, 4
35 - 77 AI
HF
36
3
5,40,60,90
8, 9, lot
117 - 154 AI
HF
36
3
5,40,60,90
* Stresses only measured.
t Electric locomotive 4790 used instead of 4779.
i Rail stresses measured 18 in. from mid-length of the joint.
° Joint depressions measured.
vexity are termed negative camber bars (NC). Three pairs of F-4 bars originally in-
stalled in 1933 were selected from main line track under heavy traffic to be representa-
tive of worn condition (W). The corresponding original rails were also brought to the
test track and the rails and bars were laid in their original relation. However, the wear
on these bars was not very great as compared with conditions in track with lower
standards of maintenance. The joint bars were all 36 in. in length with the exception
that four pairs of B-19 bars had a length of 24 in. For convenience and brevity the
conditions and variations named above will be referred to by the short names or the
abbreviations here given.
Fig. 26 shows a cross-section of an assembly of B-19 bars and 131-lb. R.E. rail
and four magnetic strain gages for measuring longitudinal stresses in the bars. The
effect of the offset of the gages from the surface of the bar shown in the figure has
been considered in the calculation of moments from the measured stresses.
As determined by the use of thickness gages all the bars except the simulated wear
and the worn bars fitted the rail quite closely. This fit between bar and rail probably
was considerably better than is usually found with the ordinary run of joint bars.
1 so S t r c s s c s i n R a i I r o a d T r a c k
In the te.^s it was found necessary to apply a relatively high bolt tension, 20,000 to
30,000 lb., because of the need of preventing movement of ends of rails by changes
in temperature during the hours of the test.
The schedules of the tests on the rail joints in track are given in Table 6. Runs,
speeds, joint locations, and kind and condition of bar are tabulated. Study of this
table will give a good comprehension of the scope and variety of the tests. The column
"Joint Location" indicates whether one, two, or three joints of a given kind and
condition were tested.
13. Laboratory Tests to Find Gage and Stress Relations and Conversion
Ratios.^ — In Article 13 'Tlexural Action of the Unsymmetrical Type of Joint Bar" in
the Fifth Progress Report of the Committee on Stresses in Railroad Track' are given
analytical methods for finding the relation between bending moments and stresses
which apply to both symmetrical and unsymmetrical types of bar. These analyses con-
sider only the bending action of the joint bars with the usual assumptions of propor-
tionality of stress to distance from a neutral axis. The analyses do not consider the
effect of bearing pressures on the magnitude of longitudinal strains and the presence
of other conditions that affect longitudinal strains. When the wheel load is applied to
the rail joint, the bearing pressure of rail on bar developed at certain points along the
fishing surfaces and the Poisson-ratio action sets up longitudinal strains not considered
in the analyses. The eccentricity of loading by the forces applied by the rail head to
the joint bar at points on the upper fishing surface and the reactions taken by the rail
base also introduce conditions not taken into account in the analyses. Another influence
not considered is the tension in the bolts, which in effect has produced longitudinal
strains in the bars by lateral bending and concentrations of pressure on the fishing
surface. Also the change in the relative position of rail and bars at certain points, upon
the application of wheel load (although seemingly small), results in a variation in these
longitudinal strains that has an appreciable effect upon the measured longitudinal
strains. Altogether the action of the rail joint is very complex and the stresses in the
bars are the results of numerous forces.* Some method of estimating the effect of the
additional strains set up in the joint is needed before a satisfactory interpretation of
the data of the track tests may be made.
No analytical method for taking into account actions of such complexity has been
found. In the absence of a rational method experimental determinations in the laboratory
were made of the ratio between the bending moment applied to the rail joint and that
calculated from the measured longitudinal strains developed in the joint bars. From
these data empirical conversion ratios were found for the various types and conditions
of rail joints used in the track tests. This experimental method has given values for
the conversion method that insure reasonable accuracy for the calculation of the
magnitude of the moments developed in the track from the stresses measured.
Laboratory tests were made on joints having the identical bars used in the track
tests, together with two pieces of rail cut from rails also used in the track. The joints
were loaded as a simple beam with a single load at the middle of a 48-in. span. The
two loads used in the laboratory were 25,000 lb. and 33,300 lb., which developed
'AREA Proceedings, Vol. 31, 1930, page 100.
^ Reference may be made to a discussion on variations from proportionality of stress to distance
from neutral axis and effect of bearing pressure in Article 19 "Inclination of the Neutral Axis of the
Joint Bars at Various Sections Along Their J^ength", page 138 of the Fifth Progress Report of the
tide 26,
made to
. - , . „- - - - _ o.^~ ^„ — . Proceedings,
Vol. 35, 193^, for a discussion of methods of conversion previously used in determining magnitude
of bending moments from measured stresses.
joint Bars at Various Sections Along Their Length", page 138 of the Fifth Progress Report
Committee on Stresses in Railroad Track, AREA Proceedings, Vol. 31. 1930, and also to Arti
"Miscellaneous Experimental Data", page 189 of the same report. Reference may also be m
Article 19, "Moments in Rail Joints", page 146 of the Sixth Progress Report, AREA Proce
4
Tests for G a K c and Stress Relations
181
moments at mid-span of 300,000 in. -lb and 400,000 in.-lb., respectively, loads and
moments being comparable to those of the field tests. The stresses were measured with
a 2j4-in. strain gage, the gage length used in the field tests. As the magnetic strain
gage used in the field tests was offset from the surface of the bar and the effective
point of measurement of the stress had been found by the Test department of the
Pennsylvania Railroad to be 0.45 in. from the surface (a distance equal to the distance
between the surface of the bar and the geometrical axis of the gage coil) this condition
was simulated for gage lines B and C in the laboratory tests (see Fig. 25 for position
of gage lines B and C) by screwing studs into the holes used for mounting the magnetic
strain gages and reading the stresses in gage lines in the heads of these studs 0.45 in.
out from the surface of the bars. Readings were also taken with studs of such length
that the gage points were at the surface of the bars. All tests were made with the high
bolt tension used in the field tests, (25,000 lb. or more) a condition which had been
found necessary in the track to control the rail gap as the temperature of the rail
changed during the day. It bad been found in the field tests that any large change of gap
was detrimental to the interpretation of the indications given by the magnetic strain
gages used to measure the longitudinal movement between the outer bar and the rail
head near its end, besides possibly damaging the instruments. It can be seen from this
discussion that the conditions of the joints in the laboratory tests closely simulated the
conditions of the joints for the field tests.
A typical stress distribution over a vertical section of the bars at mid-length is
shown in Fig. 27 for a test of the B-19 joint bars, a symmetrical bar of heavy cross
section. The position of the gage lines on the section is indicated by the numbered
points on the side of the section. Gage lines B and C correspond to gage lines used in
the field tests; these two positions are as near the top and bottom of the bar as the
gages could be placed in the track. In the figure the magnitude of the measured stress
is plotted with respect to its vertical distance from a horizontal axis through the
center of gravity of the section. The full lines are for the 33,300-lb. load and the
broken lines for the 25,000-lb. load. The straight full lines passing through the inter-
section of the center-of-gravity axis and the axis of zero stress indicate the theoretical
variation of stress over the section for the two loads. The effect of the bearing pressures
and various other forces, as well as possibly some inclination of the neutral axis from
30 -20
b>esi in Thousands ot lb per ic/
'10 0 10 -20 -10
10 20
-\
b. ■ -
— ♦^Vi
_ _
*\
'^
^
\\
— ^^.
V^Vi
\ \
\
w
"^
\\\
•Oute
r Bar
"^ \^
s
\
'dinner Bar
S. 1
\,
^
3^\
,
. ,
- _ _-
P= 33 300 lb.
P- 25 000 lb
Fig. 27. — Observed Stresses in Various Gage Lines at Mid-Length of
B-19 Joint Bars.
182 Stresses in Railroad Track
horizontal, can be plainly seen in the curving of the lines of stress distribution making
the stresses at B smaller than the theoretical stress and those at the higher gage hnes
either higher than the theoretical value or close to it. A calculation of the vertical
moment in the joint from the stresses in gage lines B and C by Equation (67)* gives
265,000 in.-lb. for the load of 33,300 lb. which is only 66 percent of the applied moment.
For the load of 25,000 lb. the calculated moment is 65 percent of the applied moment,
a closely similar value. It may be well to call attention to the impracticability of
measuring the stresses on the side of the bar next to the rail; obviously their magnitude
will be different from those at the gage lines used.
From the tests outHned above values of the conversion ratio were obtained for
the individual joints by dividing the applied bending moment by the moment calculated
by substituting in Equation (67) the measured stresses at gage lines B and C. It was
found that the values of the conversion ratio obtained for the two loads of 25,000
and 33,300 lb. are so nearly the same that for the range in load between these amounts
the variation is not important, and hence averages for the two loads have been used
in establishing values for the conversion ratios. As the conversion ratios found with
the B-19 bars were nearly the same for 24-in. and 36-in. bars, it was assumed without
testing that this similarity applied also to the other forms having the two lengths.
As it was found that similar ratios held with the B-19 section for bars with full
bearing and controlled bearing with machine fit, it was assumed that these conditions
do not affect the conversion ratios in the other sections.
Values of the conversion ratio for various conditions of the joint bars of a given
kind ("as is", machine fit, high camber, negative camber, etc., not including worn
bars and bars simulating wear) were so nearly the same — perhaps within two or three
percent of an average value — that it was thought best to use average or group values,
especially as the accuracy of readings did not permit great refinement.
Table 7 gives the values of the conversion ratios found in this way for the various
forms and conditions of joint bars used in the tests in track. These conversion ratios
are applicable to the section at mid-length of bar and not to other sections. The
magnitude of the bending moment developed in the rail joint is then taken to be the
product of the given conversion ratio and the moment calculated by Equation (67)
through the substitution of the measured stresses in gage lines B and C. This equation
takes into account the position of the neutral axis and any inclination from the
horizontal it may have.
It will be noted that these conversion ratios range from 1.00 to 1.67. For good fit
(both "as is" and machine fit) the value is 1.49 for F-4 and B-19 bars, including full
bearing and controlled bearing. On the other hand it was found that the condition of
wear through the middle part of the length of the top fishing surface had a marked effect
on the conversion ratio. For the F-4 worn bars the conversion ratio is 1.23 instead of
1.49 found with new F-4 bars. An even more marked effect was found with bars ground
to simulate a condition of considerable wear; the ratio was found to be 1.00 with the
36-in. B-19 bars instead of 1.49 given by the unused bars. This means that the moments
calculated from the measured stresses at B and C give the full amount of moment devel-
oped in the bars with simulated wear. The same conversion ratios were assumed to be
applicable to the other bars having simulated wear condition.
It may be remarked that the smallness of the ratios for worn bars is due presum-
ably to relief from heavy bearing pressure on the top of the worn bars near the rail
ends and its transfer to points away from the mid-section. With the simulated wear
bars, the bearing pressure is applied still further away from the rail end and the con-
»For equation (67) see Article 11 "Rail Joints and Their Action".
Tests for Gage and Stress Relations
183
Conversion Ratios for Calculation of Bending Koments with
Field Test Data
Ratios were determined for use with stresses at gage lines B and C.
Joint Bar
Condition
Length of
Inches
Bar
Conversion
Ratio
P.R.R. F-4
As is
36
1.49
Controlled Bearing
liachlne fit
36
1.49
High camber
36
1.49
Negative comber
36
1.49
'.'.'orn
36
1.23
Simulated wear
36
1.00
P.R.R. F-4
As is
36
1.49
Full Bearing
machine fit
36
1.49
Simulated wear
36
1.00
B &. 0 B-19
As is
36
1.49
Full Bearing
Niachine fit
24 and
36
1.49
Simulated wear
24 and
36
1.00
B & 0 B-19
Machine fit
24 and
36
1.49
Controlled Bearing
N & W A-39
As is
36
\.67
Full Bearing
C & 0 B-43
As is
36
1.41
Headfree
version ratio approaches unity. The tests described in Article 26, "Miscellaneous Experi-
mental Data" of the Fifth Progress Report, previously referred to, show clearly that the
distribution of longitudinal stress over a vertical section is quite different a short dis-
tance away from the vertical sections that have the heavy vertical loads applied to
them, and that a vertical section that is free from nearby bearing pressure gives a stress
distribution more nearly like that assumed in beam analysis. It may be well to add that
the load (bearing pressure of rail on bar) here referred to is the force Q shown in Fig. 21
which is developed when the joint is loaded.
All the laboratory tests discussed above were made with loadings apphed vertically
so that the joint carried bending moments in the vertical plane only. Since the stresses
observed in the track tests showed that in some cases considerable lateral bending
moment was present, it was thought desirable to ascertain what effect this combined
bending would have on the conversion ratio. Accordingly a joint with B-19 bars of
36-in. length previously tested in vertical bending was supported in a manner such that
a ratio of lateral load to vertical load of approximately one to four was applied to the
joint. This test setup is shown in Fig. 28. The resulting conversion ratios were found to
be closely similar to the values obtained for vertical loading, so it was judged that the
lateral load had a negligible effect in this respect. The small differences found were about
the order of magnitude of the accuracy of the observations and the conditions of the
setup.
In the laboratory tests just described measurements were made of the deflection of
the joints in the 48-in. span under the given loads. As the information thus incidentally
found may serve as an indication of the relative stiffness of the various joints and as
the stiffness in a way may be some measure of the ability of the joint to distribute the
load along the track as compared with full rail, the results have been shown graphically
in Fig. 29.
184
Stresses in Railroad Track
Fig. 28. — View of Test Setup Giving
Combined Vertical and Lateral
Bending Load.
Except for the B-19 "as is" full bearing bars the tests were made with only one
joint of a kind, and the results may not be fully representative. The F-4 "as is" joints
give somewhat larger deflection than the B-19. Machine fit joints are slightly stiffer than
"as is". The "as is" head-free joint and the F-4 worn joint have simDar deflection. The
heavy angle bars (having tight bolts as have the other joints) deflect about the same
as the B-19 machine fit joint. The worn bars give greater deflection than the "as is"
Deflection in Inches
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08
B-19
B-19
B-19
B-19
B-19
r.4
^-39
B-19
r.4
r-4
B 43
As is
As is
As is
Machine fit\
24 in. bars }
Simulated wear
As is
I As is 1
_j Angle bars]
•o Machine fit
///^//f,^/f>^r///^////rr^
\t
As is
Worn
. t
Head -free. As is
V/////////////////////A
VZZZZ227ZZZZZZZZZZZZZA
•2ZZZZZ2ZZ2ZZZZZZZ22ZZZ2
Z22ZZZZZZZ.
///.•'////////////// //.'///^/TT-Ti
•//,'/.' •/.'>////.'///>/,'7777\
'}/'/j\'/.'^}/A
•/////,W//A
V///////>///.'^///>y/^777\
'/////,'////////////.
Fig. 29. — Deflection of Rail Joints in Laboratory Tests — Load
33,300 lb. Span 48 in.
Stresses in Rail Joints in Track 185
joints, and the simulated wear joints have still greater deflection. It may be added that
the deflection of a full rail under the same load and span would be about 0.029 in.
14. Stresses in Rail Joints in Track.— In the track tests stresses were measured
in the inner and outer bars of the joints at the four positions shown in Fig. 26 of
Article 12 "The Joint Bars and the Test Schedules". All gages for measuring stress were
placed at mid-length of the joint. As can be seen from the figure a magnetic strain gage
B was attached on the top flange of the bar (gage line B), and a second strain gage C
on the bottom flange (gage line C). A view of two gages mounted on the outer bar of
a joint with F-4 bars is shown in Fig. 6 of Article 7 "Testing Equipment". As the gaees
were offset laterally from the surface of the bars the gage readings will be different
from the actual surface stress when there is marked lateral bending of the joint or of
individual bars.
Representative records of the stresses in a B-19 joint at 5 and 90 miles per hour
for gage lines C and B of the outer bar and B of the inner bar may be seen in Fig. 39,
designated as records 4B, SB and 6B, respectively. The stress at C for the inner bar was
recorded by the other oscillograph and is not shown.
It may be noted that the stress records for the runs at 90 miles per hour show a
notch in the peaks at most of the wheels. The stress record at the notch drops sharply
and then quickly rises as the wheel passes over the rail gap at the mid-length of the
joint where the gages are attached. It is judged that this notch is caused by the wheel
passing over the rail gap. This effect is generally present to a lesser degree in the records
for five miles per hour. The depth of the notch was found to be related to the speed in
many instances.
Because of complicating conditions, the stresses themselves cannot be readily inter-
preted for the discussion of some of the purposes of the tests. However, the recorded
stresses will be of direct value for showing variations in individual runs under compara-
ble conditions, for indicating the presence of lateral bending, and for estimating the
maximum stresses in the various bar sections. Representative data will be shown for these
purposes.
As lack of space on the bars for application of all gages simultaneously prevented
recording all the measurements taken on the joint bars in one given run, it was neces-
sary to make three sets of runs, changing the gages for each set (5, 60, and 90 miles per
hour, with several runs at each speed) to obtain all desired data at the three joint
locations. See Article 8 "Operation of the Tests and Reduction of the Data".
Representative sets of stresses (5b and sc) measured in three types of joint bars are
given in Table 8; these tests were all made at one joint location with the same spjeds
of the same locomotive and with similar bolt tension. Stresses are given for in-
dividual runs at speeds of 5 to 90 miles per hour, all for Location 3. The joint bars were
36-in. in length, with full bearing fishing surface and "as is" condition. The first set of
data gives stresses for the B-19 bar, a heavy symmetrical section. The second set is for
the A-39 bar, a heavy angle section. The third set is for the F-4 bar, a symmetrical
section of somewhat less cross-sectional area. These three sections cover a considerable
range of design in joint bars. The properties of these bars may be referred to in Table 4
and cross sections in Fig. 25. Also reference may be made to Table 6, in Article 12.
which gives a list of the joints tested, the joint locations, conditions of the bars, and
other data of the tests.
The stresses (sb and 5c) given in Table 8 are the values measured at the two gage
positions on the outer and the inner bar at mid-length as each of the three drivers
passed the instruments. The moments given in one column are the vertical bending
186
Stresses in Railroad Track
Table 8
Representative Measured Stresses at Mld-lengtii of Joint Bars
at Joint Location 3
' Q are the values measured by the magnetic strain gages and
the estimated maximum stress in the bar. Stresses are glv-
en in thousands of pounds per square inch,
thousands of Inch pounds.
tioments are given in
Run
No.
Speed
(m.p.h.;
Driver
No.
Mo-
ment
B «c 0 B-19 Joint Bar, 36 In., Full Bearing, As Is
246
5
1
2
3
11.2
11.2
10.0
15.6
13.5
12.7
27.1
25.6
23.3
177
162
149
15.3
9.6
11.2
12.7
10.3
13.3
30.4
20.8
25.4
247
5
1
2
3
11.2
11,0
10,0
15.0
12,9
12.0
27.0
24.7
22,9
173
156
145
14.3
10.4
10.8
12.9
10.1
11.7
29.2
21.9
23.7
246
5
1
2
3
11.2
11.2
10.8
14,6
13.1
12.1
26.6
25.1
23.7
170
159
149
13.7
9.8
12.7
9.9
27.9
20.8
241
60
1
2
3
11.6
11.2
10.2
12.7
15.6
11.7
25.3
27.4
22.9
158
177
144
12.0
12.6
10,8
11.3
9.4
9.7
25.0
24.4
21.7
243
60
1
2
3
11.2
10.6
11.4
12,9
16.0
12.7
25.1
27.2
25.3
158
177
158
11,8
13.5
10.1
9.2
23.4
25.4
240
90
1
2
3
12.6
11.4
10.4
14.6
15.6
10.9
28.5
28.0
22.7
179
179
140
14.3
12.4
11,0
11.5
10.1
9.0
28.1
24.6
21.8
242
90
1
2
3
11,2
11,0
10.4
15.2
17.0
12.3
27.0 .
28.3
23.5
174
185
149
15.7
14.3
11.6
9.4
10.3
9.2
28.7
27.2
22.6
245
90
1
2
3
12,4
10.2
10.2
16.6
16.6
13.6
28.5
27.2
24.3
186
179
156
16.3
13.3
13.1
11.9
9.7
6.8
31.3
25.3
24.9
N & W A-29 Joint Bar, 36 in.. Full Bearing, As Is
182
130
161
178
134
148
171
128
152
142
133
142
146
167
146
130
161
158
134
182
148
142
357
5
1
2
3
9.0
8.4
7.5
16.4
14.8
12.9
26.6
24.5
21.8
184
169
149
14.9
11.6
11.2
4.9
4.1
5.1
27.2
21.1
21.1
162
127
130
358
5
1
2
3
9.0
8.2
7.3
15.8
14.4
13.3
26.1
24.0
21.7
180
165
150
14.5
11.2
11.6
5.3
4.1
4.9
26.8
20.6
22.0
160
124
134
362
5
1
2
3
9.7
6,7
7.8
15.8
14.7
13.2
27.3
24.8
22.5
187
170
154
15.3
12.0
12.0
7.9
5.9
6.3
29.5
23.3
23.2
184
144
145
354
60
1
2
3
9.6
8.8
8.0
14.6
15.4
12.7
25.8
25.5
22.2
177
175
152
13.1
13.5
11.2
5.3
3.3
3.9
24.4
23.9
20.9
149
139
125
moments calculated from the strain gage records in the manner described in Article 13,
"Laboratory Tests to Find Gage and Stress Relations and Conversion Ratios".
The estimated maximum stress (imax) in a bar given in the column headed 5max is
that found for the remotest fiber by calculation from the given moment and the stress
Sc in the lower flange on the assumption that this stress is unaffected by bearing pressure
and other factors discussed previously. The calculation indirectly involves finding the
position of the neutral axis and finally the stress at the remotest point from this neutral
axis, usually a compressive stress at the top part of the bar. The calculation was ex-
Stresses in Rail Joints in Track
187
Talkie e (CoDtlDued)
Speed
No. kffl.p.b.)
Drlrer
No.
»B
-C "max JJ^^t
Ite-
meat
N <L W A-39 Joint Bar, 36 In., Full Bearing, As la (Cont.)
355
60
1
2
3
9.6
9.2
8.0
14.8
16.6
14.0
26.2
27.2
23.2
179
187
160
13.5
15.3
12.6
4.3
2.9
4.3
24.4
26.5
22.9
359
60
1
2
3
9.5
8.7
7.2
13.6
17.0
12.9
25.0
26.6
21.3
170
185
147
12.8
14.3
12.2
5.1
3.9
3.3
23.6
25.5
21.6
356
90
1
2
3
10.4
7.8
8.6
17.6
18.6
12.9
29.3
27.2
23.2
206
189
159
16.7
15.9
11.6
5.3
3.3
5.8
30.3
27.7
22.4
360
90
1
2
3
10.1
8.4
8.4
15.7
18.3
12.8
27.8
27.8
22.9
190
193
157
16.5
18.0
13.3
7.0
3.7
5.1
31.0
31.2
24.6
361
90
1
2
3
10.6
9.5
8.9
15.3
16.2
13.0
27.6
27.3
23.6
190
187
162
15.7
14.9
13.3
6.7
6.0
5.8
29.4
27.9
25.1
P.B.R. 7-4 Joint Bar, 36 In., Full Bearing, As la
143
152
137
144
150
127
180
159
139
189
180
149
180
169
154
88
5
1
2
3
13.0
11.0
11.5
15.0
19.3
14.0
28.6
31.0
25.9
133
146
121
12.8
18.1
11.8
16.6
13.1
14.2
29.6
33.4
26.5
139
146
124
89
5
1
2
3
13.0
11.2
11.2
15.4
18.6
13.8
28.7
30.3
25.5
134
143
119
.13.0
12.4
11.6
16.3
13.1
13.6
30.0
26.1
25.6
140
121
119
90
5
1
2
3
12.8
10.8
11.2
14.6
18.8
13.6
28.1
30.2
25.3
130
142
118
12.8
13.0
11.4
16.3
12.9
13.8
29.7
26.6
25.5
139
122
119
81
62
1
2
3
11.6
12.2
10.2
14.6
21.4
14.4
26.8
34.1
25.0
125
161
118
12.4
16.3
14.7
13.8
12.2
11.3
26.8
30.0
27.8
124
134
124
82
61
1
2
3
13.2
12.2
11.2
15.6
20.0
14.6
29.3
32.4
26.6
137
153
124
13.8
15.2
13.2
14.6
12.1
11.7
29.0
29.1
26.1
134
130
118
83
61
1
2
3
12.2
12.2
10.4
14.6
20.0
14.6
27.6
32.4
25.2
128
153
119
11.4
15.2
13.0
13.6
12.7
11.7
25.5
29.7
2t).5
119
133
110
78
90
1
2
3
15.7
13.3
11.2
21.8
22.5
15.6
38.0
36.3
27.1
179
171
128
18.8
17.5
15.3
17.3
13.6
12.4
37.6
32.4
29.3
171
146
131
79
89
1
2
3
13.5
13.3
11.0
19.1
23.5
17.0
32.9
37.3
28.4
155
176
134
17.3
18.4
15.5
15.3
14.6
12.0
34.3
35.2
29.1
156
157
130
80
90
1
2
3
15.3
12.4
11.6
21.8
22.5
16.4
37.5
36.4
28.4
177
167
134
19.4
17.7
16.3
16.8
13.1
12.6
37.8
32.6
^0.7
171
145
137
pedited by the use of graphical methods. These estimated maximum stresses, while not
exact values, may be expected to approximate the actual values.
A comparison of the measured stresses in the several joints may well be made for a
given driver and location to determine how closely one run checks another at the same
speed. It is important that variations should be small in any three sets of runs making
up the data on a given joint. For this purpose compare the stresses (.vh or sc) in Table 8
for different runs at a given speed and joint location. As an example, in the first group
1 SS Stresses in Railroad Track
of data, the joint with B-19 bars, the stresses sb on the outer bar at joint Location 3
for a speed of 5 miles per hour are 11,200, 11,200 and 11,200 lb. per sq. in. for runs 246,
247, and 248, respectively. Even at 90 miles per hour the stresses for three runs are in
close agreement, being 12,600, 11,200 and 12,400 lb. per sq. in. for runs 240, 242, and
245, respectively. The maximum variation from the average for these three stresses is 900
lb. per sq. in., which is representative of the larger variations to be found in the rest of
the data. The stress sc and those in the two gage lines of the inner bar have similar
agreement in the three runs. Few stresses for the several runs at a given speed vary
more than 1,000 lb. per sq. in. from the average value for comparable conditions, and
most of them have less variation. In this connection it may be stated that the limiting
accuracy set in the reduction of data from the records was ±500 lb. per sq. in. It ap-
pears then that the agreement between individual runs for comparable conditions is good
for most cases, especially considering the limits of accuracy in other respects. The assump-
tion that the repetition of the runs three times will give comparable data for the purpose
is justified within reasonable limits.
The magnitude of the calculated maximum stresses (smax) can, be studied in this
table as related to the type of bar. The values of the stresses at a speed of five miles per
hour are best suited for comparison because of the lesser variability in the action of the
locomotive at this speed. In comparing the stresses, consideration must also be given to
the bending moment developed in the joint, which always depends on the individual
characteristics of the joint. It may be noted in the table that in general the bending
moment developed is somewhat less for the F-4 bar than for the B-19 or the A-39 bar.
The sections named are in order the lighter symmetrical bar, the heavy symmetrical bar,
and the heavy angle bar. The B-19 and the A-39 bars generally developed moments of
approximately the same magnitude.
Bearing in mind what has been said in regard to the relative bending moments
developed in the three joints, the estimated maximum stresses (5max) may be compared.
The maximum stresses for the B-19 and A-39 bars from Table 8 with few exceptions are
below 30,000 lb. per sq. in. and are usually about 25,000 lb. per sq. in., whereas in many
cases the maximum stresses in the F-4 bar are 30,000 lb. per sq. in. or greater, even
though the moments in the F-4 bars are generally less than in the other two types.
Three runs where the moments happen to be the same (179,000 in. -lb.) in the outer
bar for driving wheel No. 1 may be cited for comparison. The B-19 bar had a maximum
stress of 28,500 lb. per sq. in. (run 240), the A-39 bar a stress of 26,200 lb. per sq. in.
(run 355), and the F-4 bar a stress of 38,000 lb. per sq. in. (run 78). The stress in the
lighter bar is thus seen to be more than 10,000 lb. per sq. in. higher than the stress in
the other two bars for an identical moment.
The stresses in Table 8 wDl also give some indication of the presence of lateral
bending in the joint. The stresses at corresponding gage locations on the outer and
inner bars may be compared for this purpose. If there is general lateral bending of the
joint, the stress for one bar will be high and the corresponding stress for the other bar
low. The relation of the magnitudes of stresses in the outer and the inner bars at their
top will be the opposite of that at their bottom. The stresses for driving wheel No. 1,
run 245, at 90 miles per hour may be taken as an example to illustrate the presence of
lateral bending. The stress Sb for the outer bar is 12,400 lb. per sq. in. and for the inner
bar 16,300 lb. per sq. in. while Sc for the outer bar is 16,600 lb. per sq. in. and for the
inner bar 11,900 lb. per sq. in. Thus for the outer bar the lateral bending has decreased
the compressive stress at sb due to vertical bending and increased the tensile stress at
sv. This would indicate lateral bending of such nature as to produce tension in the outer
Values of Moments of Rail Joints in Track 1^
bar or an outward bending with respect to the joint. An opposite relation of the stresses
in the inner bar also indicates a general outward bending of the joint.
For the lower speeds the stresses in corresponding gage lines in the outer and the
inner bar are seen to be quite similar in magnitude for both the F-4 and the B-19
joints; for the higher speeds they become dissimilar indicating the presence of lateral
bending due doubtless to lateral forces developed by the locomotive. The A-39 angle bar
joint shows considerable dissimilarity in stresses at corresponding gage lines on outer
and inner bars for all speeds. The stress sa for the angle bar at the gage location at the
edge of the projecting lower flange would be more affected by lateral bending than would
the symmetrical bar.
It is seen then that the data of Table 8 show relatively small variations in the
stresses in any bar from run to run for a given wheel at a given speed and location.
The presence of general lateral bending of the joint is indicated in some cases, and this
lateral bending is generally greater for the higher speeds. Appreciably larger stresses were
found in the lighter section, F-4 bars, than in the B-19 or A-39 bars.
Because of the great amount of data obtained, it is not feasible to publish even a
table of the average stresses for all the tests.
15. Values of Moments in Rail Joints in Track. — Many of the comparisons
to be made from the data of the tests can best be taken from the values of the vertical
bending moments developed at mid-length of the joint as calculated from the measured
stresses in the bars with the aid of the conversion ratios. Because of variations in de-
sign of bar, the position of gage lines, the action of the locomotive laterally, and the
opportunity for averaging runs, bending moments have been found most satisfactory for
the purpose of comparing the various types of joint bars and their effectiveness in
approaching continuity in rail.
As a first step in the determination of the vertical bending moment developed at
mid-length of a joint, the measured stresses were substituted in Equation (67) (sec
Article 11). As various deformations of the bars due to forces other than the forces
assumed in ordinary beam analysis introduce variations from the assumptions of the
analysis it is necessary to multiply the result by the conversion ratio established for the
given type and condition of bar, as described in Article 13 "Laboratory Tests to Find
Gage and Stress Relations and Conversion Ratios". Equation (67) takes into account
any inclination of the neutral axis from the horizontal. As may be seen in Fig. 26 the
magnetic strain gages at gage lines B and C were offset from the surface of the bars.
The effective amount of this offset has been found to be 0.45 in. This value has been
used in determining the coordinates of the positions of the gage lines for the calculation
of the moment from the measured stresses, Sb and Sc, which correspond to St and Si of
Equation (67). It is believed that the method here used in reducing the data of the
tests obtains values for the vertical bending moments with a reasonable degree of
accuracy.
In Table 9 are given the values of the vertical bending moment in the joint bars
at mid-length for the three joint locations and the several types and conditions of the
bars as the three driving wheels passed the joint at speeds from 5 to 90 miles per hour.
Each value is the average of three or more runs.
Reference may be made to Table 6, which lists the bar sections, length of the bars,
condition of the bars, type of bearing, speeds used and other information for all the
rail joints tested. This table will give a good understanding of the sco|)e and variety
of the tests.
190
Stresses in Railroad Track
Table 9
Vertical Bending Moments at Mid-length of Rail Joints
Moments are given in thousands of inch pounds. In the calculation of
moments from the measured stresses the conversion ratios were used.
Speed
Loca-
tion
Driver No.
Speed
Loca-
tion
P.R.R.
F-4, 36 in.,
Controlled Bearing
, A3 Is
1
251
293
289
278
60
1
246
297
264
2
290
280
345
305
2
267
269
321
At.
271
287
317
292
At.
257
283
293
1
243
288
279
270
90
1
251
196
172
2
252
260
336
283
2
205
248
357
At.
248
274
308
277
At.
228
222
265
269
266
278
206
370
238
1
286
278
269
278
60
1
320
289
279
2
223
241
239
234
2
180
244
250
At.
255
260
254
256
At.
250
267
265
1
321
265
289
292
90
1
314
256
169
2
172
267
261
233
2
145
231
301
At.
247
266
275
263
At.
230
244
235
F-4, 36 in., Controlled Bearing, Simulated Wear
I 155 I 157 I 164 I 60 I 1 1150 I 147 I 136
I I I I 90 I 1 1 133 I 108 I 63
P.R.R. F-4, 36 in.. Controlled Bearing, Worn
1
342
. . .
...
60
1
. . .
340
2
247
246
249
247
2
254
270
276
3
280
282
. • .
3
300
302
279
At.
263
290
90
At.
1
2
3
At.
277
247
262
255
286
206
277
242
298
280
268
283
277
P.R.
R. F-4
, 36 in
. , Controlled
Bearing, High Camb
er
2
3
At.
359
389
374
368
376
372
402
366
384
376
377
377
60
2
3
At.
369
409
389
365
388
387
400
338
369
90
2
3
At,
273
463
368
359
425
392
■iio
296
225
261
246
226
236
144
101
267
294
281
240
274
257
385
378
382
P.R.R. F-4, 36 in,, Controlled Bearing, High Camber
5
2
234
255
292
263
60
2
247
281
286
271
3
345
336
370
350
3
354
357
370
360
At.
290
296
331
307
At.
300
319
328
316
5*
2
188
196
230
205
60*
2
181
201
218
200
3
197
200
264
220
3
228
213
241
228
At.
193
198
247
213
At.
205
207
230
214
90*
2
3
At.
137
208
173
151
228
190
240
268
254
176
235
206
Shims inserted between rail and tie-plate.
Values of Moments of Rail Joints in Track
IQl
Table 9 (Continued)
Speed
Loca-
tion
Driver No,
Speed
Loca-
tion
P.R.R. F-4, 36 in., Controlled Bearing, Negative Camber
2
3
Av.
175
148
162
203
137
170
229
130
180
202
138
170
60
2 ,
3
AT.
185
161
173
212
167
190
240
160
200
90
2
3
135
198
269
P.R.R. F-4, 36 in., Full Bearing, A3 Is
1
269
275
293
279
60
1
233
296
234
2
297
294
357
315
2
298
304
336
3
242
272
275
263
3
240
290
256
Av.
269
280
308
286
Av.
257
297
275
1
230
275
299
268
VO
1
237
200
160
2
237
289
345
290
2
232
257
347
3
225
275
294
265
3
266
321
339
At.
231
280
313
274
Av.
245
259
282
P.R.R. F-4, 36 in., Full Bearing, Machine Fit
1
275
296
328
300
60
1
250
314
302
2
249
245
283
259
2
248
261
279
3
227
238
298
254
3
245
268
266
Av.
250
260
303
271
Av.
248
281
282
1
255
272
308
278
90
1
276
232
232
2
221
220
308
250
2
171
186
289
3
223
244
281
249
3
241
285
306
Av.
233
245
299
259
Av.
229
234
276
P.R.R. F-4, 36 in.. Full Bearing, Simulated Wear
1
201
203
226
212
60
1
162
200
201
2
165
182
195
181
2
144
163
181
3
157
163
189
170
3
144
156
161
Av.
174
184
203
188
Av.
150
173
181
90
1
2
3
Av.
173
107
125
135
159
116
151
142
142
176
174
164
B &; 0 B-19, 36 in.. Full Bearing, As Is
1
339
368
395
367
60
1
294
383
368
2
302
321
365
329
2
286
322
357
3
300
292
351
314
3
285
323
306
At.
314
327
370
337
AV.
288
343
344
90
1
2
3
Av.
350
234
285
290
298
255
334
296
274
404
350
342
212
163
188
254
313
262
276
199
249
309
262
289
263
260
271
247
215
277
246
188
163
154
168
158
133
150
147
348
322
305
325
307
296
323
309
B jc 0 B-19, 36 In., Full Bearing, Machine Fit
5
I
305
308
351
321
60
1
265
327
326
306
2
231
248
303
261
2
216
250
297
254
3
228
242
300
258
3
242
274
275
264
Av.
25b
266
318
280
At.
241
284
29»
275
40
1
270
273
362
302
90
1
294
251
248
264
2
219
223
315
252
2
187
183
291
220
3
223
244
303
257
3
217
297
341
285
Av.
237
247
327
270
Av.
233
244
293
257
192
Stresses in Railroad Track
Table 9 (Continued)
Speed
loca-
tion
Drlyer No.
Speed
Loca-
tion
Driver No.
B & 0 B-19, 24 In., Full Bearing, MaoUlne Fit
1
184
190
215
196
60
1
169
217
205
2
151
160
190
167
2
157
173
205
3
162
166
188
172
3
238
266
256
At.
166
172
198
178
At.
188
219
222
■ 90
1
2
3
At.
199
139
255
198
171
131
315
206
140
200
311
217
B & 0 B-19, 36 In., Full Bearing, Simulated Wear
1
2
At.
245
168
207
241
191
216
269
225
247
252
195
223
60
1
2
At.
200
151
176
242
166
204
248
191
220
90
1
2
At.
220
126
173
194
112
153
145
185
165
B t 0 B-19, 24 in.. Full Bearing, Simulated Wear
3 1154 I 145 I 169 I 156 I 60 I 3 1150 I 171
I I I 1 I 90 I 3 |l50 I 174
B & 0 B-19, 35 in.. Controlled Bearing, Uachine Fit
1230
232
263
242
60
90
1211
233
227
170
190
245
204
197
178
253
209
170
157
294
207
230
169
200
'186
141
164
164
X71
B & 0 B-19, 24 in.. Controlled Bearing, Machine Fit
I 1191
181
169
180
60
90
1
1
208
187
172
N &, W A-39, 36 in., Full Bearing, As Is
2
293
304
338
312
60
2
300
317
372
3
286
300
351
312
3
284
329
320
At.
290
302
345
312
At.
292
323
346
90
2
3
At.
238
306
272
257
356
307
366
378
372
330
311
321
287
347
317
C & 0 B-43, 36 in., Headfree, As la
5
3
254
255
262
264
60
3
248
273
266
262
3
220
206
207
211
3
244
225
220
230
40
3
238
248
290
259
90
3
284
328
316
309
3
220
232
237
230
3
302
266
257
275
16. Effect of Camber in Joint with No Re-tamping.— As the track was not
touched during the time of the tests except to insert five new rails just before the test
and as the condition of the tie support was not changed from test to test (no re-
tamping), it is apparent that a rail joint will have different relations to the tie support
according to the relative straightness of the bar and to the fit between bar and rail given
by the several types of bar used or even by different bars of the same type. One indi-
cation of such differences of tie support is the camber or lack of camber of the rail
joint itself as related to the level of the tie plate and ties immediately under it. If the
two rails at the joint have no camber, as compared with the original position of the
supporting surfaces, there will be what may be termed a normal distribution of load
Effect of Camber in Joint 1^.^
among the ties at and near the joint. If there is negative camber in the rail joint as com-
pared with the original position of the supports these ties will take more than their nor-
mal share of load and the bending moment developed in the joint will be less than what
may be considered normal. If there is positive camber, these ties will take less than their
normal load and the bending moment in the joint will be greater than the normal amount.
All of this must be taken with relation to an original normal or level position of the tie
support. Although the magnitude of the camber appears small, with the stiff rail the
effect on the support given by the ties runs back several tie spaces each way from the
joint. Obviously, too, if joints with high camber had been tamped to give uniform sup-
porting conditions from tie to tie, this condition of camber or no camber may not be
expected to affect the magnitude of the bending moment developed in the joint — at least
not until traffic has acted to change the supporting conditions. Because of the variation
in supporting conditions in the tests when different sets of bars are inserted at a given
joint location without re-tamping, it is deemed advisable here to discuss some of the
data relating to amount of camber of a joint and magnitude of bending moment de-
veloped in the belief that this will help to avoid misinterpretation of data in the further
discussion of the tests.
The rail joint camber used was the average measured ordinate of the unloaded joint
at the rail surface at points 4 in. each way from the rail ends on a chord of 32 in. The
ordinates were taken from the plotted profile of the rail surface. In effect the chord used
ended in the rail surface 16 in. each way from the rail gap. In Fig. 30 the measured
vertical bending moment developed in the joint at five miles per hour is plotted against
the measured camber. As little distinctive difference was found in different types of bars
the points in the figure are plotted with respect to condition of bar rather than type.
Each point is the average of the moments developed in two joint bars by the three driv-
ing wheels on one rail for three runs or more. Four principal conditions of bar are given,
"as is", machine fit, worn bar and simulated wear. The data include the results from the
three joint locations. A given pair of bars was tested at one given joint location only,
and other joints of the same kind were tested at the other joint locations, except that
both pairs of B-43 head-free bars were tested at joint Location 3. The vertical spread of
the points is due to differences in tie support at the three joint locations and to other
variable conditions. In general, as would be expected with joints not re-tamped, there v,
a definite trend for the amount of the camber to govern the magnitude of the bending
moment developed.
The camber of the joint in general corresponds to the camber of the bars. The
machining of the machine fit bars produced a bar with straight fishing surfaces, which in
turn gave appro.ximately a straight rail surface in the joints, as is seen by the grouping
of the machine fit joints near the line of zero camber. The joints with "as is" bars are
mainly grouped around a line for camber of -fO.OlO in. It was found that joints pro-
vided with bars selected as having high camber and having a joint camber of around
-}-0.030 in. developed high bending moments even though the bars were the lighter F-4
section. Two joints with bars of the same F-4 section selected as having large negative
camber developed low bending moments. The joints with bars ground to simulate wear
fall in the negative camber class and developed a relatively low bending moment and
obviously placed a relatively larger bearing load on the joint ties. To show this effect in
another way, shims 0.15 and 0.20 in. thick were placed on the two joint ties at joint
Location 2, and shims 0.09 and 0.12 in. thick at joint Location 3, using the F-4 high
camber bars. For the ties adjoining the two joint ties there would be little or no bearing
until the joint ties had been depressed somewhat. The insertion of the shims decreased
the moment developed in the joints with high camber bars from an average of 310,000
194
Stresses in Railroad Track
400
300
5 200
100
0
O As IS • Machine' fit A High camber
, 1 . bars , shfms
-o- Hiah camber -f- Simulated wear
' under rail
Xi Negative comber X Worn U Head-free , As is
•
rft+
D
D
A
A
+
-0.03 -0.02 -0.01 0 0.01 0.02 0.03
Vertical Camber of Joint in Indies
0.04
Fig. 30. — Relation between Joint Camber and Bending Moment Developed
in Rail Joints under Drivers of Locomotive at Speed of
5 Miles per Hour.
in.-lb. to 220,000 in.-lb. With the shims present, it is evident that bearing load on the
ties at the joint will be greatly increased and that such ties cannot maintain their original
level.
In Fig. 30 the general scope of the joint camber ranges from +0.009 to +0.014 in.
for the group of "as is" bars of the different types, from ^0.004 to +0.004 in. for the
group of machine fit bars, and from — 0.006 to — 0.012 in. for the simulated wear bars.
The camber of the joints with high camber bars ranged from +0.022 to nearly +0.040
in. That small changes in camber should change the magnitude of the moment developed
in the joint so much when ties are not re-tamped may seem strange. However, the de-
flection at the middle of a 32-in. simple span of 131-lb. rail loaded with a single wheel load
of 40,000 lb. is about 0.010 in., with a corresponding bending moment of 320,000 in.-lb.
Although the arrangement of the tie supports is much more complicated than the simple
beam span, the smallness of this rail deflection shows that small changes may make
marked differences.
Altogether the tests show that changes in joint camber without re-tamping of ties
modifies the load carried by the ties at the joint and affects the magnitude of the moment
developed in the joint bars and that this effect must be considered in the interpretation
of the tests. Again, it should be noted that this discussion refers to joints with bars
having varying camber inserted in track without re-tamping to make the surface posi-
tion of the ties fit the camber of the joints. The results should not be taken to deter-
mine whether joints should or should not be made with camber and tamped to make
the bearing on the ties fit the conditions of joint camber.
17, Discussion of Type and Condition of Bar. — In order to facilitate a com-
parison of the bending moments developed in the several types of bar in their several
conditions of fit and camber in detail, the values of the bending moments taken from
I
Tvpe and Condition of Bar
195
Bearing Bars
-•'Full Bearing Bars--
Fig. 31.
-Bending Moments in F-4 Rail Joints for Several Conditions
of Fit and Camber at Speed of S Miles per Hour.
Table 9 have been plotted in Figs. 31 and 32. The figures give the bending moment in
the joint at the three joint locations for each driving wheel at a speed of five miles per
hour. Values are plotted for the several conditions of bar ("as is", machine fit, simu-
lated wear, etc.). Each point is the average of values obtained from three or more runs
at five miles per hour. These values then show the variation in the moments developed
under the individual driving wheels as well as the variation in the three joint locations.
Joint locations 1 and 3 were on the right rail, and 2 was on the left rail. As was shown
in Fig. 3 the weighed loads on the several drivers varied considerably. The weight on the
right driving wheels was considerably greater than that on the left driving wheels when
the engine was weighed, but it may be pointed out in advance that thk relation appar-
ently does not always hold in the tests. The plotted points for the moments for the
several wheels in some instances are closely grouped (similar values of bending moment)
and in others the moments differ by considerable amounts.
Fig. 31 gives the bending moments for the 36-in. P.R.R. F-4 bars with controlled
bearing and full bearing for the several conditions of the bars. Points for joints having
bars in a given condition for a given test are plotted on the same vertical line. Begin-
ning at the left vertical line (a) moments for controlled bearing F-4 bars in "as is"
196
Stresses in Railroad Track
I -9
CQ -J
400^
350\
300
250
1'"""
+ /s'
n,;„ar
1
X ^nrf Driver
l^.
200
150
400
350
•>
300\
1
-
c
- .. -f-
H
-->
-
250
200
150
400
o
> H
■
300,
250
200
1 f^n
p
C
>
H
>
<
\
^
:x-_-^.
'
52
=1
.C
-C
(J
i
Full B
X)
"5
6
earing -
B-19 B
H
ars
■2 -^
1
Confrolled-
'F
'A-
o
7// -
39-
- H
2 ■-
0 0
I ^
ead-Fret
B-43 -
1
Fig. 32. — Bending Moments in Several Types and Conditions
of Rail Joints at Speed of S Miles per Hour.
condition at joint location 1 and 2 are shown. It is seen that the moment at joint Loca-
tion 2 under the first driver is greater by more than 50,000 in.-lb. than that under the
second and third drivers. The average for three wheels is 280,000 in.-lb. for joint Loca-
tion 1 and 305,000 in.-lb. for joint Location 2. Substitution of machine fit bars in the
same joint locations (line b) gives a moment of similar magnitude in joint Location 1,
but the moment at joint Location 2 becomes 235,000 in.-lb. As the camber of the two
joints at joint Location 1 was almost identical in the two cases, while the camber at
joint Location 2 changed from -|-0.013 in. for the "as is" bars to — 0.003 in. for the
machine fit bars, the cause of the lower moment is doubtless due to differences in cam-
ber, which for joints not re-tamped has been shown to modify the magnitude of the
moment developed in a given joint location.
The simulated wear bars (ground from machine fit with 0.05 in. of metal cut from
the top fishing surface at mid-length, tapering 4 and 6 in. each way) gave a joint cam-
ber of — 0.012 in., which of itself would decrease the moment developable in the bars.
The moment with the simulated wear bars (line c) at joint Location 1 averaged 165,000
Type and Condition of B a i 197
in.-lb., in place of 280,000 in. -lb. developed with the original machine fit bars. The
smaller moment in the joints with simulated wear bars means here that a greater load
or pressure is applied to the joint ties than was applied with the bars in machine fit
condition. Necessarily, with an increase in tie loads, these joint ties would be pressed
downward more under traffic and would soon require added maintenance. The effect
of such wear in the bars then would be to decrease the moment-carrying capacity of the
joint and to force the ties at the joint downward and thus produce a low joint. Nor
could re-surfacing of this worn joint anew give more than a temporary normal bending
moment for the joint. In such cases tightening the bolts anew will increase the droop
of the joint, which itself produces unfavorable joint conditions.
The three joints with worn bars taken from track and tested with their original
rails (line d) were not sufficiently worn to cause the joint to droop downward, and the
moments developed are similar to "as is" and machine fit bars having like joint camber.
As was noted in Article 16 "Effect of Camber in Joint with No Re-tamping", the
two joints with bars selected for more than usual camber (lines e and f) develop abnor-
mally high moments in two separate sets of tests. The average of the moments for the
three wheels shown at line e for joint Location 2 is 375,000 in.-lb. as compared with
305,000 in.-lb. for the "as is" bars. When shims were placed on the joint ties to take up
the play between rail and tie and to give full support from the beginning of loading of
the tie, as a wheel rolls along, (line g), the moment developed was materially decreased.
Also, the joint with bars selected for negative camber (line h) developed at joint Loca-
tion 2 a relatively low bending moment, 200,000 in.-lb. as compared with 305,000 in.-lb.
for the "as is" bars.
The three vertical lines at the right side of Fig. 31 have F-4 bars with full bear-
ing along their length. With consideration given to the amounts of the joint camber, it
is found that the moments developed in "as is" bars (line i) at joint locations 1 and 2
correspond in magnitude with the moment developed in the machine fit bars. At joint
Location 3, regardless of a higher camber in the "as is" joint, the moment (260,000 in.-
lb.) is une.xpectedly small for a camber of -f-0.009 in. No reason is known for this. For
joint locations 1 and 2, taking into account the joint cambers, the moments in both "as
is" and machine fit bars (lines i and j) correspond fairly closely with values found with
the F-4 controlled bearing bars on lines a and b. It may be said then that there is little
difference in moment caused by the two kinds of bearing under the conditions of these
tests.
The moments for three full bearing 36-in. F-4 joints in a simulated wear condition
are plotted on line k. There is seen to be a marked decrease in moment, the average of
all values being less than 200,000 in.-lb. The camber of the joints was reduced greatly
by the simulated wear condition and is doubtless the source of the low moment.
Fig. 32 gives the bending moments for the B. & O. B-19 bars, the N. & W. A-39
angle bars, and the C. & O. B-43 head-free bars for the several conditions of the bars.
All of these bars had a length of 36 in. Beginning at the left vertical line 1 the mo-
ments for joints with B-19 bars with full bearing in "as is" condition are given for the
three joint locations. All the plotted points are above 300,000 in.-lb. except one which is
slightly below. These values are in general somewhat higher than those found with the
lighter F-4 "as is" bars just discussed. The camber of the joints of the two types was
similar in amount, although at Location 1 the camber is somewhat less with the F-4 bars
and the corresponding moment is likewise somewhat smaller. On the second vertical line
(m), with B-19 bars having full bearing in the machine fit condition, the moments are
lower by an average of more than 55,000 in.-lb. from the "as is" bars at the same three
joint locations. This decrease in moment accompanies a decrease in camber, which
198 Stresses in Railroad Track
doubtless is the source of the decrease in moment, since with both conditions the fit,
bolt tension, and other test conditions were quite similar.
On line n joints with B-19 bars ground to simulate wear show moments markedly
less than the joints with "as is" and machine fit bars in joint locations 1 and 2, averaging
125,000 in.-lb. less than the average moment of 350,000 in.-lb. for the "as is" condition
for the same two locations. Although these simulated wear B-19 joints show the most
marked negative camber of any of the joints tested, including the F-4 bars with
negative camber, the moments developed are greater than in the simulated wear F-4
joints, due doubtless to the stiffer section of the B-19 bars.
A single 36-in. B-19 controlled bearing machine fit joint (line o) was tested at joint
Location 1. The moment in this joint was low with respect to the other joints tested
at this location, even somewhat lower than the simulated wear joints (see lines 1, m
and n). This joint was one of the few 36-in. joints that had the rail ends butting
together and probably most of the reduction in moment developed in the joint was due
to this condition. The camber for this joint (-0.002 in.) was similar to that for the
other machine fit bars.
On line p the joints with 36-in. A-39 angle bars in "as is" condition have moments
averaging 310,000 and 310,000 in.-lb. at joint locations 2 and 3, values which are closely
similar to those found with similar tests with B-19 bars. The relatively large values
developed with this heavy angle bar may be attributed to the high bolt tension main-
tained during the tests, about 30,000 lb. This high bolt tension would act to hold the
neutral axis fairly close to horizontal and thus would avoid a decrease in stiffness and
in bending moment which has been found in angle bars when tested with moderate
and low bolt tension.
The moments developed by the two joints with 36-in. B-43 head-free bars are
plotted on lines q and r. Both joints were tested at joint Location 3. The moments
developed (210,000 and 265,000 in.-lb.) are rather low, being somewhat less than those
developed by the F-4 joints in the "as is" condition and materially lower than those
found with B-19 and A-39 bars. As will be discussed later these joints in some instances
showed greater movements between bar and rail (vertical and longitudinal) than did
the other joints, even at the high bolt tension used, (about 30,000 lb.). These larger
movements are probably the cause of the smaller moments developed.
The values of the bending moments developed in the various types of bars are also
plotted in Fig. 33 according to the camber measured in the joint. General increase in
bending moment with increase in camber will be noted, as was discussed in the last
article. In general, too, for the same type of bar and for similar cambers, joint Loca-
tion 1 gives higher moments than do joint locations 2 and 3. For similar cambers
joints with B-19 bars show higher bending moments than those with F-4 bars. The
B-43 head-free bars have somewhat lower values. In general the values for the same
or similar conditions are in as close agreement as can be expected with all the chances
for variation that exist in track tests of this kind.
It is apparent that some of the peculiarities found in comparing values of the
bending moments developed in the joints are due to such matters as the camber of the
joint and the characteristics of the rail supports at the given joint locations. A few
examples may be cited. With the B-19 bars in both "as is" and machine fit conditions,
the moment developed at joint Location 1 is 50,000 in.-lb. greater than at joint loca-
tions 2 and 3, even though the amount of the camber for a given condition is nearly
the same for the three joint locations. For the B-19 controlled bearing bar with ma-
chine fit, the moment at joint Location 1 is only 240,000 in.-lb. as compared with
320,000 in.-lb. found with the full bearing bars of the same type and condition of bar
Type and Condition of Bar
199
400
300'
200
100
0
O F-4 Full bearing
<^ F- 4 Controlled bearing
X A-39 Full bearing
+ B-43 Head- free
• B-19 Full bearing I- Location I
■^ B'I9 Conlrolled bearing 2- Location 2
D B-19 24 in. 3 -Location 3
■ B-19 24 in. Simulated wear
-^
V^ 3
.■<^^-^'
-hi'
'So'iii-
.■<^
<>3
^^ <^3
<^2
M-
7
Shims under
rail
-0.03 -0.02 -0.01 0 0.01 0.02
Vertical Camber of Joint in Inches .
0.03
0.04
Fig. 33. — Relation between Joint Camber and Bending Moment Developed in
Rail Joints under Drivers of Locomotive at Speed of 5 Miles per Hour.
at the same joint location. The camber in the two cases is quite similar. However, in
the former case the rail gap was closed by the high rail temperature existing at the
time of the test. Comparing joints with both full bearing and controlled bearing F-4
"as is" bars at joint locations 1 and 2, the relatively small value of the moment at
Location 1 in both cases accompanies a small camber and the relatively large value
at Location 2 is found with a camber of -f 0.012 in. or more.
Three pairs of 24-in. B-19 full bearing bars in machine fit condition were tested
at joint locations 1, 2 and 3, one pair of 24-in. B-19 controlled bearing bars also in
machine fit condition at joint Location 1, and one pair of 24-in. B-19 full bearing
bars in simulated wear condition at Location 3. These joints all gave bending moments
materially smaller than did the joints with 36-in. bars having the same conditions (see
Table 9 and Fig. 33). The average of the moments developed in the four joints with
24-in. machine fit bars was 180,000 in. -lb. The average of the moments developed with
the corresponding 36-in. B-19 bars was 280,000 in.-lb. The moment developed in the
one joint tested with 24-in. simulated wear bars was 155,000 in.-lb. and that with
36-in. simulated wear bars was 225,000 in.-lb. Previous tests in both laboratory and
track have shown little differences in deflection, stress, and moment for joints with
bar lengths of 24 and 36 in. In the present case fit, joint camber, and other conditions
were apparently approximately the same. The one known difference in condition of
test was that in these tests in track with 24-in. bars, in spite of the high bolt tension
used, the high temperature in the rail at the time of test forced the rails together in a
way that gave lower values to the flexural compressive stresses developed in the bars
when loaded, and likewise possibly lowered the tensile stresses also.
In an effort to learn something of the effect of the closure of the gap on the
stresses and moments developed in the joint bars, a study was made of the data
of the field tests of joints with 36-in. bars in which the rail gaps had been closed
200
Stresses in Railroad Track
by the high temperatures, but it was found that the conditions were not generally
sufficiently similar to warrant drawing a conclusion. However, one joint with 36-in.
B-19 bars (controlled bearings) had no gap and gave a markedly low moment in
comparison with a joint of the same type with full bearing bars at the same joint
location — thus pointing to a definite probability of a reduction of moment in bars
through closing of the gap. A laboratory test was made in the rolling load testing
machine on a joint having 24-in. B-19 joint bars by rolling the load of 45,000 lb.
along the span of 36 in., first with a rail gap of about % in. and second with a wedge
driven into the rail gap between the heads of the two rails. The bending moments
developed in the joint bars at mid-span were calculated from the measured stresses.
The moment in the bars was found to be about 12 percent less in the second test than
in the first. After giving consideration to the analysis of possible conditions it is thought
that with the gap closed by an increase in temperature in the rails, as a result of the
high compression developed in the head and other parts of the rails, the beam action
of the joint is modified in a way that causes a decrease in the stresses in the bars and
likewise a decrease in the moment that would otherwise be taken by the bars.
Table 10
Average Joint Moment Ratios at 5 Miles per Hour
The base of the joint moment ratio is taken as 370,000 in. lb.
Joint Bars
Condition
Bending Moment
( Inch pounds)
Joint
Moment Ratio
F-4
As is
285,000
.77
F-4
Uachlne fit
270,000
.73
F-4
Simulated wear
190,000
.51
B-19
As is
335,000
.91
B-19
Machine fit
280,000
.76
B-19
Slmulatsd wear
225,000
.61
A-39*
As is
310,000
.84
B-43t
As is
240,000
.65
* Two joints tested at Locations 2 and 3
1 Two Joints tested at Locution 3
In view of these considerations and with the evidence of previous tests, the
development of a smaller moment in the joints with 24-in. bars should not be taken
as establishing a superiority m the 36-in. length over the 24-in. length in respect to
ability to carry bending moment. The results indicate, however, the need for adequate
tests to be made on joints in track with 24-in. and 36-in. bars.
The effectiveness of a rail joint in track may be judged by its ability to develop
and carry bending moment under normal conditions of tie support and to approach,
as closely as may be, the stiffness and the moment carrying capacity of the full rail.
In earlier reports of the committee the term "joint moment ratio" has been used as
the ratio of the bending moment developed in the joint to the bending moment developed
in the full rail under similar supporting conditions. The general average value of the
bending moment in the rail under the load of the six driving wheels of the locomotive
used in the tests was taken as 370,000 in.-lb. This value is approximately the average
of the calculated and measured moments for the six driving wheels at a speed of five
Relation of Speed to Type of Bar 201
miles per hour, which were given in Article 9 "Stresses and Moments in Rail". Using
this value as a base, the joint moment ratios obtained with the bending moments found
in the tests of the joint at five miles per hour, calculated from the values given in
Table 9, are given in Table 10. Since the camber of the joints as they stood originally
in the track before the new rails and joint bars were put in is not known, the actual
relation of the tie supports to the camber found for the various joints during the tests
is uncertain, but it is very likely true that the camber in these original joints lay
between that found with the machine fit and the "as is'' conditions, say between zero
and + 0.010 in. In other words, if the tie supports had been fitted to the camber of
the "as is" joints by re-tamping the moments developed in these joints would probably
have been smaller than those given in Table 10, and likewise with tamping to conform
to the camber of the joint the moments developed in the machine fit bars would have
been greater than those given in the table. Also under these conditions there would
have been little difference between the moments for the "as is" and those for the
machine fit bars. Possibly the joint moment ratio for the F-4 bars would then be
about 0.75 and for the B-19 bars about 0.8S. The difference between these two values
may be taken to mean that the stiffer B-19 bars have advantages over the F^ bars,
though the difference in effectiveness throughout the lifetime of the joints may be
expected to be greater than shown by the difference in these numerical values.
The comparison has been made between F-4 and B-19 bars because of the number
of tests and of joint locations used. For the same two joint locations there is little
difference in the joint moment ratio for the B-19 bars and the A-39 bars. For the
B-^3 bars, however, the joint moment ratio is less than for the B-19 bars.
The comparisons have been made on the data taken at five miles per hour because
at this speed the loads applied by the individual wheels of the locomotive are evidently
more nearly the same throughout the many runs than could be expected at the higher
speeds. Lateral loads and forces and transfers of load from one wheel to another were
more marked and more frequent, as will be noted in a study of the data of the
higher speeds.
18. Relation of Speed to Type and Condition of Bar.— In Fig?. 34 and 35
the values of the moments developed in the joints at speeds from S to 90 miles per
hour are plotted with respect to speed. The values shown are generally the average of
three or more runs at a given speed; they are given for each of the three driving
wheels and for the three joint locations. A line has been drawn through the average
moment for the three driving wheels at each of the several speeds. The type of joint,
their condition, and other pertinent data are given with each set of points.
The tests were made in an effort to learn what influence type of bar, condition,
and other variations had on the action of the joint when the locomotive was operated
at high speed. As in the tests of stress in rail previously discussed the action of the
locomotive at the higher speeds was found to be quite different at one location from
that at another and much more variable at high speed than at five miles per hour.
This variety of action on the part of the locomotive made it impracticable to determine
the effect of joint type or condition in relation to speed. Since no two of the three
joint locations were opposite each other on right and left rails, it is not desirable to
average the results at the higher speeds for the two rails, as was done for the stresses
measured in the rails. It will be recalled that the average of the rail moments for the
two wheels of an axle was found to be approximately constant for all speeds for a
given location along the track despite the large variation in the individual values for
one rail. This would indicate that the variations were mostly transfers of load from
one wheel to the other on the .same axle. However, it was found that the individual
202
Stresses in Railroad Track
Joint Location I Joint Location 2 Joint Location 3
Speed in Miles per Hour
O 30 60 90 O 30 60 90 O 30 60 90
^
100
Fig. 34. — Relation between Speed and Bending Moment Developed
with F-4 Rail Joints.
runs at a given location and given speed showed little variation, which indicates that
the locomotive produced similar results under given conditions.
The new, unworn condition of the bars and rails, the excellence of surface, and
the high quality of the support were undoubtedly a factor in minimizing effects of
Relation of Sp eed to Type of Bar
203
400
300
200
too
300
200
100
300
^ 200
^- 100
o
^ 300
I 200
■^ 100
c
I 300
200
100
300
200
too
300
200
100^
Joint Location I Joint Location 2 Joint Location 3
Speed in Miles per Hour
30 60 90 0 30 60 9.0 0 30 60 90
H- .
ox
8-19, C.B. Bars, Mact)ine fit
-^ 1 —
[ (24 in. bars at Joint Location I)
LX X
-%
B-43, H.F.Bars.As is
___j , <^ ^^
(at Joint Location 3)
+ / " Driver
y. 2"" Driver
O 3"' Driver
•Av. of 3 drivers
+
ox-
X- - t
x^"
Fig. 35. — Relation between Speed and Bending Moment Developed
with Several Types of Rail Joints.
speed, as was also the high bolt tension required in the joints to give satisfactory
operation of some of the instruments.
Because of the conditions discussed above, the results for the higher speeds will be
discussed only in a general way and comments will be made on illustrative examples.
204 Stresses in Railroad Track
An inspection of Figs. 34 and 35 shows that at joint locations 1 and 2 the average
of the ntioments for the three wheels has a downward trend with increase of speed.
At Joint Location 3 the average moment increases or shows little change. Joint Location 1
is the first test location the locomotive passed over and is on the right rail and Joint
Location 2 is one-half rail length ahead on the left rail. Joint Location 3 is the last
test location passed by the locomotive one rail length beyond Joint Location 1 and is
also on the right rail. This decrease of moment at joint locations 1 and 2 with increase
of speed should not be taken to indicate that a low value of moment exists all along
the track. At places along the track other than the test locations the locomotive
probably will act in a somewhat different manner, and the moments will have different
relations to the speed. These other places may be some distance away, for at high
speeds a complete oscillation or other movement of the locomotive or one of its parts
will cover a considerable distance.
Some further comments may be made. The joint moments developed by the indi-
vidual driving wheels at the higher speeds show a wide spread of magnitudes and a
variety of manner of action even at one given joint location and with a given set
of bars. There are some few high values of joint moment at the high speeds, about
400,000 in.-lb. Very frequently the first driving wheel develops the highest moment,
and in such cases this occurs at all three of the joint locations. The variations in values
at the higher speeds are doubtless due principally to the variations in the action of the
locomotive. Conditions of the track along its length also enter into the variations, for
different runs at a given speed usually give similar moments at one wheel. No systematic
increase in stress or moment at the high speeds with the locomotive used was found,
though the wide spread of values is an indication that values still higher than those
recorded may be developed with more or less frequency. The outstanding result is the
marked variation in the magnitude of the moments developed in the joints at the
high speeds.
It should again be called to mind that in the case of the moments in the right
and the left rail, the averages for the two rails at opposite points showed little effect
of speed, yet some individual values in one rail or the other were considerably in excess
of the average, as high as 500,000 in.-lb. An unduly low moment developed by a wheel
at one location probably means an unduly high moment at some other location and
the joint may thus be subject frequently to higher moments than the values shown
in Figs. 34 and 35.
The moments shown for the several joints may be said to be moderate in magnitude
in most instances, due probably to the very excellent condition of the joints and the
support. Less favorable conditions, such as battered rail ends, were found to add
appreciably to the moments developed and the variety of action shown may be expected
to give increases of moment that will further tax the strength of the joint.
19. Vertical and Longitudinal Movements Between Joint Bars and Rails. —
A purpose of the tests was to measure some of the vertical and longitudinal movements
between the bars and the rail and learn how they change as the locomotive passes.
The small movements that take place between the fishing surfaces are undoubtedly the
cause of much of the wear, especially when the movements are accompanied by high
bearing pressures. Movements between the rail and the bar also decrease the effectiveness
of the joint in the track. The effect of speed on the magnitude of these movements and
on the manner in which they varied has also been a subject of speculation. It has been
felt that the higher speeds cause greater damage to the rail joints and that some of this
damage might be through wear or impact effects from sudden movements in the joint.
Movements Between Joint Bars and Rails 205
The measurements that could be taken were limited by the number of gages available
and the clearances. Four gages recorded the relative vertical movements between head
of rail and top of bar at the rail ends and at each end of the bar, all for the outer bar.
Two gages, one at each rail end, measured the relative longitudinal movement between
the rail head and the mid-length of the outer bar. Views of these gages mounted on a
joint bar in track are shown in Fig. 7. No gages were placed on the inner bar because
of lack of clearance for the wheel flanges. It was not possible to mount gages for both
vertical and longitudinal movement on the same joint, so the gages were alternated and
additional sets of runs made to obtain values for all the test joints.
Unfortunately it was necessary to use a high bolt tension to restrain the rails from
moving in the joint and thus to prevent damage to instruments and uncertainty in the
records. This high bolt tension decreased the movements greatly and probably eliminated
some of the speed effects that may be present, especially in badly worn or poorly
fitting joints.
Typical records of the vertical movements for run No. 247 at five miles per hour are
shown in Fig. 36. The joint had B-19 bars in "as is" condition at Joint Location 1 on
the right rail. The records were made by oscillograph A and are numbered lA to 6A
from the bottom of the record. The square peaks at the extreme lower edge of the film
made by the timing galvanometer are spaced at half-second intervals. The four gage
positions (see Fig. 7) are designated as Vi, Va, Va and V^ and they are respectively the
end of the bar on the leaving rail, the middle of the bar on the leaving rail, the middle
of the bar on the receiving rail, and the end of the bar on the receiving rail. All posi-
tions are on the outer bar only, and Vi is the first position passed by the locomotive.
Record lA is for position Vi, 2A for V2, 3A for Va and 4A for V4. The fifth record, 5A,
is the stress at gage line C of the outer bar and its peaks locate the position of the
wheels with respect to the mid-length of the joint. Since the three driving wheels were
spaced exactly ten feet apart, distances may readily be scaled off along the record. The
sixth record is the stress at gage line C on the inner bar at joint location 3 ; this is a
rail length farther along the track than the joint on which the rest of the records were
taken and is also on the right rail. Similar records for run No. 245 on the same joint
at 90 miles per hour are shown in Fig. 36. The timing record at the bottom gives one-
sixtieth second intervals.
Some comments may be made on the shape and characteristics of the records. The
two films shown in Fig. 36 were taken on runs for the same joint at 5 miles per hour
and at 90 miles per hour. Some of the records for the movements at the various gage
positions are seen to be somewhat similar in shape to the stress records, indicating that
generally these movements begin to take place as the wheel approaches the gage and is
yet some distance away. The maximum or peak values occur with the wheel over the
gage and then the movement decreases as the wheel leaves the gage position. The wheel
position along the records may be determined by record 5A whose peaks show when the
wheel is at mid-length of the joint.
In some cases part of the vertical movement takes place with considerable rapidity.
An example of this may be seen at gage position Va (record 3A in Fig. 36) at 90 miles
per hour. At this gage the movement at the receiving rail end shows a very quick in-
crease in magnitude as the wheels pass the mid-length of the joint. This sudden increase
probably takes place as the wheel strikes the receiving rail end. The time interval over
which this rapid change in the movement magnitude takes place is very small at 90 miles
per hour, probably approaching 0.001 of a second. The decrease in magnitude as the
wheel leaves the mid-length of the joint is at a relatively slower rate. The rapid rate of
increase of movement at the receiving rail end may be equivalent to an impact effect that
206
Stresses in Railroad Track
possibly is a cause of the increased wear generally observed at the receiving rail end on
both rail surface and bar fishing surface. The whole cycle of the vertical movement
changes from a zero magnitude to a maximum magnitude and again to zero in 0.01 to
0.02 sec. while the locomotive is covering a distance of about 15 to 30 in. when running
at 90 mDes per hour.
The algebraic signs on the records at the right side of the figures indicate the kind
of movement or stress. A plus sign means an increase in distance or a tensile stress and a
6A
n^^n^
tOOQOp.s.i.
\5A
0.005 in.
4A V4
MMFyMMMH
Run 245,0sc.A
3A i/j
»mimmm
dOm.p.h.
2A V2
I A Vi
\aaaaaaaa a^_a_a a a a rt a a
o o
Fig. 36.— Typical Records of Vertical Movement between Bar and Rail Head
at 5 and 90 Miles per Hour— Also Stress in Bars.
Movements Between Joint Bars and Rails 207
negative sign the opposite. Previous experience in static field tests and laboratory tests
had indicated that with the load at the mid-length of the joint there should be a
decrease in the distance or space between the top of the bar and the rail head at the rail
end and an increase at the ends of the bars. The application of load at the bar ends
with well fitting bars in these previous tests did not produce much movement at the
point of application of the load.
Inspection of the records shows several points at variance with this previous experi-
ence. An outstanding difference is the direction of the vertical movement under the
middle driving wheel as compared to the other wheels, given in Fig. 36. In most cases
in these records and in the other records taken, the middle driving wheel produces a
movement opposite in direction to that of the other wheels. There are some exceptions
to this statement but in general the middle driving wheel produces a negative movement
or decrease in distance for all gage positions whether at the bar ends or the rail ends at
the time the wheel is over the gage and the other wheels cause a positive movement or
increase of distance between bar and rail. It can also be noted from the records that
there is little if any movement at the ends of the bar when the wheel is at the middle of
the joint. The vertical movements shown in the records are of the order of 0.002 in. or
less, as can be seen from the scales given. The high bolt tension and good fit of most
of the bars tested tended to minimize the movements.
The movement produced by the second or middle driving wheel, though at variance
with most of the other wheels is more nearly in agreement with the results expected.
A number of possibilities as to the cause of these differences between the movements at
the various wheels were investigated both at the time of the tests and in correlating the
results but no definite factor has been proven to cause them. The instrumental equip-
ment was checked at the time of the tests for direction of deflection and possible elec-
trical or magnetic differences and static tests were also made. A difficulty encountered in
correlating these differences in the results was that only vertical movements were meas-
ured on a given joint for a given set of runs, except the one stress recorded for
location of wheel position.
A possible explanation that may be offered but has not been proved is that the
differences referred to above are caused by the difference in the bearing of the wheel on
the top of rail. The tire of the middle driving wheel was flangeless and all other tires
were flanged and coned. The blind tire will tend to give bearing at the middle of the
rail head or possibly outside the middle with the rail canted, and the coned tires gen-
erally have a bearing somewhat inside the middle of the head even with the cant of the
rail of 1 in 40. This eccentricity of bearing may produce enough tilting and twisting of
the rail head to cause a movement comparable to or even greater than the small
movements resulting from the action of the joint. There was no way of checking this
possibility from the data of the tests. It would have been especially desirable to have
readin'-'s also on the inner bar to determine whether the rail head did till but clearance
did not permit the application of gages on the inner bar.
The vertical movements showed little or no change with increase of speed, and so
it is not deemed necessary to show the results for all speeds. The values of vertical
movement for the three wheels at the four gage lines for a speed of five miles per hour
and for the various kinds and conditions of joints are shown in Fig. .^7. The values are
the average of all the runs and the three joint locations. It was found that, with a few
exceptions, there was little difference at the several locations.
The values plotted are the maximum movements regardless of the position of the
wheel rather than values when the wheel was over the middle of the joint. The maximum
values normally occurred when the wheel was over the gage. Thus the peaks of the values
208
Stresses in Railroad Track
for Vi and V4 are seen in Fig. 36 to be displaced along the record by the length of the
joint to the scale of the figure. Since the scale in this direction is relatively small this
displacement is not very noticeable.
It may be noted from Fig. 37 that the values shown are small in magnitude, few
being over 0.003 in., except with the simulated wear joints and one of the head-free
joints. These values are similar in amount to movements measured in static tests previ-
ously reported with tight bolts and well fitting bars. Attention should again be called
however, to the manner of the movements as shown by the sign of the plotted values.
As discussed for the records shown in Fig. 36 the middle or second driver is seen to give
a closing movement in almost all tests and the first and third drivers generally give
^0.010
+ 0.005
0
-0.005
+ 0.005
0
.~~ 2 -0.005
§ +0.005
"to
° I 0
■^ I -0.005
^ S +0.005
t .-
-Q c;
0
^ o -0.005
(J
0) -C
+ 0.005
0
_ C3. -0.005
o .S
.0 c
^ Ci
§ D
t +
0
-0.005
+ 0.005
0
-0.005
-0.010
-0.0/5
Receiving
1
+ /^' Driver
X 2"'' Driver
0 3"^ Driver
B-19 Full Bearing 36 in.
- As is
"1
^ fl./9 Full Bearing 24in.-
t -^cf- (^ Machine i t -lA Af t
X X
'^
-H
.i u-
_^ Simulated
I wear
<>
■-¥-9
<>
Fig. 37. — Relative Vertical Movement between Bar and Rail Head for
Various Types and Conditions of Rail Joints at 5 Miles per Hour.
Mo\'emcnts Bet ween Joint Bars and Rails 209
either a small opening movement or a negligible movement. Some few values are at
variance with those statements but not in any large amount and in some cases it was
difficult to determine the way in which the records should be interpreted.
The joints having bars simulating wear are seen to have considerably larger closing
(negative) movements under the second driver at the middle of the bar length (positions
Vi and V3) and smaller closing movements under the first and third drivers. The move-
ments at the ends of the bars do not appear to be changed much by the simulated wear
condition, as might be expected because no change was made in the fit at the ends. The
movements are also greater at the receiving rail end than at the leaving rail end, prob-
ably the result of the longer slope on the ground-out portion of the bar at the receiving
rail end.
The F-4 bars with controlled bearing in the worn condition are seen to have small
vertical movements showing that the wear on these bars was not large.
Two B-43 joints were tested at Joint Location 3 and the average of the results is
plotted in Fig. 37. The vertical movements measured for the two joints differed some-
what from each other at corresponding gage lines. These differences were possibly due
to the fact that a locomotive other than the regular locomotive was used for the tests
on one of the joints. The second driving wheel of the regular locomotive produced
markedly large movements (about 0.010 in.) similar in magnitude to those found with
the simulated wear joints.
The necessity for using high bolt tension in the joints and the excellence of fit of the
test joints available for test detracted from the value of the results as a basis for judging
the effects of some of the factors entering into the action of joint bars. Tests on some
of the types and conditions of bars after a portion of their service life had been passed
would probably be more informative and show results more characteristic of the several
factors.
Little evidence was found of any effect of speed, though the form of the records
showed that at the higher speeds some of the movements take place with great rapidity.
The relative longitudinal movement of the two rail ends with respect to the upper
fishing surface of the outer joint bar at mid-length was measured by two specially
designed magnetic strain gages. The two gages were attached to the rail ends and the
middle portion of the outer joint bars as shown in Fig. 7 to indicate the relative longi-
tudinal movement that took place between the rail ends and the mid-length of the joint
bar. Lack of clearance would not permit gages to be appUed to the inner bar so all
measurements were on the outer bar.
The longitudinal movements take place between the fishing surfaces of the bar and
rail because of the differences in the flexural curvature of the rail and the bars along
the length of the joint when under load and the differences in magnitude of the longi-
tudinal strains developed at the fishing surfaces of the bars and the rails. The friction
between the surfaces is insufficient to prevent slip from occurring. At the rail ends
where this slip is a maximum there are high bearing pressures due to the development
of moment in the joint. It has been demonstrated by Gough and Clenshaw" that even
a ver>' minute slip will produce wear when accompanied by high bearing pressures.
Since the rail flexural stress at the rail ends is zero and that in the bars is a maximum,
we may expect a relatively large slip at the mid-length of the joint for this reason alone.
The effect of speed on this action was unknown and a purpose of the tests was to see
•""The Testing of Engineering Materials" by H. J. Gough, M.B.E., D.Sc, F.R..S. ami W. J.
Clenshaw, B.Sc, of the Engineering Department, National Physical Laboratory, Teddingtuii, England.
(Reprinted from the Transactions of the Institute of Marine Engineers)
210
Stresses in Railroad Track
if there were any differences in the action at the higher speeds that would produce
increased wear or deterioration of the joint.
The picture of the action of the longitudinal movement or slip in the joint as a
whole cannot be obtained from the results from two gages at the rail ends, but a number
of laboratory tests made previously show that the slip takes place along the fishing
surfaces of the bars. Coincidence of the larger values of slip with the locations where
high bearing pressures have been found to occur should determine areas of greatest
wear. The slip measured along the top fishing surface of a 36-in. 105-lb. New York
Central rail joint and a 24-in. 90-lb. Illinois Central rail joint is shown in Fig. 38. These
joints were tested in the laboratory. The New York Central joint was loaded with
Distance from Mid-lenglh of Joint Bar in Inches
18 15 It 7 3 0 3 7 It 15 la
-0.004
-0.003
to
I -0.002
•E -OJDOI
c
I 0
I 0.001
"5
I -0.003
,■2
§ -0.002
-0.001
0
Fig. 38. — Relative Longitudinal Movement
between Bar and Rail Head at Various Dis-
tances along a Joint in Laboratory Tests.
J
\
r
\
N.Y
C. 36
in. Joint
1
\
k
n*^
pSn
/
\
'S
r
"^
>— 0— (
r
L
oad =
30 C
)00lb
\
0
\
/.
0. 24 in. Jo
nt
I
/
N
A
M
V
\
\
30,000 lb. applied at the middle of a 32-in. span. The Illinois Central joint had two
loads of 30,000 lb. applied at a distance of 16 in. from the supports of a 68-in. span.
The ordinates for these diagrams are slip (longitudinal movement) for a point on the
rail fishing surface with respect to a point on the bar fishing surface immediately below.
The abscissas are distance along the length of the joint. Values of the slip are shown at
every two-inch interval. A negative value of slip indicates movement of the rail end
toward the mid-length of the bar and a positive value indicates movement away from
mid-length of the bar.
It is seen from Fig. 38 that the slip or relative longitudinal movement at the top
fishing surfaces at the mid-length of the joint approached a value of 0.004 in. and is
negative for both rail ends and for both tests. This location is the approximate loca-
tion of the magnetic strain gages in the field tests. At four or five inches back from mid-
length the slip has decreased considerably and in some cases it reverses direction. The
Illinois Central bars were well worn and the fit was apparently not as uniform as that
of the New York Central bars and the results are not as uniform along the length of
the joint.
Two representative films with records of longitudinal movement taken at 5 and 90
miles are shown in Fig. 39. Both are for a B-19, full bearing, "as is", 36-in. joint. The
records from bottom to top are numbered IB to 6B inclusive. The record at the e.xtreme
bottom edge of the film is the timing record and the peaks come at half-second intervals
Movements Between Joint Bars and Rails
211
for the run at S miles per hour and at 1/60-sec. inter\'als for the run at 90 miles per
hour. Record IB is for gage position LS, the longitudinal movement gage on the receiv-
ing rail end, and record 2B is for gage position L6, the longitudinal movement gage on
the leaving rail. Thus the wheels pass over position L6 (record 2B) before passing LS
(record IB). Record 3B is the stress at the mid-length of the same joint on the bottom
flange of the outer bar and its peaks indicate the position of the wheel with respect to
the mid-length. As spacing between driving wheels is ten feet, this distance gives a
_ — o n O O O o n
Compression
i\ 1 kjenslon Stress in Bars
5 m.p.h. /
Longitudinal/
IB Ls Movement \
O O O O O D O
90 m.p.h.
0"
TT——
Stress in Bars
'10 OOOp.s.i.
Run 253,0sc.B ^ k > /
0.005 in.
2B
1]
\B
LongitudinalJ
Movement \
— 'N^
. t ^ sec.
4AAAXAAAAAAAJ
Fig 39. — Typical Records of Longitudinal Movement between Bar and Rail
Head at S and 90 Miles per Hour — Also Stress in Bars.
210
Stresses in Railroad Track
if there were any differences in the action at the higher speeds that would produce
increased wear or deterioration of the joint.
The picture of the action of the longitudinal movement or slip in the joint as a
whole cannot be obtained from the results from two gages at the rail ends, but a number
of laboratory tests made previously show that the slip takes place along the fishing
surfaces of the bars. Coincidence of the larger values of slip with the locations where
high bearing pressures have been found to occur should determine areas of greatest
wear. The slip measured along the top fishing surface of a 36-in. lOS-lb. New York
Central rail joint and a 24-in. 90-lb. Illinois Central rail joint is shown in Fig. 38. These
joints were tested in the laboratory. The New York Central joint was loaded with
Distance from Mid-length of Joint Bar in Incfies
18 15 II 7 3 0 3 7 II 15 IS
-0.004
-0.003
-0.002
-ODOI
0
0.001
-0.003
-0.002
-0.001
Fig. 38. — Relative Longitudinal Movement
between Bar and Rail Head at Various Dis-
tances along a Joint in Laboratory Tests.
J
\
oint
\/
\
N.Y.
C. 36
in. J
1
I
k
-A
Ln
/
\
'N
Y
\
^-o-^
►— O— (
r
L
oad =
30 C
■)00lb
\
p
\
1.
0. 24 in. Jo
nt
I
Y
^
A
K
V
N
Y
30,000 lb. applied at the middle of a 32-in. span. The Illinois Central joint had two
loads of 30,000 lb. applied at a distance of 16 in. from the supports of a 68-in. span.
The ordinates for these diagrams are slip (longitudinal movement) for a point on the
rail fishing surface with respect to a point on the bar fishing surface immediately below.
The abscissas are distance along the length of the joint. Values of the slip are shown at
every two-inch interval. A negative value of shp indicates movement of the rail end
toward the mid-length of the bar and a positive value indicates movement away from
mid-length of the bar.
It is seen from Fig. 38 that the slip or relative longitudinal movement at the top
fishing surfaces at the mid-length of the joint approached a value of 0.004 in. and is
negative for both rail ends and for both tests. This location is the approximate loca-
tion of the magnetic strain gages in the field tests. At four or five inches back from mid-
length the slip has decreased considerably and in some cases it reverses direction. The
Illinois Central bars were well worn and the fit was apparently not as uniform as that
of the New York Central bars and the results are not as uniform along the length of
the joint.
Two representative films with records of longitudinal movement taken at S and 90
miles are shown in Fig. 39. Both are for a B-19, full bearing, "as is", 36-in. joint. The
records from bottom to top are numbered IB to 6B inclusive. The record at the extreme
bottom edge of the film is the timing record and the peaks come at half-second intervals
Movements Between Joint Bars and Rails
211
for the run at S miles per hour and at 1/60-sec. inter\'als for the run at 90 miles per
hour. Record IB is for gage position LS, the longitudinal movement gage on the receiv-
ing rail end, and record 2B is for gage position L6, the longitudinal movement gage on
the leaving rail. Thus the wheels pass over position L6 (record 2B) before passing LS
(record IB). Record 3B is the stress at the mid-length of the same joint on the bottom
flange of the outer bar and its peaks indicate the position of the wheel with respect to
the mid-length. As spacing between driving wheels is ten feet, this distance gives a
o o O O O o o
Compression
i^J^^<sJ-
•^^'V^A^AAy^/^
5 m.p.h.
Longitudinal/
IB Ls Movement \ _
o o Q Q Q o o
90 m.p.h.
^T—
Stress in Bars
10 OOOp.s.i.
Run 253 . Osc. B
■38
0.005 in.-^
2B Le
Longitudinal^
IB L^ Movement I
Fig 39. — Typical Records of Longitudinal Movement between Bar and Rail
Head at S and 90 Miles per Hour — .'Mso Stress in Bars.
212
Stresses in Railroad Track
means of obtaining the scale of distance along the film. The other records (4B, 5B and
6B) are stresses on a joint on the same rail one rail length east. The vertical scales of
the records are given on the left and the directions or signs on the right. A negative
sign denotes movement of the rail end toward the mid-length of the bar and compressive
stress and a positive sign the opposite.
The records of longitudinal movement or slip between fishing surfaces of rail and
bar are similar in shape to the stress records; they show sharp peaks under the wheel
load and reversals in direction of movement at points between the wheels and have a
rounded form. The movement begins at the time the joint starts to take stress, even
when the wheel is some distance from the joint, and it reaches a peak value when the
wheel is over the mid-length of the joint. At this time there is a sudden change in the
magnitude of the movement that is somewhat similar to the very rapid change found
0
■0.002
■0.004
0
-0.002
-0.004
0
-0.002
-0.004
0
I S -0.002
"^ I -0.004
6 ....
Fu\l Bearing \
As is Machine fit
F-4 Bars
Controlled Bearing
As is Machine fit
-I
9L
"J
¥f
7
■fk
A-
Simulated wear
M-
^
+ 1" Driver
y.2'"' Driver
03"' Driver
^
Worn
irit
B-19 Bars
Full Bearing 36 in\ Full Bearing 24 in.
As is Machine fit Machine fit Simulated wear
4 L i ^
Simulated wear
I
2L
3-43 Head-free Bars T^
As is
yd^-^
Fig. 40. — Relative Longitudinal Movement between Bar and Rail Head for
Various Types and Conditions of Rail Joints at 5 Miles per Hour.
in the vertical movement records. On the leaving rail the record (record 2B) rises to
peak value, drops sharply, and then rises again to a lower peak value. The drop prob
ably occurs as the rail gap is crossed. The record on the receiving rail (record IB) has
a similar form except that the rise after the sharp drop-off goes to a greater height than
the initial rise. Also the sharp drop in the movement records corresponds to a similar
drop in the stress record (record 3B). This variation in the stress record is not very
definite in the reproduction but is very definite in the original record for the run at
90 miles per hour.
The average longitudinal movements for a speed of five miles per hour for all the
tests and for three driving wheels are shown in Fig. 40. The results for the higher
las ^H
lan ^H
Recapitulation and General Discussion 213
speeds are not shown for the reason that little variation with speed was found. As the
values at the three locations differ little, the average value is plotted in the figure.
From the figure it may be seen that the magnitude of all the longitudinal move-
ments is relativel}' small. The negative sign indicates a movement of the rail ends
toward the mid-length of the joint. Most of the values are 0.002 in. or less except in
the case of the worn bars and those with simulated wear. The latter two reach a
maximum value of about 0.004 in. The worn joints also show somewhat greater move-
ment than the "as is" or the machine fit joints. A characteristic of the data shown is
that the second driving wheel (flangeless) again is at variance with the other two
wheels. In this case the second wheel gives somewhat greater movement but not mark-
edly so. The magnitudes of all the longitudinal movements are small and the variation
for the several driving wheels is probably of little importance. The variation was nearly
uniform for all joint locations. The values are somewhat smaller than were found in
the laboratory tests. This difference is probably a result of the higher bolt tension and
excellent fit in the tests in track. The higher bolt tension may be expected to develop
greater frictional resistance to longitudinal movement.
The results show the presence of an appreciable amount of movement between bar
and rail at the rail ends, which of course are positions of high bearing pressure. The
movement is sufficient to produce wear and the amount of the movement will increase
as the bolt tension drops off and the bars wear. Movements of this nature are undoubt-
edly the source of much of the wear that produces poor fit and low joints. Even
extremely minute amounts of tangential slip were found by Gough to cause contact
corrosion and formation of oxide debris. This action occurs even when the surfaces are
clean or oiled. No corrosion or much wear took place unle.-s slip was present. The tests
of Gough used rather small contact pressures compared with what may be expected in
rail joints.
The excellent fit and the high bolt tension may have partially defeated one purpose
of the tests in that the effects of speed were minimized. The form of the records and
their magnitude showed little change with the higher speeds. As in the case of the
vertical movements a part of the longitudinal movement was observed to occur in a
very short time. Just what effect this rapidity of movement may have on the wear is
not known.
20. Recapitulation and General Discussion. — Comments and discussion will
now be made in an effort to bring together some of the meanings and findings in the
tests of the rail joints in track.
It is well to visualize the position of the principal forces acting between the rail
and the joint bars. For positive moment (downward bending) (see Fig. 21) the head
of the rail presses downward upon the top fishing surface of the bar for a short dis-
tance near the ends of both rails, perhaps 1 to 2 in. just back of the rail end for both
rails, with the centroid of the loads applied at perhaps O.S in. to 1.5 in. either way
from mid-length of bar, and with the area of the pressure contact dependent upon fit
between bar and rail. In acting as a beam a closely fitting bar has two or generally
four vertical bearing reactions between its bottom fishing surface and the top of the
rail base of the two rails. One reaction always extends for some distance along the bar
near the end, and the second reaction for each half of a bar is developed for a short
distance outside of the position of the vertical load applied by the head of the rail.
For a given wheel load and given tie supports (the magnitude of the bending moment
developed depending in a complex manner upon the wheel load and the tie supports
and upon the action of the rail joint), the magnitude of the two reactions for each
214 Stresses in Railroad Track
half-length of bar will depend upon fit and stiffness of bar and particularly upon the
position of the interior reactions. Likewise the load applied by the rail head is largely
influenced by the magnitude of this interior reaction. As shown in Article 11 "Rail
Joints and Their Action" the magnitude of this pressure applied to the bar by each rail
head may have as great a calculated pressure as 70,000 lb. for a wheel load of 33,000 lb.
For the negative bending moment generally developed in front of and behind a wheel
the position of the loads and reactions developed between rail and bar will be reversed.
The values of the negative bending moment, as found in tests of track, may vary say
from 30 to 60 percent of the amount of the positive moment developed by the given
wheel, depending upon the wheel spacing and conditions of the track.
The bearing pressures and reaction forces apphed to the joint bars by the rail when
the joint carries load introduce complications into the measurement of the structural
action of the bars. The bearing forces and reactions applied at certain positions on the
fishing surfaces and their variable concentration produce deformations in the metal other
than the longitudinal strains considered in the analysis of ordinary bending action of
beams, particularly interfering with the assumption that the bending stress varies
directly with the distance from the neutral axis. The effect or influence of the additional
forces on the deformation of the bars at gage lines near the rail ends was so indeter-
minate as to make it impracticable to attack the problem by theoretical analysis. In-
stead, laboratory tests were made on joints with the different types and conditions of
bar by applying known loads and bending moments and then determining by calcula-
tion from the analytical formula and the stresses measured at the gage lines the value
of the empirical constant by which the moment so calculated should be multiplied to
get the moment actually applied. This constant, called the conversion ratio, was deter-
mined for each type and condition of bar for use with the particular position of the
gage lines used in the field tests. Although the method is empirical, it is believed that as
applied to the track tests the resulting values of the moment so found are sufficiently
close to actual values to warrant their use in making comparison of the action of the
various types of joint bars.
The effectiveness of a rail joint may be said to depend upon (a) the excellence of
fit between bar and rail at critical points along the length of bar; (b) the stiffness of
the bars as governed by the moment of inertia of the section of the bar with reference
to the neutral axis actually obtained in track service; (c) a sufficiently low maximum
stress to keep below an allowable working stress chosen with respect to fatigue resist-
ance for the frequencies of driving wheel loads, heavy truck wheel loads, and ordinary
truck wheel loads, respectively; and (d) the deflection of the rail joint as a whole as
compared with the full rail. Any comparison of rail joints will necessarily assume similar
bearing resistances to depression when the track is tamped and fitted to the actual
camber of the joints.
For these track tests the relative magnitudes of the moments developed in the joint
bars at mid-length, as compared with the moment developed in the full rail away from
the joint (for convenience called the joint moment ratio) will make a good measure of
the effectiveness of the joint including its relative stiffness. As in the tests no re-tamping
was done after installation of different pairs of joint bars it will be necessary to con-
sider the camber of the joint in making comparisons of the various joints, and this can
be done only in a general way.
First, it should be stated that the new bars used in the track tests (F-4, B-19,
A-39 and B-43) were all well-fitting bars. Probably all bars fitted the rails more closely
than do the usual run of joint bars when new. Nearly all these bars gave a joint camber
in the neighborhood of -f 0.010 in. in il in., which was probably more than the camber
I
Recapitulation and General Discussion 215
of the original joints when the track was tamped last. With the great stiffness of the
rail supports in this track (high modulus of elasticity of rail support) higher camber in
the new test joints added appreciably to the magnitude of the moment developed by the
wheel loads.
It is evident from the data that for comparable conditions of tests the heavy and
stiff symmetrical joint bar B-19 in "as is" condition develops a higher bending moment
and a greater joint moment ratio than the somewhat lighter and less stiff symmetrical
F— 4 joint bar (also in "as is" condition), the two kinds of joints having joint moment
ratios of essentially 0.90 and 0.80, respectively. Even with the development of a greater
moment, the maximum stresses are less in the B-19 bar than in the F-4 bar, compara-
tively about 25,000 and 35,000 lb. per sq. in. Thus the heavier section develops a
greater moment with a smaller stress and also distributes the load better among the ties
because of its greater stiffness. As the joint camber with both types of bars was pre-
sumably greater than that for which the track was last tamped, the ratios given (0.90
and 0.80) are obviously higher than if the track had been re-tamped. For well tamped
track in regular condition the values of the joint moment ratio for these two types of
joint may be expected to be, say, 0.85 and 0.75, respectively. The values 0.90 and 0.80
however, may be used for comparison under comparable conditions.
The machine fit bars doubtless gave even better fit than the "as is" bars and
would be expected to give smaller depression and greater moments. However, as the
straighter bars gave decreased joint camber and thus applied greater pressure to the
joint ties, the advantages of better fit were necessarily nullified, at least in part, and no
show of gain over "as is" bars could be expected in the tests.
The heavy A-39 angle bars used with the same high bolt tension maintained in all
the joints (about 30,000 lb.) and having about the same joint camber as the B-19
joints show a joint moment ratio of 0.85. Obviously the high bolt tension required for
protection of the gages was useful in holding the neutral axis close to a horizontal
position. Although this angle bar has a moment of inertia about a horizontal axis
nearly 20 percent greater than the B-19 bars, its effectiveness will drop off considerably
as wear progresses or bolt tension drops.
The joints with B-43 head-free bars with joint camber similar to other joints with
bars in "as is" condition developed less moment and gave a joint moment ratio of 0.65.
They gave somewhat greater vertical and longitudinal movements between bar and rail
in these tests, as this type of joint had given in previous laboratory tests. The deflec-
tions of the B-^3 joints in the laboratory tests were also greater than other joints.
A comparison of the tests with full bearing and with controlled bearing shows re-
sults that are similar with respect to moments and vertical movements. As made, the
length of the bearing at the middle of the bars with controlled bearing, especially that
at the bottom fishing surface, was greater than is desirable to secure decreased bearing
pressures. Laboratory tests indicate that joints with controlled bearing are as stiff as
those with full bearing. It is not known what difference in wear would occur.
The seven joints with bars ground to simulate wear (0.05 in. at top in middle, the
depression running out at 4 and 6 in. away) developed markedly lower moments, and
the joint moment ratios averaged about 0.50 and 0.60 for the F-4 and B-19 joints,
respectively. The vertical camber of these joints ranged from -0.006 to -0.016 in. One of
these joints in a laboratory test with a span of 48 in. gave a relatively high deflection.
In the track a greater load was therefore transmitted directly to the joint ties.
Re-tamping such joints has little effectiveness.
The moments developed in the three F-4 joints having worn bars taken from track
are not particularly different from the joints with new bars and the same joint camber.
2\t) SliesscsinRailroadTrack
The large deflection in the one laboratory test indicates that in re-tamped track undue
pressure would be transmitted to the ties at the joint and thus that the moment
developed would be smaller than that developed with the new bars.
The smaller bending moments found in joints having bars of 24-in. length, as
compared with similar bars of 36-in. length, are believed to be due to the effect of high
compression developed in the rails at the time by high temperatures. In view of earlier
tests on long and short joints, the differences in the bending moments should not be
taken as establishing a superiority in the longer length in respect to ability of new bars
to carry bending moment. Further tests on joints in track should be made under known
uniform conditions. It should be kept in mind too that these tests are with new bars,
and that little is known of relative wear with different lengths of bar. Service tests
may be expected to give information of value on this point.
Due to the variability in the transfer of load from one rail to the other at the
higher speeds, definite conclusions with respect to the effect of speed for the several
types and conditions of joint bars can not be stated. With the variable load came
occasional high stresses.
The vertical and longitudinal movements between bars and rail were generally
small, being 0.002 to 0.003 in. for the joints with "as is" and machine fit bars. One
type of joint, the B-43 head-free, had somewhat greater movement than the other joints.
This result had been observed previously in laboratory tests of the same kind of joint."
The joints with simulated wear gave greatly increased longitudinal and vertical move-
ments at mid-length where the top of the bar had been ground off. The joints worn in
service (F-4 CB) gave vertical movements similar to the "as is" joints but the longi-
tudinal movements were somewhat greater. These joints were only moderately worn.
Little or no increase in the vertical and longitudinal movements with increase in
speed was found even with bars having simulated wear. This lack of increase was prob-
ably in part prevented by the general excellence of fit between bars and rail and the
high bolt tension. However, in some cases, a considerable part of the total vertical and
longitudinal movement was found to take place very quickly, probably an impact effect
due to the wheel crossing the rail gap, which may be a source of joint wear. As shown
by the records the vertical and longitudinal movements generally began to take place
while the wheel was some distance from the rail ends thus preventing the occurrence of
"slap" or "flip" of the joint that has been suggested as a possible cause of joint wear.
A markedly worn joint possibly would have given different results in this respect and
tests should be made on joints and track in deteriorated condition.
It is believed that even the small amounts of longitudinal movement measured are
an important source of joint wear because of the high bearing pressures developed at the
locations where the greatest movements take place. The tests of Gough and Clenshaw
corroborate this conclusion.
It may also be suggested that any modification in the design of the joint that de-
creases the stress in the bar at its middle, like a heavier or stiffer bar or a greater fishing
height accompanying the use of a higher rail, will decrease longitudinal movements
between bar and rail and thus probably decrease joint wear.
All the measurements taken on joint bars and rail, except in the tests with rail
batter and the flat spot on the wheel, showed an almost complete absence of general
average speed effect such as had been observed in earlier tests of track and rolling stock.
rnnHl,^i^!? o^i'^U^''^ f^^P°^^' .^^^'^ i'''.^'^^^^'"^'' '^'o'- ^5, 1934, Article 7e, "Norfolk & Western
Continuous and Head-free Continuous Rail joints for 130-lb. P.S. Rail."
Effect of Flat Wheels m
The larger variations in moment observed in the joints, as well as in the rail, were
judged to be due to transfers of load between wheels on the same axle of the locomotive.
The deflection of the various rail joints obtained in the laboratory tests and shown
in Fig. 29 may be considered to give an indication of the relative stiffness of the joints
and their ability to distribute load to the ties.
V. Miscellaneous Tests
21. Effect of Flat Wheels. — Wheels of railway equipment develop flat spots in
the tread from various causes that need not be discussed here. The presence of such
flat spots is a source of expense, annoyance, and in some cases even danger. Writers
have developed analyses on the effect of flat spots and variations in wheel and track
surface upon depression and stress in rail, and some experimental work has been done.
The assumptions used in analyses have not generally conformed closely to the physical
conditions existing. In the experimental work the inability of the mechanical type of
stress recorder to withstand the severe impact caused by a flat spot and to record
clearly and accurately the rapid stress variation has retarded progress in the investiga-
tion of the problem. The magnetic strain fage used for the tests here reported overcame
many of the instrumental difficulties encountered previously and gave records that in
most respects may be considered satisfactory. Records of the depression of the rail were
also obtained simultaneously with the stress records, and these add value to the data.
Because of lack of familiarity at the time of the tests with the form and magni-
tude of records obtainable, the test records are not as fully satisfactory as they could
now be made. Higher film speeds and provision for more clear space would have shown
more clearly the exact form of the record without interference with other records on
the film.
A discussion and analysis of the effect of a low spot in a rail or a flat spot on a
wheel on the depression may be found in Timoshenko's "Applied Elasticity", page 334,
and in "Vibration Problems in Engineering" (second edition), page 107. This analysis
has been used and discussed by H. R. Thomas and N. H. Roy in Appendix B of the
"Fourth Progress Report of the Joint Investigation of Fissures in Railroad Rails"." A
special method for calculating the effects of irregularities in wheel and track surfaces
of shapes that cannot be expressed in convenient form analytically is included in this
latter report. Various examples are calculated and there are discussions of applications
of the methods of analysis and of the validity of the assumptions.
The analyses by Timoshenko and by Thomas and Roy determine the depression
of the wheel and rail produced by the vertical movements of the mass (the wheel and
the unsprung weight incidental to it) due to an assumed irregularity in the wheel or
the rail surface. The rail and its support are considered as equivalent to an elastic
spring. The wheel is assumed to maintain contact with the rail at all times and the
inertia of the rail and its support is neglected. The solutions require that the track act
as a spring in tension at times, but the effect of the superimposed static wheel load will
generally be sufficient so that the track will not actually rise above its unloaded position.
A modification of the analysis of Timoshenko was made, for the purposes of this
report, to determine the effect which the car spring will have on the action of the
vibrating system and to learn whether this effect is of importance. Because of limita-
tions of space the derivation of the modified solution will not be given; it follows
standard methods conforming to the assumptions of the problem. The upper end of the
spring was assumed to be fixed, an assumption not greatly in error as long as oscilbtions
" AREA Proceedings, Vol. 39, 1938, page 807.
218 Stresses in Railroad Track
of the car body do not develop. The shape of the flat spot is the form used by Timo-
shenko. This shape is not greatly different from the usual irregularities present in wheels
and track. The applicability of all these analyses is limited and while the one here
reported probably offers a closer approach to the true conditions for certain cases it
still has some of the defects of the others.
The shape of the flat spot or the low spot is assumed in the analysis to have the
form given by the expression, h sin^-Tfrt, where h is the maximum depth of the spot,
■I 1
I
Ti = — where v is the velocity of the car and I the length of the spot, and t is the
elapsed time at any instant from the initial contact with the flat or low spot. The ratio
t
-;f- corresponds to the distance the wheel has traveled along the flat spot at any mstant
expressed in terms of the full length of the spot. This curve is horizontal at the two
ends, a condition likely to occur in track.
By the modified analysis the deflection or depression of the rail, A, due to the flat
spot or low spot (or high spot) of the assumed form was found to be
-I
2n
cos 'ijfr
(74)
The terms T, Ti, and T^ represent natural periods of the system and are given by
the following expressions:
e(k 4- k 1 ~ ^^^ natural period of the unsprung weight W, under the action
£(,1+ i) Qf jjjg track spring of stiffness ki and the car spring of stiff-
ness k2, g being the constant acceleration of gravity.
/
Ti^~ = the time required to cross the spot.
Ti^lTT a/ = the natural period of the unsprung weight W, considering
' ^ ^1 only the action of the track spring of stiffness ki.
The solution given for A represents the added deflection of the rail due to the flat
spot. Since the track is assumed to be an elastic spring the load or force on the track
will be proportional to this deflection and the moment and stress at the point of appli-
cation of the load wDl also be proportional to the deflection. The spring constant for
the track is, of course, calculated on the basis of a single load on the track.
The usual flat spot or low spot is of relatively short length and the period of time
required to cross it is correspondingly small. The flat spots used in the tests were about
4 in. in length and 0.11 to 0.13 in. m depth. The two flat spots were located directly
opposite each other on the wheels of the third axle of the heavy car. The average wheel
load was 26,500 lb. Contours of the two flat spots are plotted as full lines in Fig. 41.
The ordinates are the variation of the spot from a true circular curve of the wheel
diameter. The broken Hne curve gives for comparison a flat spot of the shape assumed
in the analysis having approximately the same length and maximum depth as the
actual spots. The analytical curve is seen to be similar to the actual flat spots.
The maximum speed of the test runs was limited to 30 miles per hour because
the wheels had been turned down in service until the diameter was reduced from the
usual 33 in. to 30J/2 in. and the resulting thickness of rim was considered insufficient for
higher speeds. The noise of the impact was very great as the wheel ran along the track.
The minimum speed was 11 miles per hour. At the time of the tests this range was
1
Effect of Flat Wheels
219
Or^c^
Distance along Flat Spot in Inches
I 2 3
0.05
Q 0.
10
15
"^.^
Analytical — __
^y^
X
s
x^ ^ '•Measured
^"^
==*^^
Fig. 41.— Profiles of Flat Spots on the Two Wheels of Heavy Car—
Ordinates Measured from True Circle — Also Assumed
Analytical Curve.
thought to include the speed for maximum analytical effect. Later calculations showed
that the maximum analytical effect with such a short flat spot comes at about five miles
per hour, so in this respect the data are deficient for comparison with the analysis.
Slipping the wheels on an oiled spot enable the flat spot to be brought nearly over
the gage. For the various runs the longitudinal distance between the gage and the
contact of the flat spot with the rail averaged three inches with a maximum distance of
six inches. A still closer position would have been advantageous, for these distances are
large compared with the length of the flat spot and will influence the magnitude of the
records. It should be borne in mind that at only one instant is the wheel directly over
the instrument and that at all other times in approaching or leaving the instrument
location the values recorded were influenced by the manner in which the moment at
the instrument is affected by the position of the wheel and the flat spot with respect to
the instrument. In other words, only one point on the record can correspond exactly
with the analytical value. At other points the values are affected also by the wheel
position.
Film records are not shown for these flat spot tests. The variations take place so
quickly that some of the lines of the record are very thin and would not survive the
processes of reproduction, and even on the original film the records must be magnified
for study. Fig. 42 illustrates approximately the form of the stress and depression records.
The horizontal scale of the diagram has been made relatively larger than on the film to
show more clearly the shape of the curve. As the wheel approaches the instrument, an
increase in stress was recorded. On the arrival of the flat spot a sudden drop in stress is
shown, followed with a very rapid increase to a peak value of as much as 25,000 lb.
per sq. in. The record again drops below a normal amount (reverse peak) before assum-
ing the usual form of variation found for the other wheels. This record has the same
general form as the analytical curves.
On the film itself the stress record trace is very faint and with the film speed used
(about 2.5 in. per sec. for the 30 mile per hour record) its slope cannot be measured
with sufficient accuracy to state whether the rate of change of the deflection is within
the capabilities of the oscillograph galvanometer. The galvanometer is oil damped and
its response is stated to be almost without error up to 500 cycles per second, but the
response is about 12 percent low at 700 cycles and 23 percent low at 1,000 cycles.
While it is not known to just what frequency the rates of change of the galvanometer
deflection in the records correspond, the changes are probably too rapid for the gal-
vanometer to indicate the full amount of the stress under the flat spot.
This reduction in the recorded value may also be present in the depression records
to some extent. The slope of the rise of the depression curve is not measurable with the
220
Stresses in Railroad Track
Fig. 42. — Stress in Rail and Depresion of Rail as Flat Wheel and
Round Wheel Pass the Instruments.
film speed used, so no definite statement can be made of the rate of change of depres-
sion other than that it appears to be an instantaneous change as in the case of the
stress records. The amount of the increase in depression due to the effect of the flat
spot may thus not be fully indicated on the film.
The depression record in Fig. 42 is seen to have a variation of form under the flat
spot similar to the stress record, as might be expected from the assumptions of the
analyses discussed. The rate of recovery of the track under sudden release of load has
been a subject of some speculation. The depression records under the flat spot indicate
that with the sudden release of load the track springs back upward an appreciable
amount very quickly; the depression variations appear to take place simultaneously
with the stress variations.
The peak values of the stresses and depressions recorded under the flat spot at
gage Location 4 are plotted with respect to the speed of the car in Fig. 43. The stresses
in the middle of the base of the 131-lb. RE rail shown are as high as 25,000 lb. per
sq. in. They appear to have a fairly definite trend with speed and to have a maximum
at about 20 to 22 miles per hour. This maximum is reached at a speed well above the
speed for maximum stress indicated by the analysis, about five miles per hour. The
average value of the stress in rail for the wheels in normal condition at a speed of 11
miles per hour was found to be 10,000 lb. per sq. in. The stress under the impact load
is thus lYi times that for the wheels in a normal condition. The moment developed
Effect of Flat Wheels
221
26
26
c a. 2*4 -
^22
■S Q. 20
S 18
<f
16
1 1
O Lett Side
•
•
.]t
r 1
• Riqtit Side
•
•
V
A
/^
^
•
-^
f^
•>
r<^
-^
•/>
o
o
Q
'•
^
o
^
o
10 14 18 22 26
Speed in Miles per Hour
30
34
Fip;. 43. — Stress in Rail and Depression of Rail under Flat Wheels
of Heavy Car at Various Speeds.
with a stress of 25,000 lb. per sq. in. is 685,000 in.-lb. and for 10,000 lb. per sq. in. is
275,000 in.-lb.
The modified analysis with the assumptions used predicts a maximum increase in
rail depression due to the flat spot of 1.35 times the depth of the spot. Since the depth
was about 0.13 in., this factor makes the increase in depression 0.18 in., which cor-
responds to an increase in load of about 41,000 lb. for the test track with a modulus
of 2,500 lb. per in. per in. This load is calculated on the basis of a single wheel load
on the rail. The maximum increase of load would give a total maximum moment,
including the static effect of the wheel load, of about 710,000 in.-lb. at the flat spot.
This calculated moment is somewhat in excess of that found from the test results but
the difference may be due in part to the lack of full indication of peak stresses by the
galvanometers and also to the flat spot contact not coming exactly at the instrument.
The values for the rail depression in Fig. 42 show trends similar to those found
with the stresses. The maximum values occur at about 22 miles per hour and arc
less at both higher and lower speeds. In this respect the findings for both depressions
and stresses are similar to the results of the analyses. The maximum depressions arc
■seen to be about 0.22 in. with a few values up to 0.24 in. The depressions previously
recorded for this location with normal wheels were about 0.18 to 0.20 in., making an
increase of considerable amount. The calculated depression for a normal wheel is about
0.15 in. not considering the effect of play.
It is clear from these data and a consideration of the conditions involved that
the assumptions of the analyses are not fulfilled in several important respects. The most
222 Stresses in Railroad Track
important defect in the assumptions probably is that the wheel fails to maintain con-
tinuous contact with the rail and that when it again contacts the rail there is con-
siderable impact effect which makes the action much more complicated and possibly
more severe than would be found with continuous contact. The likelihood of loss of
contact is discussed by Thomas and Roy with the assumption of no uplift of the rail
during loss of contact. The depression records of these tests show that the rail does
rise toward the wheel very quickly. However, the very small amount of downward
movement of the wheel possible in the time available makes it unlikely that contact
will be maintained. The loud noise or slap accompanying the running of the flat wheel
tends to corroborate this conclusion.
It is not known how much mass should be considered to act in the rail and track.
There is a considerable mass that has movement of greater or lesser amounts and the
inertia forces involved may be an important factor in the action.
It is assumed in the analyses that the shape of the depression curve and distribution
of the stresses and depressions along the rail are not affected by the very rapid action
in any way that changes the relation between load and stress and depression. A differing
relation has been found by R. N. Arnold'* to be a very important matter where the
action is very rapid. It may cause serious error.
The presence of stresses as high as 25,000 lb. per sq. in. in a 131-lb. rail (moment
of 685,000 in.-lb.) indicates the presence of very large forces, and since the rapidity
of the changes in stress is probably greater than the oscillograph galvanometers will
record accurately the values registered are thought to be lower than the actual values.
Further experimental work along this line would be of value and could be more wisely
conducted through experience gained in these exploratory tests. It would be desirable
to use, if possible, instruments adapted to accurate registration of even higher fre-
quencies of stress than the magnetic strain gage equipment of these tests.
22. Effect of Batter in the Rail Surface. — Batter in the rail surface is one of
the principal detrimental features that develop at the rail joints in track under service.
As it was not practicable to obtain joints from service with batter developed to the
extent desirable for test purposes, the rail surface at a joint and at places on two rails
away from a joint was ground to a shape similar to that found in service, and records
were made of the stresses in the joint bars and the stresses and depressions in the full
rail under these conditions of batter. This batter constitutes an irregularity in track
such as was intended also to be covered by the analyses discussed in Article 21.
The surface at the rail ends at joint location 1 was first ground to a maximum
depth of 0.025 in. at the rail gap, sloping back uniformly to nothing at a distance
of 2 in. on the leaving rail and 4 in. on the receiving rail, making a total length of 6 in.
of batter. A similar batter spot was ground in the right rail at gage Location 5. These
batter spots will be termed shallow six-inch batter. After tests were made with shallow
batter, the depth of batter at the rail gap and in the full rail was increased to 0.050 in.,
sloping to nothing in 3-in. on the leaving rail and 6-in. on the receiving rail. This
batter spot will be termed deep nine-inch batter. Later the length of the batter spot
at both the joint and the full rail was increased to 36 in., vidth the maximum depth
of batter kept at 0.050 in. and symmetrically disposed with respect to the rail gap
and a point in the rail; this is termed the deep 36-in. batter. Batter was also ground
wt
into the left rail at rail location 6 to conform to the expression y = h sin" -t^; — '
'"'Impact Stresses in a Freely Supported Beam" by R. N. Arnold. (B.Sc. Ph.D.. M.S.), A.M.I.
Mcch. E., Proceedings Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Vol. 137, 1937, part 3, page 217.
Effect of Batter in the Rail Surface
223
leo
160
140
2 120
•S 100
^ 80
I 160
s
5 140
o
*" 120
.c
^ 100
I 80
S 160
Q:
100
80
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Joint Location 1 — F-4 Worn Joint
1 1 1 1 1
Right Rail Location 5
1 1 III 1 1
Deep (.050 in.) 9-m. batter
Traffic
,
—
-^
■
A
1
^
r"
-
\
/
A
/
/
'
/
\
/
Jo
hi L
ocati
jn 1-
1 1 1
— F-4 Worn Joint
1 1 1
Right Rail Location 5
s
Dei
'PU
)50
'n.
.
"ie-ir
. batter
N
V
^
^
^
\^
y
^
X
S
y
y
^
\
y
/
N.
^
Left Rai
Lo
zafioi
7 6
8 -in. by s in. batter
"
---
— -
\
(
\
\
1
le I? 8
0 4 8 12 16 16 12 8 4 0
Distance along Rail in Inches
8 12 16
Fig. 44. — Profiles of Batter Spots Ground into Rail.
(a shape assumed in the analyses) where h is maximum depth, Ti the period of time
required to cross the batter spot, and t the time elapsed from the first contact of the
t
wheel with the batter spot. The ratio— ^;:-corresponds to the distance the wheel has
traveled along the batter at any instant expressed in terms of the full length of the
batter spot, h was made 1/16 in. and the length of the batter spot was 8 in. This
batter spot is termed the 8-in. by 1/16-in. batter spot.
The measured profiles of the deeper forms of batter are shown in Fig. 44. It may
be noted that the nine-inch batter is not a symmetrical curve and in this respect does
not conform to the curves assumed in the analyses. All the batter curves, (except the
8-in. by l/16-in. batter) are also not continuous curves as was also assumed in the
analyses. The meeting of the two sloping sides of the batter gives a point of discon-
tinuity in the batter. These differences between the analytical and the test conditions
may be expected to affect the agreement of the test results and analytical values
somewhat.
The tests made with rail joints without batter showed that the gap between the
rail ends affects the form of the records in many cases so that the form of the records
taken with joints having batter will also be influenced by the rail gap.
It should be borne in mind that the instruments recording the stresses and depres-
sions in the batter tests are attached to the rail or the joint bars, and thu? the position
of a moving wheel is varying continuously with respect to the batter spot and to the
instrument position. The analysis deals with the values at the wheel position as it
224
Stresses in Railroad Track
proceeds across the batter spot and thus the recorded values will not be identical
with the analytical values under the test conditions.
Less slap or noise was produced when the wheels passed over the batter spots
than was produced by the flat spot. Speeds as high as 90 miles per hour over the
batter spot did not cause undue disturbance. The surface of the rail was chalked at
the 8-in. by l/16-in. batter spot. The chalk was found to be removed in a path over
the full length of the batter spot even at a speed of 90 miles per hour. This is an
indication of the probability of continuous contact over this batter spot by any wheel,
even though all wheels passed over it. Although at the high speeds a wheel will not
drop or be forced into the batter spot before it is well beyond the middle of the
length, the upward recoil of the rail may be fast enough to account for nearly
continuous contact.
t"?^. O.C) Ooo
i
1 :
O O
o o
\ 10 000 p.s.i. ^ -yr ^ sec. -h\-
1 1 U U A A U lAlMMriiMUJLi A 1 U A M « A A Ji.litMiit H I li AA A A A I. A^LA Id
Deep 9-in. ^W^.
batter y^ 'S^
Rail
Depression
No batter /
Run 553,050. B GOm.p.li.
^ .10 000 p.s.i.
3B, , A /\l[
^^^.^^
No batter
'\M.
, .Rail Stress^ r ^Deep 9-in. batter
\^r~/\ir
Fig. 45. — Typical Records of Stress and Depression for Deep 9-in. Batter Spot
at a Rail Joint and in Full Rail at 60 Miles per Hour.
Effect of Batter in the Rail Surface
225
Since the records taken for the batter spots were somewhat clearer and easier to
interpret than those for the flat spots some representative records are shown for
comparison and study. In Fig. 45 are shown the records of stress and depression for
the deep 9-in. batter for the locomotive and car at 60 miles per hour, the highest speed
run with the car. The upper film is from oscillograph A and the records are numbered
from lA to 4A inclusive. All records in this film (except the 60 cycle timing wave at
the extreme bottom edge) are stresses in the bars of an F— i worn joint at Joint Loca-
tion 1 and the records in order from bottom to top are gage hnes C (see Fig. 25 for loca-
tion of gage lines) at the bottom of the outer and inner bars respectively and gage lines B
at the top of the outer and inner bars respectively. The lower film has records of the
stress in the base of the right rail at gage Location 5 with deep 9-in. batter (IB)
iJI
C ) O O r. r, kw
o o
Stresses in
Joint Bars
4A
Deep 36-in. batter
at Joint
^ J
j^m^
2A
■Tension ' !
Run 5/6, Osc. A {'' \'*^ ^--Tension i i /
it ;'' ^' 1 ' ( i'
eOm.p.h. k \ \
10000 p.s.i.
lA
M I ' 1 1 1 u 1 iiMimmmH >
Deep 36-in.
batter
Run 576.0SC.B
^^8-in. by j-^ in. batter
38
60m. p.h.
10 000 p.s.i.
Rail Stress
■Mj^jjJ'JCj
Rail Stress ^ ^ q^^ ^^-in.
/ I batter
Fig. 46. — Typical Records of Stress and Depression for Deep .^6-in. Batter
Spot at a Rail Joint and in Full Rail— Also S-in. by 1/16-in. Batter in
Full Rail at 60 Miles per Hour.
226 Stresses in Railroad Track
and in the base of the left rail at gage Location 5 with no batter (3B); 4B is the
depression of the left rail with no batter and 5B is the depression for the right rail
with the deep 9-in. batter. In Fig. 46 is shown a set of records, also at 60 miles per
hour, with the test conditions similar in all respects except that the deep 9-in. batter
has been lengthened to 36 in. and records 3B and 4B are now stress and depression
records for the Gage Location 6 on the left rail with the 8-in. by 1/16-in. batter of
irt
the form denoted by the expression h sin^-^^r.
It will be seen that the records for the batter tests are similar in form to the sketch
shown for the fiat spot record (see Fig. 42). However, the original records show that
the rates of change of stress and depression as the wheel crosses the batter are less
than with the flat spot, though the changes in the records for the batter spot are still
quite rapid due partly to the higher speeds used. The test speeds were as high as 90
miles per hour for the batter tests. The gap at the rail ends introduces an additional
effect in the records for joint bars (records lA to 4A, Fig. 45). This effect can be seen
by comparing the shape of the records for the joint with those for the full rail (records
IB and 3B, Fig. 45). The records for the locomotive wheels in some instances have
forms differing somewhat from those for the car wheels; the car wheel records are
quite consistent in form but vary in magnitude. There is generally an initial decrease
of the stress or the depression as the wheel first reaches the batter and then a very
quick rise followed by a fairly rapid drop to resume the normal shape for an unbattered
rail. Comparisons of form can be made by reference to record 3B in Fig. 45, which is
for the full rail without batter. Some of the difference in the form of the records for
the locomotive and the car may have been due to differences in the contact on the
batter spot of the large locomotive wheels and the small car wheels.
The records shown in Fig. 46 for the tests with the deep 36-in. batter for the
joint and the rail are chiefly of interest in that almost all of the difference of form
of the stress and depression records observed for deep 9-in. batter, when compared
with full rail records, has been eliminated or very greatly decreased by lengthening the
batter. The magnitude of the stresses and depressions has also been decreased as will
be shown later. The lengthening of the batter has decreased the impact and speed
effect and has also decreased the vibrations developed.
It may be seen from the records for the batter tests that a wheel crossing the
batter spot causes very rapid changes of stress and depression, as is indicated by the
steepness of the slopes of the lines of the record and their relatively lesser weight. It is
possible that these changes were so fast that the galvanometers did not record the full
height of the peak values. However, it is judged from examination of the records
that the changes were less rapid than in the tests of the flat spot and the indications
for the batter tests are therefore probably more nearly correct than for the tests with
the flat spot. It should be stated that since the galvanometers are critically damped,
their indications will be less than the full amount when the changes become too rapid.
The bending moments in the rail joint and in the full rail at the batter spots
developed by the three driving wheels of the locomotive are shown in Fig. 47. For the
deep 9-in. batter at a speed of 15 miles per hour the moment in the joint is about
380,000 in.-lb. With the batter extended to 36 in. the moment developed has decreased
to about 325,000 in.-lb. However, with the deep 9-in. batter the moments drop off
somewhat as the speed is increased. With the deep 36-in. batter the change in moment
in the joint, as the speed increases, is first one way and then another with a possible
peak at SO or 60 miles per hour. It has been found that variation in the action of the
locomotive at or above 60 miles per hour causes large changes in the moment developed
Effect of Batter in the Rail Surface
227
500
Moments in Rail Join!
300
.c
70 90 30 50
Speed in Miles per Hour
Fig. 47.— Bending Moments Developed at the Batter Spots in the Rail Joint and P'ull
Rail by the Three Driving Wheels of Locomotive 4779.
230 Stresses in Railroad Track
The moments developed by the car at 60 miles per hour, shown in Fig. 48, are
seen to be somewhat at variance with the trends at the lower speeds and are also
erratic for some wheels both for the rail joint and the full rail. The moments at 60
miles per hour for most of the tests made at Gage Location 5 show points of similarity.
It appears likely that some action of the car is a principal factor in the variability,
one of the outstanding examples being the large moment developed by the third wheel
at 60 miles per hour in several instances when the other wheels show a large decrease
in moment.
It will be noted that in all tests the first car wheel develops markedly less moment
than the others. This wheel has relatively heavy wheel loads immediately ahead and
behind it and thus gets a greater negative moment (helping effect) from these adjacent
wheels than do the other car wheels.
Comparison of the moment diagrams for the joint and the full rail for tests with
the deep 9-in. batter and with the deep 36-in. batter shows that the two kinds of
batter have a similarity in their variations in moment with speed for both joint and
rail up to a speed of SO miles per hour, above which the car itself apparently develops
some action that is the governing factor in the magnitude of the moment developed
at a given location.
The moments developed at the shallow six-inch batter spot are not shown; they
are similar in form to those for the deep nine-inch batter but of somewhat lesser mag-
nitude. The car was not run for the shallow nine-inch batter tests, so values are avail-
able only for the locomotive.
The form of the records of the depression of the rail for the batter tests may be
seen in Figs. 45 and 46 and may be compared to a record on the same film for a rail
that has no batter. It is apparent from the diagrams that the batter caused changes in
the form of the depression records as compared to those for the rail with no batter.
Greater depressions were also found with batter in the rail than with no batter at the
identical gage location. Under the car the average depression was about O.IS in. with
no batter, 0.17 in. with deep 9-in. batter, 0.16 in. with deep 36-in. batter, and 0.26 in.
with 8-in. by l/16-in. batter. The increases of depression under the locomotive driving
wheels due to batter were somewhat greater. The average depression was about 0.15 in.
with no batter, 0.20 in. with deep 9-in. batter, and 0.28 in. with 8-in. by l/16-in.
batter. Despite the fact that the batter increased the depression of the rail over that
found with no batter, there was little increase in the maximum depression at the
higher speeds in the tests with batter, such as was observed with the flat spot. However,
since the effect of the batter was considerably less than the effect of the flat spot, any
changes in depression caused by speed may be expected to be less noticeable for the
batter tests.
The depressions of the rail for the tests with batter are not given in detail
because of the lack of appreciable change with speed. The form of the records may be
observed in the films shown. The general values given in the foregoing discussion are
considered sufficient for the purpose.
Comparison may be made between the test results and the values calculated by
the modified analysis, discussed in Art. 21 "Effect of Flat Wheel", which consider the
effect of the car spring. The calculated effect of the car spring is to decrease somewhat
the magnitude of the maximum effect of the batter over that calculated without con-
sideration of the spring. The amount of this decrease is about ten percent. The com-
parisons will be made with test results from the loaded car for the full rail because the
results for the rail joint are affected by other factors besides the batter.
Effect of Batter in the Rail Surface 23^
The speed calculated from the formula at which the deep 9-in. batter would have
the maximum effect is about 9 miles per hour, and the depression due to the batter
alone was calculated to be 1.35 times the depth of the batter. As the depth of the
batter was 0.050 in. the calculated depression caused by the batter alone is 0.068 in.
This depression may be expressed in terms of load. Considering the stiffness of the
track, it will be equivalent approximately to a lS,000-lb. load in addition to the static
wheel load. This added load was calculated on the basis of a single concentrated load
on track with a modulus of 2,500 lb. per in. per in. The added load would develop
a total calculated moment of about 400,000 in. -lb., considering the weight of the car
and the effect of an adjacent wheel. The moments shown in Fig. 48 for the deep 9-in.
batter are seen to be between 350,000 and 400,000 in.-lb., a fair agreement with the
calculated value.
The test results indicate that the maximum effect of the 9-in. batter occurred at
about 25 miles per hour, a speed considerably above the calculated speed. This disagree-
ment may be the result of some loss of contact in crossing the batter despite the
probability of continuous contact indicated by the track of the wheel through the
chalk as discussed previously.
The analytical speed for maximum effect of batter for the deep 36-in. batter is
35 miles per hour and the test results gave maximum moments at about 35 to SO miles
per hour, which is considered a good agreement. However, the analysis gives the same
increase in load as for the 9-in. batter, because the greatest depth of batter is identical,
the calculated maximum being at a higher speed for the 36-in. batter than for the 9-in.
batter. The calculated total moment of about 400,000 in.-lb. for a wheel is seen from
the diagram to be considerably greater than the maximum moments found for the 36-in.
batter, which were in general about 275,000 to 310,000 in.-lb.
From the closer agreement between some of the test and the calculated values it
seems probable that the assumptions of the analysis were more nearly fulfilled in the
batter spot tests than in the flat spot tests, especially in regard to the assumption of
continuous contact of the wheel on the rail. The batter spots were all of greater length
and lesser depth than the flat spot, both conditions being favorable to maintenance of
contact. If contact is lost the force in the car spring and the track reaction are no
longer in equilibrium and accelerations are imparted to the wheel and track that may
be expected to increase the severity of the action when contact is again established.
The grinding of the deep 9-in. batter to a length of 36 in. to lessen the slopes of
the batter spots gave a definite decrease in the stress developed by the car wheels.
The lengthening of the batter also decreased the rail vibrations as shown by the smoother
records obtained. The grinding out to a longer length has been tried in service by one
railroad to decrease the detrimental effect of the batter at the rail joints but the results
are not known. However, it should be stated that the stresses were materially increased
by the presence of batter of all forms in both the full rail and the rail joint.
The rail depressions with batter in the rail were also found to be greater than
without the batter. The 8-in. by 1/16-in. batter caused the largest increase in depression
and the deep 36-in. batter the smallest, with the deep 9-in. batter intermediate between
the two. The higher speeds caused httle or no addition to the depression, as compared
with the lower speeds, even though the stresses observed at the same locations showed
material changes. The reason for this lack of speed effect upon the depression is not
known, though it is possible that the changes were small relative to the total amount
of the depression and thus are not readily recorded.
Tests were also made with two wheels mounted eccentrically on an axle of the
heavy car. The eccentricity, which was 1/16 in. or less, was apparently too small to
232 Stresses in Railroad Track
show an appreciable effect on the stresses and depressions of the rail, and the results
will not be given. Out-of-round wheels have been found to cause track damage. Tests
on the effect of this not unusual condition may well be included in a future program.
As previously stated, the tests with flat spots and batter were undertaken in a
preliminary way largely to learn whether the testing equipment available would be
satisfactory for determining the effect of such conditions on the stresses and depres-
sions developed in the rail. The apparatus was found to give rather definite and con-
sistent information. Besides, despite the short time taken in making the tests, it is
believed that the data obtained have given significant indications of the magnitudes
and trends of the stresses produced by the flat spot and the batter spots.
23. Rail Stresses and Depressions With Steam Locomotive. — Tests were
made with steam locomotive No. 6718, a fast freight locomotive of the Mia class,
(4-8-2), to study effects of counterbalance, as it existed in a steam locomotive, on the
stresses developed in the base of the rail and the corresponding depressions of rail.
The spacing of the wheels, the normal wheel loads and other data of the locomotive
are given in Fig. 3. Other information is likewise given in Article 6 "Locomotives
and Cars".
In these tests the magnetic strain gages were mounted on the center line of the
base of the two rails at gage locations 4, S and 6, spaced at 10-ft. intervals, the gages
on one rail being directly opposite corresponding ones on the other rail. Six solenoid
depression gages to record depression of the rail with reference to a support fixed in
the roadbed were also mounted on the two rails at the three gage locations. Thus the
strain gage and the depression gage of each gage location recorded stress and depression
measurements simultaneously.
For the one day of testing with this locomotive 23 runs were made, 3 runs at 5
miles per hour and 20 runs at 75 miles per hour. The stresses in the base of rail
developed under speeds of five miles per hour are considered to be due only to static
loads, this low speed producing negligible dynamic effects. All three of the runs at five
miles per hour were made prior to any run at the higher speed.
In all runs steam was shut off as the locomotive approached the test section of
track, and the locomotive drifted past the gages. The speeds were read from the
speedometer in the cab of the locomotive and checked against the speeds given by
the timing wave on the oscillograph records.
The position of the counterweight as the locomotive passed over a gage location
was recorded photographically. It was found unnecessary to control the position of the
counterweight on different runs as the starting and stopping of the locomotive and the
running over curves within the length of runs gave considerable distribution of position
of counterweight with respect to any one instrument.
In Table 11 are given the weights of the reciprocating and rotating parts of the
Class Ml Locomotive with counterbalance weight and weight placed in each wheel
for reciprocating parts as reported by the Mechanical department of the Pennsylvania
Railroad.
For the possible benefit of some readers, the methods of calculation and the com-
parison of measured data will be treated at somewhat greater length than would be
desired by other readers. In order to fully interpret the stress measurements, it was
necessary to make a comparison between calculated stresses due to counterweight influ-
ences and the measured stresses. Such a comparison involves an analysis of the effects
of the unbalanced weight in or upon each driving wheel. For this analysis it was
necessary to consider the weight of the main rod, side rods, eccentric crank, and counter-
weight and also the distance between their respective planes of rotation. For this par-
Rail Stresses and Depressions With Steam Locomotive 233
Weights of Rotating and Reciprocating Parts In Pounds — Class
Ul LocomotiTe of Pennsylvaiiln Railroad
All welgbts given for the rotating parts are at crank pin radius
or the equivalent weights at crank pin radius.
Reciprocating Parts
Total weight of reciprocating parts (one side) 1807 lb.
47jt of reciprocating parts 850 lb.
Rotating Parts
Driver number 4 3 Ualn 1
473t of reciprocating parts 212i 212i 212i 212i
Main rod, weight on crank pin 606
Side rod, weight on crank pin 146 464 625 146
Total 358i 676i 1443i 356^
Total counterbalance weight (weighed or
checked with crank pins, collars and
eccentric In place) 358i 676* 1443i 3584
ticular comparison, it was thought desirable to make certain refinements in the deter-
mination of the effective revolving weight of the main rod and the eccentric crank,
and also to include the vertical component of the force exerted by the main rod on the
crank pin in accelerating and decelerating the reciprocating weights.
The motion of the main rod, relative to the locomotive, is of course rotational at
one end and reciprocating at the other. The equivalent revolving weight of the crank
pin end may be determined by the equations for plane motion of a rigid body. In-
vestigations of a number of main rods by locomotive builders and by mechanical
engineers has shown that the equivalent revolving weight may be closely approximated
as seven-eighths of the scale weight of the crank pin end, and this value was
accordingly used in this analysis.
The weight of the eccentric crank was computed to be 130 lb. and to have its
center of gravity 10.5 in. from the center of rotation of the main driver. Converted to
crank pin radius the weight of the eccentric crank becomes 91 lb. A radial line through
the center of gravity of the eccentric crank makes an angle of approximately 10 deg.
with a radial line through the crank pin and lags the pin in position in both main
drivers when the motion of the locomotive is forward. For purposes of analysis it was
convenient to divide the eccentric crank weight into two components, one component
being parallel to a radial line through the crank pin and the other at an angle of
90 deg. thereto. For this locomotive these two components are 88 lb. and 24 lb.
respectively. The equivalent revolving weight of the back end of the eccentric rod,
assumed to be 12.S lb. at crank pin radius, was added to this latter component giving
a total weight of 36. S lb. for the 90-deg. component. To the component parallel to a
radial line through the crank pin was added the weight of the included part of the
main pin (25 lb.) giving a total component of 113 lb.
In Table 12 arc given the horizontal center-to-center distances between side rods,
main rods, eccentric cranks and counterweights. Also given are the values of the total
weight of the rotating parts. These values of total weights include the weights given in
Table 11 to which have been added the calculated weights of included parts of crank
pins. The weight of the included part of the crank pin added to a side rod or main
rod has also been added to the corresponding counterweight values given in Table 11
to give the total value of counterbalance weight acting at crank pin radius. For con-
venience in rotational calculations, all these weights have been given as at ciank pin
234 Stresses in Railroad Track
Total Weights of Rotating Parts and Center to Center Distances —
Class Ml Locomotive of Pennsylvania Railroad
..eights are In pounds and distances In Inches. All weights given are
at crank pin radius or the equivalent weights at crank pin radius.
Center to Center Distances
Side rod, main pin '^ 3/8
Main rod, main pin 91 1/2
Eccentric crank, main pin 103
Countervi'eight, main driver ' 63 1/4
Counterweight, drivers 1 and 4 60 7/8
Counterweight, Intermediate driver 61
V/elghts of Rotating Parts
Side rod and included pin, drivers 1 and 4 (146 + 36) 182
Side rod and included pin. Intermediate driver (464 + 36) 500
Main rod and included pin, main driver (7/8 x 606 + 109) 639
Side rod and included pin, main driver (625 + 108) 733
Eccentric crank and included pin (88 + 25) 113
Counterweight, drivers 1 and 4 (356* + 36) 394*
Counterweight, intermediate driver (676| + 36) 712*
Counterveight, main driver (1443 J + 242+ 88) 1773t
* Component of eccentric crank weight acting in direction opposite
counterweight plus included part of eccentric crank pin. Compon-
ent at 90 degrees is 36.5 lb. which leads counterweight position
in both right and left main drivers.
radius. No consideration was given to the weight of the hub of the main pin as it is
practically in the same plane as the counterweight and would have neghgible
out-of-plane effect.
The weights referred to above may be considered to be proportional to the
rotational or centrifugal forces which act radially, for any given speed of the locomo-
tive, and for convenience they may be used as forces with horizontal and vertical
components. Using the values of these forces given in Table 12, with the counter-
weight on the right side in a down position, moments of first the vertical forces and
second the horizontal forces acting on a pair of driving wheels are taken about a
vertical plane through the center of the counterweight of the left wheel of the pair.
Corresponding moments are then taken about the vertical plane through the center of
the counterweight of the right driver. From these moments the resultant unbalance
(horizontal and vertical components and their resultant) in the plane of the counter-
weight is determined. The resultant unbalance in each driver with its components, as
calculated in this manner, is shown in Fig. 49 together with positions with respect to
the counterweight.
It will be observed in Fig. 49 that the calculated resultant unbalance in the right
main driver is 305 lb. and that it leads the counterweight position by approximately
82 deg. whereas the resultant unbalance in the left main driver is only 207 lb. and lags
the counterweight position by approximately 84 deg. The resultant unbalance in both
the first and fourth drivers is 191 lb. It leads the counterweight position by 7 deg.
in the right drivers and lags by 7 deg. in the left drivers. For the third drivers the
resultant unbalance is found to be 161 lb. per driver and it leads the counterweight
position by approximately 22 deg. in the right driver and lags by the same amount in
the left driver.
It should be understood that these calculated values of resultant unbalance do not
in any way show lack of proper attention to the counterbalancing of the locomotive.
It is common practice to place more counterweight in the driving wheel of a locomo-
tive than is required to balance the rotating parts in order that the inertia effects of
Rail Stresses and Depressions With Steam Locomotive 235
Fig. 49. — Calculated Components and Resultant Unbalance in Pounds at Crank
Pin Radius in Locomotive Driving Wheels — Class Ml Locomotive
of the Pennsylvania Railroad.
the reciprocating parts may be reduced with resulting reduction in the shaking forces
on the locomotive frame and in the reduction of the nosing tendency of the locomotive.
It is necessary, however, to know the amount and position of the resultant unbalance
in each driving wheel brought about by this practice in order that proper interpretation
may be placed on the measured values of stress and bending moment developed in the
rail by the locomotive.
The general formula for calculating the dynamic augment produced by the
unbalanced rotating parts is the formula for centrifugal force,
^=-rr- (^2)"
in which
W = the weight of the rotating part for which the dynamic augment is desired, or
the unbalanced part of the rotating parts in case the rotational effect is wanted,
g =z the acceleration of gravity.
V = the rotational velocity or speed of the part,
r = the radius of the circle described by the center of gravity of the rotating part.
The equation implies consistent units, and the values may be taken in pounds,
feet, and seconds, with g as 32.2 ft. per sec. per sec.
The above formula is converted to the following form for convenience in use:
3.21WS'R
Dynamic Augment C := -^
(75)
in which
W = the weight of the unbalance at crank pin radius in pounds.
5 = locomotive speed in miles per hour.
R =z crank pin radius in inches.
D ^ diameter of drivers in inches.
For the speed of the tests (75 miles per hour) the calculated dynamic augment for
each individual driver resulting from substituting in the above equation the values of
resultant unbalance given in Fig. 49 becomes for the right side, from front to rear,
10,000, 15,900, 8,400, and 10,000 lb., respectively, and for the left side 10,000,
10,800, 8,400, and 10,000 lb., respectively. The vertical component of the dynamic aug-
ment for any position of a wheel then is a force applied to the rail in addition to the
'«AREA Proceedings, Vol. 21, 1920, page 653.
236 Stressesin Railroad Track
static wheel load. Calculations for bending stress in rail may then be made for such
loads by the methods used for calculating stresses in rail developed by a combination
of static wheel loads." The stresses thus determined may be added algebraically to the
stresses developed under the combination of static wheel loads.
For a modulus u of 2,500 lb. per in. per in., the measured modulus for this track,
the stresses in the base of the rail produced by the combined effect of the individual
dynamic augments were calculated to be + 3,700, + 6,000, + 1,900, + 3,400 lb. per
sq. in. under the first, second, third and fourth drivers on the right side, respectively,
and on the left side + 3,900, + 3,900, + 2,100 and + 3,500 lb. per sq. in. respectively.
It should be noted that these values of stress in base of rail, under the individual
drivers, are calculated for the instant that the resultant unbalance for the driver under
consideration is in a down position (see Fig. 49) and do not in all cases represent the
maximum stress developed under that driver due to the simultaneous combined effects
of the dynamic augments of the other drivers on the same rail. The maximum effect
of the different drivers on the rail do not occur simultaneously with each other.
Nevertheless, the values of stress given are usually fairly close to the maximum
calculated values.
Other variable vertical forces applied to the track include the vertical component
of the force transmitted to the main driver crank pin by the main rod. As the locomo-
tive was allowed to drift over the gage locations and as information is not available
on the pressures applied to the piston when steam is shut off no attempt will be made
to take into account forces of this kind. The inertia effects of the reciprocating parts,
however, have a magnitude that requires consideration.
It is not known whether the vertical component of these inertia forces of the
reciprocating parts applied to the main pin by the main rod may in any part be trans-
mitted to wheels other than the main driver. In the calculations this vertical force has
been considered to be applied wholly to the main driver.
The vertical variable force on the, main pin produced by the inertia effects of the
reciprocating parts and transmitted to the main pin through the main rod may be closely
calculated by the formula,
W r r r sin 0 1
^=T'"^1T('='^®+T^«^2e)-^^J (76)-
in which
F = the vertical component of the force on the main pin transmitted to the pin
through the main rod and produced by the inertia effects of the reciprocating
parts.
W^ total weight of reciprocating parts on one side of the locomotive.
g z=z acceleration of gravity.
^ = angular velocity of main driver.
r = crank arm radius.
^=r length of connecting rod (115 in.).
6 = angle which the crank arm makes with the horizontal.
0cr: angle which the connecting rod makes with the horizontal.
'^ Reference to the principles given in the analysis of track action in the Sixth Progress Report
(pages 278-291) will show that the moment and, therefore, the stress produced by a combination of
wheel loads may be found by calculating the load for a single wheel which is equivalent to the com-
bined effect of the several wheels in moment producing effect, and using the resulting load (wh'ch is
termed the equivalent single wheel load) in the formula for bending moment in rail. The formula for
bending moment in rail is M„ = 0.318 P*, (Equation (8) page 279 of the Sixth Progress Report) where
P is the equivalent single wheel load and «j is the distance from the wheel load to a point of zero
bending moment in the rail for a single wheel load on the track in question.
'• This equation was derived by using the equation for acceleration of the crosshead of a steam
engine as given in Seely and Ensign's "Analytical Mechanics for Engineers" (second edition) p. 164.
Rail Stresses and Depressions With Steam Locomotive 237
0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 0.1 0.2 0.3
Position of Counterweight in Ports of o Revolution
Fig. SO. — Calculated Stresses in Base of Rail under Main Driver Due to Dy-
namic Augment and Inertia Effects of Reciprocating Parts for Speed of
75 Miles per Hour — Class Ml Locomotive— 131-lb. RE Rail.
It should be noted that O should be taken as zero degrees for the position of the
stroke in which the piston is farthest from the driver. The equation implies consistent
units, and the values may be taken in pounds, feet and seconds.
This resulting vertical variable force on the main pin at any point in the revolution
may be treated as an additional vertical force applied to the rail by the main driver.
The additional stress produced by this force may be added algebraically to the stress
due to static load and dynamic augment.
238
Stresses in Railroad Track
In Fig. 50 are given, through a complete revolution of the main driver, curves
for the stresses in the base of the rail calculated by the methods described above and
produced by the unbalanced rotating parts and the inertia effects of the reciprocating
parts. The ordinates of the diagram represent stresses in the base of the rail in pounds
per square inch, calculated for a speed of 75 mUes per hour and a modulus u of
2,500 lb. per in. per in. The abscissas represent the position of the counterweight with
respect to its down position, the scale being in fractions of a complete revolution of
the driver. The curve shown as a dot-dash line and varying nearly as a sine wave, with
the same frequency as the rotational frequency of the driver, represents the stress
produced by the combined effects upon the rail of the dynamic augments for the several
drivers. The curve shown as a dashed line and varying nearly as a sine wave but
Table 13
Ueaaured Stresses and Calculated Stresses In Base of Rail —
Ula Locomotive 6718 of the Pennsylvania Railroad at
Elkton, Ua.ryland
Stresses are given in tbousanas of pounds per square inch.
Ueasured values are for 5 miles per hour.
Loca-Trail-
Driver Number
Truck
Wheel
tlon er
4
3
Ualn
1
2
I
Left Rail
Measured stress - Average of 4
3 runs at 5 m.p.h. 5
6
Av.
Calculated from scale weights
Calculated from nominal weights
13.4
11.9
12.3
12.5
9.7
11.6
10.1
10.5
7.3
lo.p
7.1
8.1
9.8
8.8
il.4
10.0
11.2
7.9
10.1
9.7
3.5
0.9
3.8
2.7
13.4
11.0
6.8
8.2
9.1
1.4
11.6
9.6
V.7
8.£
9.3
1.7
4.9
4.6
4.9
4.8
4.4
4.8
Right Rail
Ueasured stress - Average of 4
3 runs at 5 n.p.h. 5
6
Av.
8.3
7.7
7.9
8.0
9.8
12.1
8.9
10.3
7.9
12.8
7.5
9.4
9.8
12.7
12.7
11.7
10.4
12.6
9.9
11.0
3.8
1.0
2.6
2.5
5.6
4.9
4.4
5.0
Calculated from scale weights
9.9
10.4
8.2
7.8
8.3
1.9
4.9
Calculated from nominal weights
11.6
9.8
7.7
8.2
9.3
1.7
4.8
having a frequency twice that of the rotational frequency of the driver represents the
stress produced by the vertical component of the force on the main pin due to the
inertia effects of the reciprocating parts, no account having been taken of the out-of-
plane effect of the force. These two curves have been added algebraically to give the
resultant varying stress in the base of the rail due to dynamic augment and inertia
effects of reciprocating parts. The resultant stress is shown by the heavy full line. In
calculating the vertical component of the force on the main pin produced by the
inertia effects of the reciprocating parts, the total weight of the reciprocating parts on
one side (1,807 lb.) was used.
In Table 13 are given the measured stresses in the base of each rail at each gage
location for each wheel of the locomotive at a speed of five miles per hour. The given
values are the average of three runs. The average of the values at the three gage loca-
tions for each rail and individual wheel are also given. Computed stresses in the base
of rail based on the reported scale weights and on the nominal wheel loads are included
Rail Stressc s and Depressions With Steam Locomotive 23Q
in Table 13 to afford a comparison between the measured and calculated stresses under
static loading conditions.
It will be observed that the measured values of stress in the left rail for a given
wheel differ at the three gage locations and that no one of the three locations gives
values consistently high or low for all wheels of the locomotive. The stresses under the
first and the main driver at Location S are 1,000 to 3,000 lb. per sq. in. lower than
those at locations 4 and 6, but under the third and fourth drivers the stresses are
1,500 to 3,000 lb. per sq. in. higher than at locations 4 and 6. The stresses under the
first truck wheel and the trailer are substantially the same for all three locations. The
differences noted are not great and may be due in part to irregularities in track support
and transfer of load between adjacent wheels through equalizer action. However, the
variations in stress at the three locations for a given wheel may in general be considered
not unexpectedly great and the average of the values given at the three locations for
each wheel may be considered representative of the track and locomotive conditions.
The measured values of stress given for the right rail show about the same range
of differences in values at the three locations for each wheel as was found for the left
rail. It will be observed, however, that for all four drivers the stresses at Location 5
are from 2,000 to 5,000 lb. per sq. in. higher than at locations 4 and 6. The measured
play between rail and tie and tie support at Location 5 was somewhat less than at
locations 4 and 6, which would normally result in lower stresses at Location 5. The
fact that the measured stresses at Location 5 were higher than at the other two loca-
tions would further seem to indicate transfer of load from the adjacent drivers to the
driver passing location 5.
In Figs. 51 and 52 are plotted for all eight driving wheels of the locomotive, through
a complete revolution of the drivers, the measured stresses in the base of the rail at the
three gage locations on each rail, for all runs at 75 miles per hour. The curves given
for the individual driving wheels are analytical curves. They represent the stresses in
the base of the rail computed, as outlined previously, on the basis of a modulus u of
2,500 lb. per in. per in. and a speed of 75 miles per hour. The curve for each driving
wheel other than the main driver is the algebraic sum of the calculated stress in the
base of the rail produced by the nominal static wheel loads (values given in Table 13
and represented in the figures by the horizontal dashed lines) and the calculated stress
produced by the combined effects of the dynamic augments of the drivers. For the
main drivers the analytical curve includes also the stress produced by the vertical
component of the force on the main pin due to the inertia effects of reciprocating
parts. The heavy horizontal lines represent the average of the measured stresses for a
given wheel at five miles per hour.
The number of observed points for each driver is not sufficient to establish
definitely a curve for probable average stress throughout a revolution of the driver,
though in general the points are fairly uniform in their distribution horizontally. In
particular, for the first and fourth drivers and the left main driver the agreement between
the trend of an averaging curve and the analytical curve is quite good. The results for
the right main driver are obviously discordant. They do not follow the pattern of
the calculated curve nor is the maximum measured stress for the right driver in exce=s
of that for the left, as would be expected from the values of calculated resultant un-
balance in these two drivers. No definite effect of unbalance in this driver is shown
in the plotted points throughout a revolution. The range of stress each side of the
average measured stress is not large. It would be interesting to know what principal
contributing sources influence this departure from a definite counterbalance trend.
240
Stresses in Railroad Track
0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0£
Position of Counterweight in Parts of a Revolution
Fig. 51. — Observed Stresses in Rail with Mia Locomotive 6718 of the
Pennsylvania Railroad at 75 Miles oer Hour — 131-lb. RE Rail.
Rail Stresses and Dcpr essions With Steam Locomotive 241
0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Position of Counterweight in Fbrts of a Revolution
Fig. 52. — Observed Stresses in Rail with Mia Locomotive 6718 of the
Pennsylvania Railroad at 75 Miles per Hour — 131-lb. RE Rail.
242
Stresses in Railroad Track
It will be noted that for several of the drivers the agreement between the trend
of the observed points and the vertical position of the analytical curve would be
improved by moving the analytical curve upward by the amount of the difference
between the average measured stress at five miles per hour and the calculated static
stress based on the nominal wheel weights. For instance, for the right first driver the
average measured stress in the base of the rail is about 1,700 lb. per sq. in. greater than
the calculated static stress. Moving the analytical curve for this driver vertically
upward by this difference would result in better agreement between the resulting curve
and the average of the measured values.
It should be understood that the analytical curves given for the individual drivers
do not take into consideration possible effects of the forces due to locomotive oscilla-
tion, vibration, etc., and do not take into account additional forces that may be pro-
Table 14
Measured and Calculated Depressions of Rail — Class Mia Loco-
motive 6718 of Pennsylvania Railroad at Elkton, Maryland
Depressions are given In inches. Measured values are for 5
miles per hour.
Loca-Trall-
tion I e
Driver Number
Truck
Wheel
Measured gross depression - 4
Average of 3 runs at 5 m.p.h. 5
6
Av.
Calculated from scale weights
Calculated from nominal weights
lett Bail
.206
.147
.243
.199
.209
.164
.259
.211
.215
.168
.265
.216
.218
.158
.278
.218
.206
.138
.257
.200
.143
.088
.194
.142
.144
.168
.187
.196
.180
.097
.124
.159
.192
.199
.181
.102
.107
.067
.145
.106
.059
Measured gross depression - 4
Average of 3 rans at 5 m.p.h. 5
6
Av.
Calculated from sosde weights
Calculated from nominal weights
.162
.135
.187
.161
.210
.196
.234
.213
.218
.208
.243
.223
.826
.212
.258
.232
.200
.185
.226
.204
.142
.104
.154
.153
.107
.165
.198
.192
.169
.098
.124
.159
.192
.199
.181
.102
.102
.083
.112
.099
.066
.065
duced by the variations in the track support, the changing distribution of the individual
driver and wheel loads, the inertia effect of unsprung weight, and the effect of speed.
Any one or a combination of these factors may influence the measured stresses in the
base of the rail to a considerable degree.
A fact of significance to be observed from these measured stress values is the
comparatively low maximum stresses recorded in the base of the 131-lb. rail at 75 miles
per hour. The highest individual stress value was about 20,000 lb. per sq. in. correspond-
ing to a bending moment in the rail of 548,000 in.-lb. It is apparent that the counter-
balancing conditions of the locomotive do not give unduly high stresses in the rail for
this speed of operation.
As the plotted positions of counterweight are distributed fairly evenly throughout
the revolution of the driver, the average of the plotted points will not differ far from
the average stress throughout a revolution. The difference between this average stress
Rail Stresses and Depressions With Steam Locomotive 243
20
15
10
0
20
15
1.0
Second (Mam) Driver
Left Rail
0
1
Second (Mam) Driver
Right Rail
/
X 5^ ^
//
(
XXXx
• Xx'^
XX
k ^
o /
o / H
K
xy
Z^°
/
/
/
0 Gage Location 4
/
X Gage Location 5
+ Gage Location 6
1
o.oe
C/2
0.28
0.32
0.16 0.20 0.24
Gross Depression in Incties
Fig. 53.— Observed Stresses in Rail and Observed Rail Depressions
for Main Drivers for Steam Locomotive 6718 at 75
Miles per Hour.
and the average of the measured stresses at five miles per hour may be thought of as
representing the effect of speed independent of counterbalance and inertia effects. On
this basis the effect of speed at each driver of this locomotive was slight, very much
less than found in a variety of steam locomotives tested in earlier years.
At the six locations where magnetic strain gages measured rail stresses, solenoid
depre.sion gages were mounted to indicate the depression of the rail with reference
to a support fixed in the roadbed. In Table 14 are given the measured gross depressions
at each test location for each wheel of the locomotive. The values given are the average
of three runs at 5 miles per hour. The averages for the three locations on each rail
are also given. Depressions of the rail calculated on the basis of the reported scale
weights of the wheels of the locomotive and on the basis of the nominal wheel loads
are also given in Table 14. In comparing the values of measured depression with the
values of calculated depression it should be remembered that the measured values are
gross values which include the play between rail and tie and tie support.
244
Stresses in Railroad Track
20
15
10
Fourth
Right
Driver
Rait
X
/
X
/
/
/ /
X
-x"A
X
X/XX yd
^+
/
j^ 0
J H7 H
/ +4
h
/
^ ^
0
0.08
0.12
0.16 0.20
Cross Depression
0.24
I riches
0.28
0.32
Fig. 54. — Observed Stresses in Rail and Observed Rail Depressions
for Fourth Drivers for Steam Locomotive 6718 at
75 Miles per Hour.
In Figs. 53 and 54 the measured stresses in the base of the rail at the three gage
locations for the main and the fourth drivers have been plotted against the correspond-
ing measured gross depressions of the rail for all runs at 75 miles per hour. It will be
seen that the trend of the plotted points for each location is well represented by a
straight line. Plots similar to those shown in Fig. 53 were made for each of the drivers
and locations and in all cases a straight line of the proper slope expressed the relationship
between the measured values of stress and depression.
In Fig. 55 the data given for the right fourth driver in Fig. 54 are plotted in a
different manner to further demonstrate the linear relationship between measured
values of stress and depression. The ordinates on the left of the figure represent the
stress in the base of the rail and those on the right represent the gross depression of
the rail. The scales of the stress and depression values, plotted as ordinates, are related
Rail Stresses and Depressions With Steam Locomotive 24S
0.26
0.20
/0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Fbsition of Counterweight in Parts of a Revolution
Fig. 55.— Measured Stress in Rail and Depression of Rail under
Right Fourth Driver for Speed of 75 Miles per Hour—
Class Mia Locomotive 6718— 131-lb. RE Rail.
according to the average slope (0.008 in. depression per 1,000 lb. per sq. in. stress)
obtained from the lines given in Fig. 54. The plotted points in the figure are the
averages of the measured values of stress and depression taken in groups for each
one-tenth of a revolution of the driver. It may be seen from Fig. 55 that for each
gage location the same curve would represent the position and trend of cither the
average values of stress or the average values of the depression equally well. The same
statement, of course, would be true for the curve representing the position and trend of
the average of the values of all three locations.
It is thought not necessary to give diagrams of measured rail depressions plotted
with respect to the position of counterweight. As would be expected from the con-
cordance between stresses and depressions given in Figs. 53 and 54 and 55, the diagrams
of rail depression throughout the revolution of a driver correspond closely with the
diagrams for stresses. In general the trends of averages of points followtd the form of
the analytical curves in a way similar to the plotted .stresses and corroborated the stress
relations in a surprisingly close manner. The one exception was the right main driver,
where the distribution of points gave no indication of counterbalance effect. Even the
extreme points of the measured depressions substantiated the corresponding stress
values. In fact, as a whole, the depressions and stresses were mutually confirmatorv.
246 Stresses in Railroad Track
VI. Other Activities
24. Other Activities. — Other activities of the staff of the committee during the
past few years have been quite varied and extensive. The progress of several of the
analytical and experimental investigations has been reported from time to time in
the annual discussions by the chairman published in the Proceedings of the American
Railway Engineering Association. A few of the activities of the staff may be mentioned.
The observations on stretches of continuously welded rail have now covered a
period of four years on the Delaware & Hudson Railroad and three years on the
Bessemer & Lake Erie Railroad. Observations on the service tests of various types of
joint bars, made in cooperation with the Committee on Rail, have now extended over
a period of three years. These observational tests of rail joints have been continued on
12 half-mile stretches of track on the Pennsylvania Railroad and 9 one-mile stretches
on the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway.
Tests with the rail joint rolling load machine have continued over a period of V/z
years. These laboratory tests of long-time repetitive loading of rail joints have been
made to study some of the many problems of rail joints. They include forms of joint
bars, manner of failure, wear of bar and fishing surface, and sources of failure. The life
of joint bars under repetitive loading given by very heavy wheel loads and moderately
heavy wheel loads and lighter loads and the possible relations between cycles of loading
and the fatigue strength of joint bars of different form and different material have
been taken up. The effect of abnormal stresses and bearing pressures between bar and
rail and magnitude of bolt tension have been considered.
In the summer of 1939 the committee again cooperated with the Pennsylvania
Railroad in making field tests at Dover, Del. The purpose of these tests was to obtain
quantitative information on the action of types of locomotives with the driving wheels
slipping and spinning and also to learn the action of the locomotive and track when a
mechanical oscillator is attached to a main driving wheel. The results of these tests
will be reported at some later time.
The staff has continued the study of electrical strain measuring and recording instru-
ments and when funds were available purchases have been made of items that seemed
most immediately useful and most adaptable to probable future needs. A considerable
amount of development work has been done in connection with the use of the resistance
strip gage. Experimental units constructed showed considerable promise for improving
the usefulness and reliability of the strip gage and giving advantages in calibration,
frequency response, and elimination of certain troubles experienced previously. As a
result of the satisfactory operation of the experimental models, six complete units
have been built and used in recent tests on the Denver & Rio Grand Western Railroad
at Green River, Utah. These tests were somewhat of an exploratory nature to deter-
mine if possible by means of measurements of vertical web stresses in the rail, developed
under the passage of locomotive and cars, the possible cause of longitudinal web cracks
in the 112-lb. rail that has been in service only a comparatively short time. It is
believed that the new equipment represents an important advance in stress measuring
apparatus for track and equipment, both in simplicity and in applicability in
making tests.
Many problems of importance bearing on the behavior of railroad track under
moving loads of locomotives and cars still call for information and explanation. The
committee is considering plans for further work.
The Special Committee on Stresses in Railroad Track
A. N. Talbot, Chairman.
MEMOIRS
MEMOIR
(j^corge ^tokcjf Jfanning
Died January 2, 1941
George Stokes Fanning was born in Detroit, Mich., on April 25, 1885, the son of
Charles A. and Carrie (Stokes) Fanning. He attended the University of Michigan at Ann
Arbor and was graduated with the degree of B.S. in C.E. in 1906. He married Nola M.
Bell of Saegertown, Pa., on June 18, 1914. They had one daughter, Janet A., who, with
Mrs. Fanning, survives him.
George Stokes Fanning
Mr. Fanning entered raihoad service in 1906 as a rodman for the Michigan Central
Railroad. From 1907 to 1910 he was instrumentman and assistant engineer of the Detroit
River Tunnel Company. From 1910 to 1913 he was resident engineer on the Algoma
Central & Hudson Bay Railway. In 1913 Mr. Fanning entered the employ of the Erie
Railroad and served in 1913-14 as resident engineer; 1914-16 as estimating engineer;
1916-18 as chief draftsman; 1918-20 as assistant to chief engineer; 1920-25 as office
engineer; 1925-27 as principal assistant engineer; 1927-29 as assistant chief engineer;
and from 1929 until his death as chief engineer. His office as chief engineer of the Erie
was at Cleveland, Ohio.
248
Memoirs 249
He became a member of the American Railwaj' Engineering Association in 1018,
and gave a great deal of time and interest to committee work. He was chairman of
Committee 1 — Roadway, from 1933 to 1038. He was a director of the Association from
1933 to 1936; vice president from 1938 to 1940; and president from March 1940 until
the time of his death. He was also a member of the American Society of Civil Engineers,
having just been elected to membership in that society in December 1940.
His work with the American Railway Engineering Association was outstanding. He
was a familiar figure at the annual conventions of the Association and actively entered
into the discussion of committee reports, contributing largely through his constructive
thinking and the clear expression of his views. Mr. Fanning had an unusual abiUty to
express himself forcibly and clearly in discussing committee reports from the floor of the
convention, and his work with the committees played an important part in the
presentation of informative reports.
He was energetic in presenting new ideas, and strove constantly to improve the
work of the committees, with the object of strengthening the position of the Association
and giving greater force and weight to its conclusions.
Mr. Fanning had a thorough grasp of engineering problems which he always pre-
sented in a very forceful manner; his disarming frankness and pleasing personality were
of great help to him in all of his contacts with his superiors, associates, public officials
and others. He possessed to a marked degree the faculty of inspiring confidence and
invariably insisted on obtaining definite results. He had a fine ability to grasp a situa-
tion quickly and make a prompt decision. He devoted his time to the main essentials
of matters before him and was willing to leave the details to his subordinates.
During the portion of the year in which Mr. Fanning was president of the American
Railway Engineering Association he was most active and interested in the work of the
committees. To present his ideas effectively, he attended at least one meeting of 14 of
the committees and wrote letters to the chairmen of 8 others setting forth what he
would have said if he had been present at their meetings.
During his terms as vice-president and president of the Association he was very
active and helpful in the work of the General Committee of the Engineering Divisioii
of the Association of American Railroads and also as a member of the Research Com-
mittee of the General Committee. His ideas and suggestions concerning the work of the
General Committee and of the Research Committee contributed largely to the building
up of the organizations of these committees as they now e.xist.
Mr. Fanning was a well balanced engineer; he combined practical knowledge with
technical training and these, together with his pleasing personaHty, placed him at the
top of his profession where he commanded the respect of all of his colleagues.
He was a member of the University of Michigan Club, a member of the Cleveland
Chamber of Commerce, and a member of the "Cleveland Roamers", a golf organization
in Cleveland and vicinity from which he derived a great deal of pleasure. He belonged
at one time to the Canterbury Country Club in Cleveland, resigning about 1939 when
the acquisition of a farm in Western Pennsylvania gave him a new interest. From that
time on much of his spare time was occupied in the keenest of enjoyment of leisure
hours on this farm and in plans to make this country place in Pennsylvania his home
after his retirement from active professional life.
He was a man of broad interests, and read extensively on topics of a general nature
in addition to engineering literature. Although it was not generally known to many
associates, he possessed a natural talent for art and mu.sic, and the sketches which he
made of scenes and objects that interested him were of considerable merit. As a young
250 Memoirs
man he played the piano very well and he was not too busy to continue this through
his later years.
Mr. Fanning was deeply interested in young men, particularly in those who entered
the engineering profession, and he was influential in putting forward the recent amend-
ment to the constitution of the AREA establishing the grade of Junior Member. Through
his sympathetic interest he made a lasting impression on a number of young men who
came to him for assistance and who gained much from his wise counsel.
While he was known throughout the AREA and admired greatly for his professional
attainments, and his opinions and judgment were greatly respected by the membership,
those who knew Mr. Fanning best admired him most for those fine qualities of char-
acter, moral integrity, high and noble purposes and for his love of home and family.
He was the type of engineer and gentleman who attains the summit of his profession
and whom the profession delights to honor. In the untimely death of Mr. Fanning the
Association, the engineering profession and the railroad industry have sustained great loss.
E. M. Hastings, Chairman
C. J. Geyer
H. F. King
F. R. Layng
F. E. Morrow
W. H. Penfield
Committee on Memoir.
Memoir
3foi)n \T. Jlcufaert
Died June 4, 1940
The American Railway Engineering Association records with deep regret the death,
at New York, on June 4, 1940, of Past-President John V. Neubert.
John V. Neubert was born at Kittanning, Pa., on July 18, 1876. Upon graduation
from Pennsylvania State College in 1899 with the degree of Bachelor of Science in Civil
Engineering, he entered the service of the New York Central & Hudson River Railroad,
now a part of the New York Central System, with which system he spent his entire
professional life.
Following his employment as a clerk on July 3, 1899, his personality and outstanding
abilities were recognized by successive promotions. In August, 1899, he was transferred
to the engineering department where he served as chairman, rodnian and inspector prior
John V. Neubert
to being appointed assistant supervisor of track in September, 1900. In May, 1902, he
became supervisor of track, and in July, 1903, assistant engineer in the office of the
division engineer at Albany, N. Y. In 1907, he was promoted to division engineer at
Albany, and in April, 1909, to engineer of track. Lines East of Buffalo, exterior zone.
He became engineer maintenance of way of the same territory in July, 1920, with head-
quarters at New York. In October, 1927, he was appointed chief engineer maintenance
of way of the New York Central Lines East and West of Buffalo, including the Ohio
Central Lines, with headquarters as before at New York. In September, 1931, his juris-
diction was extended over the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St. Louis and the
Michigan Central railroads, thus becoming chief engineer maintenance of way of the
New York Central System, which position he held at the time of his death.
251
252 Memoirs
Mr. Neubert became a member of the American Railway Engineering Association
in 1911. He served as a member of Committee 2 — Ballast, as a member of Committee 3
— Ties, as a member and for four years as chairman of Committee 4 — Rail, as a member
and for six years as chairman of Committee 5 — Track, as a member of Committee 26 —
Standardization, as a member of the Special Committee on Stresses in Railroad Track,
as a member of the Special Committee on Clearances, and as a member and for two
years as chairman of the Special Committee on Complete Roadway and Track Structure.
He became a director of the American Railway Engineering Association in 1927, second
vice-president in 1930, first vice-president in 1931 and president in 1932.
Mr. Neubert displayed intense interest in the affairs of the American Railway Engi-
neering Association, and gave unselfishly and unstintingly of his time and experience in
the furtherance of its activities. He was widely known, highly respected, and held in
deep affection throughout the railway world. His abiUty as a railway engineer was only
enhanced by his many endearing human qualities. In addition to those qualities so
essential to effective leadership, he was endowed with and had fully developed a high
order of mental alertness which enabled him to grasp quickly the essential elements of
any problem with which he was confronted. The capacity and accuracy of his memory
was amazing.
All who knew Mr. Neubert will miss him keenly. By his death the .\merican Railway
Engineering Association has lost a valued member.
John E. Armstrong, Chairman F. E. Morrow
C. B. Bronson a. R. Wilson
E. M. Hastings W. P. Wiltsee
Committee on Memoir.
I
i
Memoir
Died September 8, 1940
The American Railway Engineering Association records with deep regret the death
at Philadelphia on September 8, 1940, of Robert Faries, a director of the Association.
Robert Faries was born at Bellwood, Pa. November 30, 1881. Upon graduation
from high school at Altoona, Pa., in May, 1899, he entered the service of the Pennsyl-
vania Railroad as a laborer in the maintenance of way department, and his entire profes-
sional career was spent in the service of that property.
His outstanding ability and leadership were recognized by successive promotions to
the position of rodman, transitman, assistant supervisor, supervisor, division engineer and
superintendent, and on February 15, 1928 he was appointed assistant chief engineer-
maintenance, which position he held at the time of his death and in which he exercised
general supervision over maintenance of way on the Pennsylvania system.
As assistant chief engineer-maintenance, he was largely responsible for marked im-
provements in track conditions and reduced maintenance expenditures brought about by
the stablization of roadbed that resulted from the comprehensive system of drainage
Robert Faries
which he initiated. He also believed firmly in the mechanization of maintenance of way
forces in all departments, and because of his leadership in this field the Pennsylvania
became one of the outstanding railroads in the use of work equipment. He had an active
and personal interest in the development and advancement of younger men serving
under him, and he gave freely of both time and thought to the building of a strong
personnel.
Mr. Faries became a member of the American Railway Engineering Association in
1929. He served as a member of Committee 27 — Maintenance of Way Work Equipment;
the Special Committee on Stresses in Railroad Track; Committee 4 — Rail, of which
committee he was vice-chairman at the time of his death ; and served as chairman of tJie
Committee on the Relation of Track and Equipment of the Association of American
Railroads from the time of its formation until his death. He was elected a director of
the American Railway Engineering Association in 1939. During all the years of his
membership he was keenly interested in the affairs of the Association and gave fully and
unselfishly of his time and abiUty to the advancement of its interests.
253
254 Memoirs ___^_
Mr. Faries was widely known, and his ability as a railroad maintenance officer was
recognized. His long experience in and practical knowledge of railroad maintenance of
way problems and practices qualified him to serve on and direct fact finding committees
representing the railroads in a number of hearings before committees of the United States
Senate and other governmental bodies. In this capacity he performed a very valuable
service for the railroads. His now well known testimony in the minimum wage hearings
under the provisions of the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 is outstanding and has
been frequently used.
All who knew Mr. Faries miss him keenly. His unassuming leadership won for him
an enviable position in his chosen work and endeared him to all his associates. By his
death, the American Railway Engineering Association has lost a valued member, and the
railroad industry a man who cannot well be spared.
i
Memoir
Died August 10, 1940
Lawrence Aloysius Downs was born at Greencastle, Ind., on May 9, 1872. His
parents were James and Mary (McCarthy) Downs. He was the youngest of a family
of eight — six sons and two daughters.
His earliest impressions of business or a chosen occupation were associated with
railroad operation through his father's employment as a section foreman on the
\'^andalia Railroad, now a part of the Pennsylvania System.
The maintenance of a family group of ten in the late eighties necessitated the sus-
tained observance of diligence, thrift and resourcefulness. The father, a strict dis-
ciplinarian, by the example he set, instilled in his children these qualities as well as
Lawrence Aloysius Downs.
mutual helpfulness and tolerance. The salary of the section foreman was supplemented
by the products raised through work of the children on the small farm where the family
lived. Each son and daughter was allotted tasks about the house and farm. It is well
known that these assignments when well done received the approbation of the superior
officer. If improperly executed, the worker was given another chance. During the sum-
mer vacations the boys, when old enough, were given jobs on the section gang with
their father.
It was during this early period that Lawrence Downs acquired the fundamental
qualities which were so manifest in his life's work. He entered heartily into all these
255
256 Memoirs
boyhood jobs with the definite assurance that he would succeed, and at the same time
was engaged in making a study of some other position he confidently hoped to occupy.
This principle controlled his varied activities during his many years of railroad service.
He accepted a promotion to an office he knew he was qualified to fill and then began
an intimate study of the duties and responsibilities of the next higher office to which
he might be appointed.
Lawrence Downs obtained his preliminary educational training in the pubhc schools,
St. Paul's Academy and DePauw University at Greencastle, Ind. He entered Purdue
University at Lafayette, Ind., in 1890 and graduated in 1894 with the degree of b.ce.
He completed the curriculum for a degree in engineering with distinction and acquired
an enviable reputation in athletics and other student activities. He was a tackle on the
undefeated Purdue football team in 1892, was a member of the glee club and engaged
in debates. He was elected a member of the Sigma Chi Fraternity in his sophomore year.
In his senior year he was elected president of the University Athletic Association, the
highest honor which could be conferred on a student by the student body. Purdue Uni-
versity conferred the degree of Doctor of Engineering on Lawrence Downs in 1929,
and Centenary College (Shreveport, La.) the degree of l.l.d. in 1931.
Immediately after his graduation from Purdue University he took his initial step
in railway service by accepting the position of rodman in an engineering party of the
Vandalia Railroad, at a salary of $40 per month. In March 1896 he entered the en-
gineering department service of the Illinois Central System as a rodman at $60 per
month, the beginning of a railroad service of more than forty-four years, ending with
his death August 10, 1940, as chairman of the board. His first promotion came six
months after he entered the service when he was advanced to the rank of instrument-
man. A year later he was promoted to assistant engineer and about another year later
was appointed roadmaster. During the period 1898-1907 he served in this capacity on
four of the operating divisions of the railroad. Each change as roadmaster brought him
into fields of more complex road department problems and greater responsibility.
His success in handling division maintenance of way work led to his promotion
to assistant chief engineer maintenance of way, Illinois Central System, with supervision
over roadway and maintenance work for the entire system. Here was offered the wider
field of studying the needs for organization, use of materials and standards for a north
and south trunk line system. It was while occupying this responsible position that
Lawrence Downs made a decision which changed the character of his railroad service
and eventually carried him to the post of greatest responsibihty in the Illinois Central
organization. His fourteen years' service in the engineering department brought him in
intimate touch with the work of the operating officers, and he observed the rapid
promotions made in that department. He knew too the position immediately ahead of
him was filled by a capable young man who without doubt would be chief engineer
for many years. Accordingly, at his own request, Mr. Downs was transferred in 1910,
at the age of 38, to the operating department on a division on the western extremity
of the system. After mastering the details of his new position and studying the needs
of divisional operation he devised ways and means for presenting essential operating data.
His engineering training and experience impressed him with the value of analytical
charts and diagrams, and he adapted such implements for his use. With data compiled
in this manner the whole operation would indicate at a glance where the weak spots
were and what remedial measures should be applied. Under his forceful direction, in
two years the Iowa division was deemed the model of divisional operation on the system.
From 1910 to 191S he accepted two transfers as superintendent, each being in recognition
of work well done and each successive assignment of greater responsibility.
Memoirs 257
The success of Lawrence Downs as a superintendent and his abihty as an operating
officer was rewarded in 1915 by his promotion to the office of general superintendent
on the lUinois Central System lines south of the Ohio river. Then followed his transfer
to a similar position of greater responsibility on the system lines north of the Ohio
river in 1916, and in 1919 his responsibilities were again increased by his promotion
to the position of system assistant general manager.
In 1920 he was elected vice-president and general manager of the CentraJ of
Georgia Railway, a subsidiary of the Illinois Central, operating 1,800 miles of railroad
in Alabama, Georgia and Tennessee. Four years later he was advanced to the presidency
of the Central of Georgia as weJl as its subsidiary, the Ocean Steamship Company of
Savannah, a coastwise steamship line serving the ports of Savannah, New York and
Boston. During his term as president directing the policy and operation of these prop-
erties they were substantially improved and their earnings were increased beyond those
of any like previous period.
The conspicuous success of Lawrence Downs as an engineer, minor operating officer
and chief executive railway officer won his election as president of the Illinois Central
System to succeed the late Charles H. Markham, who retired from the presidency of
the company in September 1926. Under Lawrence Downs' direction the Illinois Central
System pursued a progressive and Jong distance policy; the roadbed and the motive
power and equipment were improved to meet the wishes of the public for faster and
better passenger service and a speedier delivery of freight ; stress was placed on the de-
velopment of industry and agriculture on the Illinois Central System territory; a higher
value on the development of foreign commerce through the gulf ports; and the use
of analytical charts disclosing new records of operating efficiency.
Lawrence Downs was "Larry" to his associates who grew up with him in the
service of the Illinois Central System. They had learned to appreciate "Larry's" sin-
cerity, judgment, fairness and integrity. They were delighted to witness his rapid ad-
vancement in responsibility in the company's service. They worked as willingly and
diligently to advance the company's interests as "Larry" was earnestly striving to
protect theirs. The relationship was not that usually e.xisting between the employer
and the employee. It was that growing out of the application of the principles of the
golden rule.
On the eve of the present century, when the railroads of the United States were
emerging from the depression of 1893, there was urgent need for an engineering or-
ganization whose medium would permit of the exchange of views on railway engineering
standards and practices. The forward looking railroad companies had adequate engineer-
ing staffs that had developed good practices and economical designs of track, bridges
and other structures. Some of them might have been reluctant to permit the less for-
tunate lines to benefit from their work. The benefits of such an organization so far
outweighed the loss to an individual company that in 1898 the leaders in railway con-
struction and maintenance formed an organization which would admit to its member-
ship railway officers engaged in the construction and maintenance of railways in the
United States, Canada and Mexico. This organization came into being as the American
Railway Engineering and Maintenance of Way Association (now the AREA). Lawrence
Downs was admitted to membership in 1898 as Charter Member No. 80.
Mr. Downs visualized the benefits accruing to such a membership. He not only
anticipated the value to him in his advancement in the railway engineering profession,
but also the benefits accruing to the company that employed him. He found out in what
respect his fellow engineers' designs and practices were better than his, and it gave
him an opportunity of contributing his full share to the success of railway engineering.
MEMOIR
Milliam JSenston ^torep
Died October 24, 1940
William Benson Storey was born in San Francisco on November 17, 1857, and spent
much of his boyhood in Colfax, Placer County, Calif. Following attendance at high
school in Oakland, he worked for a year in a railroad engineering party before entering
the newly established University of California at Berkeley, where he took the mechanical
engineering course and from which he graduated in 1881, receiving the degree of Bachelor
of Philosophy. He married Laura B. Roe (nee Rice) of San Francisco on May 21, 1913,
who died September 3, 1940. Mr. Storey is survived by a sister, Mrs. J. F. Nash of
Alameda, Calif., and a brother, Alfred J. Storey of Humboldt County, Calif.
His career following graduation from the university was spent almost entirely in
railroad work — in location and construction parties, much of it in the mountainous
wilderness that was the West; on lines that are now parts of the Santa Fe, the Southern
Pacific and the Union Pacific systems; and in reconstruction, improvement and admin-
istrative work. In 1894 and 1895 he was assistant engineer for the CaHfornia Debris
Commission, in the regulation of hydrauhc mining debris discharged into streams.
In 1900 Mr. Storey was appointed chief engineer of that portion of the Atchison,
Topeka & Santa Fe System east of Albuquerque, N. M., and north of Purcell, Okla., with
headquarters at Topeka, Kans., and in 1906 was promoted to chief engineer of the sys-
tem, with headquarters at Chicago. He was then, successively, vice-president of the Santa
Fe from 1909 to 1917, federal manager from 1918 to 1919, and president from 1920 to
1933, when he resigned as president but remained as a member of the board of directors
and of the executive committee.
Mr. Storey was a charter member and a past-president of the American Railway
Engineering Association; he served as director in 1911-1912, second vice-president in
260
Memoirs 261
1912-1913, first vice-president in 1913-1914, and president in 1914-1915, and was made
an honorary member in 1938. He also served on the committees on Water Service in
1900-1901, Ballasting in 1902-1903 (chairman in 1903), Economics of Railway Location
in 1905-1909 (chairman in 1908-1909), and Cooperative Relations with Universities in
1924-1925.
He was a life member of the American Society of Civil Engineers, a life member
of the Western Society of Engineers, and a hfe member of the American Society for
Testing Materials. He was given the honorary degree of LL.D. by the University of
California in 1924, and was a member of Phi Beta Kappa, Sigma Xi, and Zeta Psi. He
held memberships in the Pacific Union Club and the Bohemian Club of San Francisco ;
the Chicago Club and the University Club of Chicago ; and the Midday Club of New
York.
Among his interests outside the fields of railroading and engineering, Mr. Storey was
a director of the Continental Illinois National Bank & Trust Company and of the Per-
sonal Loan & Savings Bank, both of Chicago, and a trustee of the Carnegie Institution
of Washington. Beginning in 1934 he was a member of a board of review appointed by
the Secretary of the Interior which passed on plans for the construction and improve-
ment of the sewage purification works of the Chicago Sanitary District. He was also,
from 1933, a member of the board of directors of the Chicago Crime Commission.
Mr. Storey's unostentatious interest in philanthropic, cultural and educational work
is revealed by his bequests of $8,000 each to the Community Trust, the Art Institute and
the Field Museum, of Chicago, and a gift of $25,000 to the University of California,
divided equally between the university endowment fund and a fund for the aid of
needy engineering students.
A highly interesting autobiography was prepared by Mr. Storey in 1939. Born in
San Francisco when the epic days of California were opening into full flower, Mr. Storey
proved himself a capable and worthy heir to the many and great opportunities for service
and accomplishment which that era provided. The first four decades of his life were
filled with the work and hardship associated with pioneer life and railroad reconnaissance,
construction and operation in newly developed territory, and were only the opening
chapter of an exceptionally able and distinguished career. Quiet and reserved by nature,
but with a balanced personality, his sterUng qualities won the highest regard and devo-
tion of his associates and a host of his friends. Possessed of the concentration and energy
of a splendidly trained and disciplined mind, and an impersonal, unbiased and decisive
judgment, he was elevated to a position of great responsibility by his high and ready
abilities vitalized and supported by integrity, strength and decision of character, and by
courage and promptness in accepting responsibility, seizing initiative and giving leader-
ship. His life and achievements constitute a tribute and monument to the engineering
profession, and his death is a great loss to his friends, to the American Railway Engi-
neering Association, and to his country. Such great and honorable success, such happy
exemplification of opportunity and reward profusely written upon the pages of the
American Way of Life, are inspiration and hope through all the years to every
generation of American youth.
Edwin F. Wendt, Chairman
J. L. Campbell
L. C. Fritch
G. W. Harris
G. W. KlTTREDCE
C. A. Morse
Committee on Memoir.
Memoirs
William Benson Storey
(Ab aotobiograidiy, rqwinted with p^enniiifon from the Journal of the Western Society
of Errrtr _: ::r February IWO;
Bom in San Frandsco, Calif., on November 17, 1857, I remember very little of
■qr early years except that we fived in various places. Finally, in 1S66, we located in
Colfaz, a small town in the foothiDs of the Serra Ne\~ada mountains, in Placer county,
CaSL Has was then the terminus of the Central Padnc Railroad which was buUding
from jSjyi-»"M^»ft eastward over the mountains toward a connection with the Union
Piadfic to form the first transcontinental road and. late in 1S65. the line had been
comi^eted to CoHax. a distance of 54 miles.
My fa&a was express, stage and news agent and early put me to work, llrst in
ddlvuing the daOjr newsp^ieis about the town and later in assisting him in the express
biwiiifws the princ^nl work of which was to transfer express matter from stage to
tniB and from train to stage. The express office was located at the railroad station and,
early in Hfe, I became famiBar with the details of railroad practices. .As the trains and
stages arrived in the manuD^ and evenings, I was able to do the work required with-
ovt nterference with scfaotd hours. I attended the village school until 1574. when I was
tad. to Oakland, idiere I entered the high school and where I remained for three years
OBtfl I was gtadnated.
Dming these three years I lived in pri\-ate famihes where, for work out of school
hours, I was pven room and board. In the sununet- vacation of 1S76 I began my first
work in an engineoing party. The State University had just been established at Berke-
ley, north of Oakland, and a railroad was being constructed to serve the new com-
Bonity. I was given a position as stake driver and at the end of the vacation found I
had earned twenty floDars. The last two years of my stay in Oakland I lived in the
fanily of the dnef ex^ineer of the Central Pacific Railroad and my experience there,
toerlhci with the fact that I found geom^iy and trigonometry ver>- easy, probably first
tamed my mind toward the engineering profession.
I recognized, however, that an engineer requires an education, and that at &TSt
seemed beyond my readi, since my faXba was not able to send me to college. I finally
deddcd to go to work for a year and then by ii«ang the money thus earned and with
what I had succeeded in saving while a boy in Colfax, I could manage to get in two
years at the University. I pased the entrance examination at the iuuver5it>- and then
went to w(»k with an engineering party, on construction, where I worked for about four-
teen months until the opening of the next college year. I entered the university in 1878
and devoted myself largdy to studies that would be useful to me as an engineer. .At the
end of the two years' course I found I could be graduated with one year more of work.
l^Mm omsultation with my fatha, he offered to loan me enough to carry me through,
and so I remained the additional year and was graduated, not as a d\-il engineer, but
with degree of Bachdor of Philosophy in the class of 1881. While at college, with my
year's experience on raflroad construction before me, I had reached the conclusion that
my dedaon to ftdlow civil engineering as a profession was a mistake, since the openings
were few, the returns anall and the future very uncertain. It should be explained that
at that period there were only two important organizations in CaHfomia that had need
lor engineers— the Central Pacific Railroad and the Spring Valley Water Company, that
**4H^^ water to San Frandsco — and these companies employed only a limited number.
^^"'"'g oi these facts I did not take the dvil engineering course, but instead, the
engineering. As I had had in my year's work on railroad construction more
Memoirs 263
practice in the use of instruments and in surv-e>Tng than was given in the university
course. I felt it would be a waste of time to go over this work in the d\-il engineering
course and that I could gain more theoretical knowledge in the mechanical course. Fate,
however, overruled me and I became a d\-il engineer in spite of myself.
.\fter graduation it was ver>- necessary- that I find some kind of work, as I had no
money and I owed my father about five hundred dollars. I learned that a sur\-e>-ing
party was about to be sent into Idaho by the Central Pacific, and since there was no
other work in sight, I applied for and obtained a position as rodman. As it was leaving
several days before commencement, I was forced to miss that great day in a young
man's life. Since I had passed all final examinations, this did not affect my graduation.
We were sent to a point on the railroad in Utah north of Great Salt Lake and made
a reconnaissance sur\-ey north into Idaho looking for a possible route into Oregon. We
went north to a pass in the mountains separating the Great Salt lake and Snake River
drainages, down Raft river to the Snake, across the Snake river desert to Wood river, up
that valley to its source, over a divide into the Salmon River country along the easterly
base of the Sawtooth range, and finally reached a point beyond which it was exidently
impracticable to bmld a railroad. We had a wagon and a mule team, but as the wagon
road ended at Ketchum. a town at the head of Wood river, we then had to convert our
team and riding animals, seven in all, into a pack train and I was detailed as swamper
to our teamster, who was head packer. We went with the pack train 125 miles beyond
Ketchum and through what is known as Sun Valley — a skiing resort now being exploited
by the Union Pacific. We retraced our route to the railroad and there found further in-
structions awaiting us. We were to go to South pass in the Rocky mountains.
We shipped our outfit to Ogden, Utah, and then added another wagon and mules;
purchased supplies, made certain changes in personnel and went to South pass via. the
Union Pacific to Green River and from there overland. Our instructions were to make
a reconnaissance survey from the summit at Souch pass toward Yankton, Dakota. We
found out later that our survey was only a demonstration and that it was part of a
game being played by the heads of the Central Pacific and Union Pacific railroads. The
Union Pacific was back of a plan to bmld another road over the Sierras from Salt Lake
into California and had seven parties in the field surveying for such a line. When this
became known the Central Pacific people sent out three parties, one from a point on its
line to survey to South Pass, ours from South Pass eastward, and one from Yankton to
work west to a connection with us. Much publicity was given in the newspapers about
our survey and the excellent route we were finding, although as a matter of fact we had
sent in no report. This publicity was e%idently to impress the head of the Union Pacific
and in the end led to an agreement between the two roads. Each dropped its plans for
building into the territory served by the other and they united in bu>-ing a controlling
interest in the St. Louis & San Francisco, which. Jointly with the Atchison, Topeka &
Santa Fe. was buUding the .\tlantic & Pacific west from Albuquerque, X. M., toward
California. .\s co-owner of the Atlantic & Pacific, the two northern roads then forced
the latter to stop at the Colorado river, while the Southern Pacific, which was owned by
the Central Pacific people, built from its line at Mojave to connect ynth the Atlantic &
Pacific at Needles. The Southern Pacific had shortly before connected its line with lines
in Texas and this connection at the Cahfomia-Arizona boundary made the third overland
route, but with the Central-Southern Pacific ha\-ing control of all rail entrance to
CaKfomia.
Our survey followed the course of the Sweetwater river for a certain distance,
crossed over a di\-ide to what was known as Horse creek and to the North Platte, down
that stream to Fort Fettennan, passing on the way the remains of old Fort Casper, near
262 Memoirs
William Benson Storey
(An autobiography, reprinted with permission from the Journal of the Western Society
of Engineers for February 1940;
Born in San Francisco, Cahf., on November 17, 1857, I remember very Uttle of
my early years except that we lived in various places. Finally, in 1866, we located in
Colfax, a small town in the foothills of the Sierra Nevada mountains, in Placer county,
Calif. This was then the terminus of the Central Pacific Railroad which was building
from Sacramento eastward over the mountains toward a connection with the Union
Pacific to form the first transcontinental road and, late in 1865, the line had been
completed to Colfax, a distance of 54 miles.
My father was express, stage and news agent and early put me to work, first in
delivering the daily newspapers about the town and later in assisting him in the express
business, the principal work of which was to transfer express matter from stage to
train and from train to stage. The express office was located at the railroad station and,
early in life, I became familiar with the details of railroad practices. As the trains and
stages arrived in the mornings and evenings, I was able to do the work required with-
out interference with school hours. I attended the village school until 1874, when I was
sent to Oakland, where I entered the high school and where I remained for three years
until I was graduated.
During these three years I lived in private families where, for work out of school
hours, I was given room and board. In the summer vacation of 1876 I began my first
work in an engineering party. The State University had just been established at Berke-
ley, north of Oakland, and a railroad was being constructed to serve the new com-
munity. I was given a position as stake driver and at the end of the vacation found I
had earned twenty dollars. The last two years of my stay in Oakland I lived in the
family of the chief engineer of the Central Pacific Railroad and my experience there,
together with the fact that I found geometry and trigonometry very easy, probably first
turned my mind toward the engineering profession.
I recognized, however, that an engineer requires an education, and that at first
seemed beyond my reach, since my father was not able to send me to college. I finally
decided to go to work for a year and then by using the money thus earned and with
what I had succeeded in saving while a boy in Colfax, I could manage to get in two
years at the University. I passed the entrance examination at the university and then
went to work with an engineering party, on construction, where I worked for about four-
teen months until the opening of the next college year. I entered the university in 1878
and devoted myself largely to studies that would be useful to me as an engineer. At the
end of the two years' course I found I could be graduated with one year more of work.
Upon consultation with my father, he offered to loan me enough to carry me through,
and so I remained the additional year and was graduated, not as a civil engineer, but
with degree of Bachelor of Philosophy in the class of 1881. While at college, with my
year's experience on railroad construction before me, I had reached the conclusion that
my decision to follow civil engineering as a profession was a mistake, since the openings
were few, the returns small and the future very uncertain. It should be explained that
at that period there were only two important organizations in California that had need
for engineers — the Central Pacific Railroad and the Spring Valley Water Company, that
supplied water to San Francisco — and these companies employed only a limited number.
Because of these facts I did not take the civil engineering course, but instead, the
mechanical engineering. As I had had in my year's work on railroad construction more
Memoirs 263
practice in the use of instruments and in surveying than was given in the university
course, I felt it would be a waste of time to go over this work in the civil engineering
course and that I could gain more theoretical knowledge in the mechanical course. Fate,
however, overruled me and I became a civil engineer in spite of myself.
After graduation it was very necessary that I find some kind of work, as I had no
money and I owed my father about five hundred dollars. I learned that a surveying
party was about to be sent into Idaho by the Central Pacific, and since there was no
other work in sight, I applied for and obtained a position as rodman. As it was leaving
several days before commencement, I was forced to miss that great day in a young
man's life. Since I had passed all final examinations, this did not affect my graduation.
We were sent to a point on the railroad in Utah north of Great Salt Lake and made
a reconnaissance survey north into Idaho looking for a possible route into Oregon. We
went north to a pass in the mountains separating the Great Salt lake and Snake River
drainages, down Raft river to the Snake, across the Snake river desert to Wood river, up
that valley to its source, over a divide into the Salmon River country along the easterly
base of the Sawtooth range, and finally reached a point beyond which it was evidently
impracticable to build a railroad. We had a wagon and a mule team, but as the wagon
road ended at Ketchum, a town at the head of Wood river, we then had to conve-t our
team and riding animals, seven in all, into a pack train and I was detailed as swamper
to our teamster, who was head packer. We went with the pack train 125 miles beyond
Ketchum and through what is known as Sun Valley — a skiing resort now being exploited
by the Union Pacific. We retraced our route to the railroad and there found further in-
structions awaiting us. We were to go to South pass in the Rocky mountains.
We shipped our outfit to Ogden, Utah, and then added another wagon and mules;
purchased supplies, made certain changes in personnel and went to South pass via the
Union Pacific to Green River and from there overland. Our instructions were to make
a reconnaissance survey from the summit at South pass toward Yankton, Dakota. We
found out later that our survey was only a demonstration and that it was part of a
game being played by the heads of the Central Pacific and Union Pacific railroads. The
Union Pacific was back of a plan to build another road over the Sierras from Salt Lake
into California and had seven parties in the field surveying for such a line. When this
became known the Central Pacific people sent out three parties, one from a point on its
line to survey to South Pass, ours from South Pass eastward, and one from Yankton to
work west to a connection with us. Much publicity was given in the newspapers about
our survey and the excellent route we were finding, although as a matter of fact we had
sent in no report. This publicity was evidently to impress the head of the Union Pacific
and in the end led to an agreement between the two roads. Each dropped its plans for
building into the territory served by the other and they united in buying a controlling
interest in the St. Louis & San Francisco, which, jointly with the Atchison, Topeka &
Santa Fe, was building the Atlantic & Pacific west from Albuquerque, N. M., toward
California. As co-owner of the Atlantic & Pacific, the two northern roads then forced
the latter to stop at the Colorado river, while the Southern Pacific, which was owned by
the Central Pacific people, built from its line at Mojave to connect with the Atlantic &
Pacific at Needles. The Southern Pacific had shortly before connected its line with lines
in Texas and this connection at the California-Arizona boundary made the third overland
route, but with the Central-Southern Pacific having control of all rail entrance to
California.
Our survey followed the course of the Sweetwater river for a certain distance,
crossed over a divide to what was known as Horse creek and to the North Platte, down
that stream to Fort Fetterman, passing on the way the remains of old Fort Casper, near
264 Memoirs
what is now Casper City, crossed to the head waters of the Niobrara, followed the gen-
eral course of that stream but on the upper ground to the south and finally to a junction
with the line of the Yankton party near Stuart, Neb., a distance of over 400 miles. The
country was only sparsely settled, there being no farms and only occasionally a cattle-
man's headquarters. There were herds of antelope near the west end and more and more
cattle as we moved east. We sold our wagons and animals and, going by rail to a junc-
tion with the Union Pacific, thence returned to San Francisco. On the way back we
were delayed for nearly 48 hours by a snow blockade on the Union Pacific. The entire
survey had been driven through as rapidly as possible, since there was danger of winter
overtaking us, and it was fortunate that we finished when we did, otherwise we would
have been caught in the blizzard that struck us on the Union Pacific, and with no
habitations in the country we would have had great difficulty in getting out. I was still
further convinced that the life of a civil engineer was a hard one and this confirmed me
in my earlier decision not to follow that profession.
However, after a few weeks in San Francisco, when offered further work on a survey
to investigate the approach to Yosemite valley, I accepted and spent several months
still working as a rodman. When the survey was done I assisted in mapping the country
we had covered.
In the spring of 1882 I was given a position as levelman on surveys for the road
toward Oregon. We worked all summer near Mt. Shasta, running lines from the Shasta
summit north to the Klamath valley and south well down into the canyon of the Sacra-
mento. At the end of the season we were called in, and while I do not recall how I was
employed that winter, it was probably in working up estimates on our summer's work.
The following spring construction was begun on the extension of the Central Pacific,
toward Oregon, from Redding at the upper end of the Sacramento valley through the
Sacramento canyon. This work was heavy, the hne was very crooked, the cuts were of
rock, with many tunnels and crossings of the river. Each engineer had charge of about
six miles and I was given charge of the third section, which included two tunnels. When
this was finished I was moved farther up the river and on a section that had one tunnel.
This construction work was carried on for a year and then, for financial reasons, was
stopped and all engineering parties called in.
In the winter of 1883-84, excessive rains and floods caused much damage to the
Southern Pacific in southern California when miles of track were washed out in Soledad
canyon, north of Los Angeles. In Arizona the Gila river destroyed many miles of track
east of Yuma and in Texas the Rio Grande caused damage for SO miles east of El Paso.
The line through Soledad canyon was relocated and I was employed for some weeks in
making plans for new masonry piers and abutments. I was then sent to the hne east of
El Paso to give center and grade stakes for rebuilding the fills that had been washed away.
I was also sent to Yuma to retrace the original located hne along the Gila and to
cross-section this line for graders. At the time the Une was originally built it was located
above high water, but this entailed much heavier work than a line in the bottom land.
Due to difference in cost, it was decided to build the cheaper line and take the chance
of being flooded in the near future. However, the flood had come and taken out about
twenty miles of track. While this had been replaced temporarily it was the intention to
build permanently on the old and safe location. But after I retraced this line and pre-
pared plans for construction the authorities decided not to build at that time, as floods
were assumed to come long distances apart and, money being scarce, the new work
could be deferred until times were more propitious, while in the meantime the old line
would serve.
Memoirs 265
I was next instructed to investigate the grade on Tehachapi mountain. This Hne
had been located on a 2.2 percent grade basis with compensation of 0.02 per degree. The
line had many miles of development and was nearly all curves — a majority being ten
degrees. The original location of the Central Pacific over the Sierra Nevadas was made
on the same grade basis as a maximum but without any compensation. The operating
department reported that identical locomotives could haul more tonnage over the Central
Pacific than up the Tehachapi. I therefore undertook to find out why this should be.
First I reestablished the original SO-ft. stations, and then took levels on top of each rail
at each station and platted these, thus getting the mean grade line. I found the grade in
many places, on the ten-degree curves, as high as 2.5 percent or higher and in such
places the grades on succeeding tangents were less than 2 percent. Most of such exces-
sive gradients were on high fills. The high fills had settled during the first years after
construction and in filling up this settlement, without stakes to guide them, the trackmen
had overfilled, since the curves prevented sighting with the eye, which is the usual
method of the trackman. As the grades on the fills were too steep there naturally had
to be compensation on the tangents.
Following these pieces of work a reorganization of the engineering department took
place. The entire staff was dispensed with, excepting only men on work not yet finished.
The chief engineer was kit in charge of the engineering office and records, the balance
of the men found themselves without work. With another engineer, I then opened an
office in San Francisco under the name of Palmer and Storey. During the time this firm
was in existence we built two short lines of railroad, one in Colusa county and one in
Monterey county. Mr. Palmer was in charge in the field and I was in the office, but the
returns were small and prospects of future work were poor. Therefore, when the South-
ern Pacific offered me work in charge of location and construction of a short line of
road in the San Joaquin valley, I accepted and the partnership was dissolved. After
this construction was finished I was offered the position of locating engineer on a line
that started on the main line of the Southern Pacific at a station called Saugus, north of
Los Angeles, ran down the Santa Clara valley to the coast at Ventura, up the coast to
Santa Barbara and then on to San Luis Obispo and over the mountain to a connection
with the Southern Pacific line already built south to a station called Templeton. I
accepted this position and was engaged on this work for about a year during 1886-1887.
This line from Ventura north is now part of the through Coast Line of the Southern
Pacific from Los Angeles to San Francisco.
In 1888 I was sent to Washington, which was then a territory, to build a short line
up the canyon of the Carbonado river connecting the Northern Pacific with the coal mine
owned by the Southern Pacific. This was only about six miles long, but the work was
heavy and it took me until early in 1889 to complete it. It was then turned over to the
Northern Pacific under an agreement by which that road was to pay for it out of the
freight earnings.
Between 1889 and 1893 I had charge of building two branch lines, one extending
from Knights Landing on the Sacramento river in California, across what is known as
Sutter basin, to the Feather river and connecting with a line which had been built south
from the City of Marysville; the other between Merced, on the main line of the South-
ern Pacific in the San Joaquin valley to Oakdale in Stanislaus county, where it connected
with a line from Stockton, thus forming a loop line from Stockton to Merced which
opened up some fine agricultural land. I also built two stretches of the Southern Pacific
in Arizona, one extending east from Yuma for 35 miles, where excessive floods on the
Gila river had again taken out the original track for that distance, and the other east
266 Memoirs
of Tucson to Dragoon summit, where the original line was built on a 1.5 percent basis,
and it was decided to put in one on a 1 percent basis in order to make it conform with
the grade system on the rest of the division.
In between these pieces of work I made examination of and reported on sections
of the country not then served by the railroad. One of these was the canyons of the
two forks of Feather river which afforded a railroad route to the Beckwith pass in the
Sierra Nevada mountains, which pass is about 1,800 ft. lower than the pass used by the
Central, now known as the Southern Pacific. This route has since been occupied by
the Western Pacific, using the north fork of the Feather river. The trip through this
canyon was a particularly hard one. I had to make it on foot and it took me six days
from Oroville at the mouth of the canyon to Quincy in Plumas county, the first town
after emerging from the canyon. There were no trails in the canyon and I carried my
supplies on my back and slept on the banks of the river, without blankets. The trip
down the middle fork was equally hard.
In the summer of 1893 I was sent to run a survey through the desert from San
Gorgonio pass on the Southern Pacific to a connection with the Santa Fe at or near the
station of Cadiz. I made a preliminary exploration to locate water holes and then or-
ganized a party and began the survey. I had asked for a sixty-day leave, beginning in
time to enable me to attend the convention of the American Society of Civil Engineers
in Chicago. This was granted and, therefore, before this survey was finished I went to
Chicago, attended the convention and visited the World's Fair of that year. I then visited
Boston, New York and Washington, and came back to San Francisco to find that there
was no further work for me. In my absence the panic of 1893 had struck the country
and, as a consequence, all construction work, not only on railroads but in every other
line, had stopped. I could find no work of any kind for several months.
In the spring of 1894 I obtained a position as assistant engineer on the California
Debris Commission. This commission had recently been formed to regulate hydraulic
mining and prevent debris from being discharged into the navigable rivers of the state.
It was made up of army engineers, with headquarters in San Francisco. My duties were
to inspect the impounding works authorized by the commission and to see that the min-
ing companies did not evade the law. I was engaged on this work and required to live
in the mountains for about a year.
Early in 1895 a railroad company was organized to build a railroad from San
Francisco down the San Joaquin valley and I applied for and obtained the position of
chief engineer. The task presented was to find a way over the Coast Range into the San
Joaquin valley and through this valley to its southern end, a total distance of over
three hundred miles, to tap only the most important towns in the valley and to other-
wise place the Hne a sufficient distance from the existing lines of the Southern Pacific
(the only other railroad) to enable new business to be opened up, also to provide ter-
minals on San Francisco bay. This was accomplished with a grade maximum of 1 per-
cent for a distance of about twenty-seven miles from San Francisco bay and a maximum
of 0.3 percent for the balance of the distance. Two difficult engineering problems pre-
sented themselves on this work, one the swelling ground in the 1% mile summit tunnel
and the other, building over swamp and overflow land at the mouth of the San Joaquin
for a distance of about sixteen miles.
The swelling ground was caused by the rock absorbing moisture from the air and
acting similar to slaking lime. We first tried to hold this by additional timber lining, but
the timbers broke like matches. We then adopted the plan of timbering lightly and, when
the squeeze came, removing the lagging and excavating back of the timbers. This pre-
vented crushing for a time, but finally the pressure above and below would get too
Memoirs 267
great and the main timbers would break. We then would remove the entire set of tim-
bers, excavate back of them and put in a new set. The time between each squeeze be-
came longer until after we had renewed the sets in the center of the tunnel five times the
squeeze ceased entirely. As we approached the ends of the tunnel the renewals grew less
and less. The theory on which we worked was that the influence of the air on the rock
could only extend from the walls of the tunnel a certain distance into the mountain and
the affected material would form a layer beyond which there would be no swelling action.
The swamp land was composed largely of vegetable or peaty matter mixed with
water, with depths to hard material of clay or sand of as much as twenty feet. Some of
the country had been leveed, but the engineers said we could not maintain a railroad
bank through the particular section we had selected. We succeeded, however, in spite of
these predictions. Our method was to use long-arm clamshell dredges and, starting with
a base one hundred feet wide, place a layer of the peaty material and allow this to dry
for a number of weeks. On this we placed a layer of sand or clay from the hard bottom
of our borrow pits and allowed this to dry, next was placed a layer of peat and then
hard material and so on until we reached the proper height. The last layer was hard
material and when this was dry we shaped it with scrapers and horses. We did have
some bad slips back into the borrow pits, and slips of this sort were what made the levee
engineers doubtful of our success. We, however, drove temporary trestles in these places
and later, when the track was laid, hauled in and filled with sand, of which there was
plenty about fifteen miles away.
About three years after we began this work the Santa Fe bought the stock of the
company and made arrangements to use the Southern Pacific from the south end of our
line at Bakersfield to Mojave, thus giving the Santa Fe an outlet to San Francisco and
furnish a new overland route from that point. We were instructed to complete the road
according to our plans, which we did, building floats to transfer cars from the east side
of the bay at Point Richmond to San Francisco, tugs to handle the floats, ferry boats
to transfer passengers, wharves and slips to enable transfers to be made. In July, 1900,
the road was turned over to the operating department of the Santa Fe.
My experience on the construction of the Valley Road, as it was called, was of great
value to me as it brought me into contact with all elements of railroad work — the con-
struction, the accounting and the operation. We had a secretary who kept all the books,
while I passed on all vouchers, supervised the preparation of all plans, both for bridges
and buildings, and let all contracts. In a large corporation all these are handled by
separate departments and one department knows little about the work of any other,
while with our small road all departments were united in the secretary and myself.
Upon turning the road over to the operating department of the Santa Fe I was
offered the position of chief engineer of its Eastern Lines, with headquarters in Topeka.
The Eastern Lines at that time included all territory east of the Rio Grande, or what is
now included in the Eastern and Western lines. It did not include the Gulf, Colorado
& Santa Fe, as this is a Texas corporation and handled separately. I remained in this
position for six years or until the middle of 1906, except that I was given leave of
absence of one year— 1903-1904 — to make investigation relative to possible railroad routes
in California between San Francisco bay and Eureka in Humboldt county.
The Santa Fe and the Southern Pacific had clashed in trying to get into this red-
wood country, the former having acquired an existing road from Eureka south for about
fifty miles and the latter another existing road, from the bay north and access to the Eal
river, down which it began surveys and announced the intention of building. I made
various surveys and estimates and finally reported that in my judgment two separate
268 Memoirs ^__
railroads through the country could not be supported, and suggested that the companies
form a joint company, build one road to connect the two existing roads and operate the
whole for the joint benefit. This plan was followed and the Northwestern Pacific was
formed; it took over the two existing roads and finally, when the new construction was
completed, operated the entire property.
I then came back to the Eastern Lines and resumed work there. During my term
as chief engineer we put in many permanent masonry structures in the shape of piers and
abutments for bridges on the Chicago-Kansas City line, cut down the grades on the line
as far west as La Junta to a 0.4 percent basis, built a number of branch lines, double
tracked and reduced grades on the cut-off between Holliday and Emporia, enlarged the
Argentine and Emporia yards and erected the Argentine and Chicago elevators.
During this period we had a very severe flood at Kansas City and a flood on the
western territory between Byron, Colorado and El Paso, Texas, which took out the
bridges over nearly all main streams and necessitated building new bridges and making
certain changes of line. It was altogether a very busy period in the task of improving
and modernizing the road.
In July, 1906, I was made chief engineer of the Santa Fe System, with headquarters
in Chicago, having charge of all new construction and acting in a consulting capacity
on all maintenance work, which was in direct charge of the chief engineers of the several
parts of the System.
When I assumed this office the so-called Belen cut-off from the New Mexico-Texas
line to the Rio Grande river at Belen and to a junction with the main line at Rio Puerco
had been located and about half completed. I completed this and took up the work of
reducing the grades on the Hne from Mulvane in Kansas to and through the panhandle
of Texas to a connection with the Belen cut-off to a 0.6 percent basis, the cut-off having
been built on the same limiting grades. This line had originally been built as a cattle
Hne and on a 1 percent basis with 5 deg. maximum curves. We reduced the curvature to
3 deg. Later, when the second track was built from the junction of the cut-off with the
main line over the transcontinental divide in New Mexico, we put this on a 0.6 percent
basis, leaving the old line on a 1 percent basis as the downhill grade. We thus estab-
lished a ruling 0.6 percent grade from the Missouri river to the station at Winslow, Ariz.,
except for two or three short stretches of pusher grade. We then constructed a connecting
line between this new overland route and our Gulf lines, and succeeded in getting a 0.6
percent Hne aU the way from the junction point at Texico to the junction with the Gulf
Unes at Coleman, and part of this, that from Texico to Slaton, a distance of 105 miles,
on a 0.4 percent basis. In doing this we had to miss Abilene, one of the most important
centers in that section, but the 0.6 percent Hne for through traffic was deemed of greater
importance.
In addition we built many branches in the panhandle of Texas, thus opening up
that country for agriculture. When we first began operations there it was entirely a
grazing country and today it is covered with farms. When we opened the first Hne
across this territory not a single car of wheat was shipped. Since then, in a good year,
as much as 60 milUon bushels has been sent out. In addition they raise large amounts
of row crops and cotton. There have been also extensive oil fields developed, and while
the crude oil goes out by pipe Hne there is a large tonnage of lampblack which moves
by rail.
I was made vice-president in charge of construction in 1909 and in 1910 I was
assigned the operating department in addition to the construction. Then followed two
very busy years, since it was necessary to read each file from bottom to top whenever a
new subject came before me.
Memoirs 269
I served as vice-president until the end of 1917 when, our country then having
become involved in the World War, the government took over the railroads and I was
made federal manager of the Santa Fe.
The roads, due to the sudden increase in freight to be transferred, became badly
congested and in an attempt to operate them as a unified whole a small committee was
formed to which all roads became subordinate. The attorney general of the United States
issued notice that if this committee acted it would be in violation of the anti-trust laws
and that he would have to prosecute them. To meet this difficulty Congress could have,
as a war measure, suspended the act so far as it applied to railroads for the duration of
the war, but the President solved it by taking over the railroads and placing their
operation in the hands of one man. He selected for this assignment Mr. W. G. McAdoo,
the secretary of the treasury. Although the Armistice, which really ended the war, came
in November, 1918, the government retained possession until March 1, 1920, which date
was fixed by Congress. During the period of government control the properties were en-
tirely separated from the corporations that owned them, but on the passage of the Act
fixing the date for return of the roads the corporations began to prepare to receive them
by arranging the personnel to handle them. The president of the Santa Fe decided to
retire, and I was elected to succeed him and took office on January 1, 1920 — resigning
as federal manager on that date.
Under federal control the morale of the organization had suffered greatly and the
roads became badly disorganized. The Santa Fe forces had been completely unionized,
whereas we had contracts only with the train and enginemen brotherhoods at the time
the roads were taken over. In 1922 a nationwide strike of the shop crafts occurred that
seriously affected all the roads, but the Santa Fe overcame this by hiring new men,
placing them under instructors, and in a few weeks were able to operate satisfactorily.
Many other roads that did not pursue this method had much more trouble and finally
made new contracts with the unions. After things were again running smoothly with us
I asked the men to organize a Santa Fe union, feeling that if they had grievances they
should have some way to deal with the authorities over them. This plan worked well
during my entire encumbency. From 1920 to 1929 the business of the road increased and
the net earnings went up from 52 to nearly 74 millions, the dividends on the common
stock were increased from 6 percent, which had been paid for many years, to 10 percent,
and the surplus increased from 87 millions in 1920 to 314 millions in 1929. We had in-
creased the mileage by over a thousand miles by the purchase of the Kansas City,
Mexico & Orient, and by building new branches and extensions. The entire business of
the country was booming, production was heavy, building was active. In 1929, however,
earnings began to decline and in 1932 amounted to only 20 millions, dividends had to be
cut and in the following year omitted entirely on the common stock. Inasmuch as I had
reached the age of seventy-five and no immediate recovery was in sight, I signified to
the board of directors that I thought it wise for me to retire. The board therefore elected
my successor at the reorganization meeting in May, 1933. I remained, however, as a
member of the board and of the executive committee.
In the following year (1934) I was asked by the Secretary of the Interior to be a
member of a board of review to pass on the plans of the Chicago Sanitary District for
purification of sewage. A grant of money and a purchase of bonds had been arranged
with the government, subject to its approval of the plans. This board spent several
months in reviewing these plans, and on completion of this assignment we were asked to
continue as a board to pass on any changes that might become necessary as the con-
struction progressed. We hold meetings three or four times a year for this purpose but
the work is expected to be completed this year.
270 Memoirs
In 1889 I was made a member of the American Society of Civil Engineers, in 1906
was elected a director, and in 1924 became a life member. I became a charter member
of the American Railway Engineering Association, was elected a director in 1911, second
vice-president in 1912, first vice-president in 1913 and president in 1914. I was made an
honorary member in 1938. I was elected a member of the Western Society of Engineers
in 1907 and became a life member in 1937. I am also a life member of the American
Society for Testing Materials. In 1910 I was elected to the honor societies of Phi Beta
Kappa and Sigma Xi of the University of California and in 1924 was given the honorary
degree of LL.D. by my Alma Mater. In 1924 I was elected a trustee of the Carnegie
Institution of Washington.
INDEX
Agreement for commercial signs, 39
— for unloading liquefied petroleum, 41
American Lumber Standards, 248, 262
Asphalt for waterproofing, 353
B
Ballast, form of records, 380
Ballast section, 571
— asphalt in, 571
— stone ballast specifications, 572
Blaess, A. F., a memoir, 640
Boiler, corrosion, 96
— lubricating oil in, 101 (a)
— silica in water, 101 (b)
Bolts, tension in, 608
Bond, F. L. C, address of, 769
Borings, test, specifications for, 321
Breakwaters, 88
Bridge maintenance gangs, 217
Bridges, steel, specifications, 356
— instructions for inspection, 358
— non-ballast metal floors, 363
— wood, fireproofing, 291
Brine drippings, 628
Buford, C. H., address of, 775
Building maintenance gangs, 217
Buildings, report, 225, 875
Bulkheads, 88
Cars, motor, accessories for, 174
Car Service Division, 45
Cements, five ASTM types, 305, 310
— progress in manufacture and testing, 310
— properties and behavior, 335
Central of Georgia maintenance methods,
214
Colleges, see Universities
Columns, composite, and pipe, 298
Committee reports, rules for preparation, 20
Concrete, see also Cement, Masonry
— durability, 335
— specifications, 321
— specifications for under water, 332
Cooperative Relations with Universities,
report, 155, 815
Corrosion
— boilers, 96
— cathodic protection of tanks, 97
— effect of brine drippings, 628
— fence wire, 566
— preservatives for rails and fastenings, 177
— rails in tunnels, 605
Crossings, highway, specifications for, 150
— location of signals, 152
— protection of flangeways, 152
— types of protection, 151
Crossings, railway, plans, 595
Culvert pipe, specifications for placing, 315
— pipe line crossings, 555
— specifications for clay pipe, 546
Curve, lubrication, 626
— spirals for high speed operation, 636
Definitions, for wood and lumber, 253
Denver & Rio Grande Western, rail studies,
755, 759
Diesel locomotive facilities, 128
Downs, L. A., a memoir, m255
Drafting room practice, 373
Drainage, economies obtained, 219 ^
Drawings, methods of filing, 375
E
Economics of Railway Labor, report, 213,
823
— maintenance of way mechanization, ml
— railroad carrier industry committee, tes-
timony, ml
Economics of Railway Location and Opera-
tion, report, 44, 804
Education, value of, 157
Election of officers, 780
Electric Locomotives
— characteristics, ml42
— stresses and depressions in rail, ml 55
Electrical Section activities, 29
Electricity, report of, 28, 810
— use of, 28
Electrification, in Central and South
America, 68
Embankments, placing material, 561
— settlement of, 559
Employees, young college men, 157
Expenses, operating, relation to traffic, 50
— effect of high speed, 56
Fanning, George Stokes, a memoir, m248
Faries, Robert, a memoir, m253, 640
Fence, corrosion-resisting wire, 566
— electrified, 569
—wood post specifications, 567
Fireproofing wood bridges, 291
Fire Protection Section, activities, 106
"Flat Work" maintenance method, 214
Note — Page numbers preceded by
Report Section of this volume.
'm" refer to pages in (he Monograph, or Special
Index
Ford, C. F., a memoir, 490
Foundations, specifications for test borings,
321
— properties of earth materials, 541
Frogs, plans, 595
Gangs, combined, versus separate, 217
Garage buildings, 225
Grading equipment, 206
Grading rules for timber and lumber, 252,
273
Grouting specifications, 319
H
Highways, report, 149, 814
— crossing, see Crossings, highway
— truck, terminals for loading on cars, 136
Illinois Central, web stresses in rail, 759
Impact, report, 393, 871
Irfterstate Commerce Commission develop-
ments, 379
— changes in accounting classification, 382
— methods of procedure, 386
— valuation orders, 381
Iron and Steel Structures, report, 355, 874
Irwin, J. C, a memoir, 37
Jetties, 88
Joint bars, effect of speed, m201
— failures, 666
— photoelastic studies, 666, 672
— tests of, ml 76, 662
— types and conditions, ml 94
— vertical and longitudinal movements,
m204
Lea, Clarence F., address of, 782
Locomotives, see, Electric, Steam, and
Diesel (locomotives)
M
Maintenance of Way Work Equipment,
report, 173, 826
Manual, rules for publication, 23
Masonry, report, 295, 878
Memoirs:
— Blaess, August F., 640
— Downs, Lawrence Aloysius, m255
— Fanning, George Stokes, m248
— Faries, Robert, m2S3, 640
—Ford, Charles Finley, 490
— Irwin, James C, 37
— Neubert, John V., m251, 640
• — Storey, William Benson, m260
—Weymouth, Albert Pierce, 370
Moore, H. F., Seventh Progress Report, 681
N
Neubert, John V., a memoir, m251, 640
Oiling rail, methods and equipment, 177
Oscillographs, ml 50
Paints, protective value of, 227
Passenger cars, terminal facilities for
streamlined, 110
— electric and air conditioning facilities,
112
— washing facilities, 134
Passing track, 108
Pennsylvania Railroad, impact tests, 397
Petroleum, liquefied, agreement for unload-
ing, 41
Photoelastic studies, 666, 672
Piers, casings for, 88, 90
Pile drivers, capacity, 282
Piles, wood, bearing power, 282
Pipe, see Culvert pipe
Pipe line crossings, 555
Posts, specifications, 567
R
Rail, batter in rail surface, m222, 658
— continuous welding, 660
— controlled cooled and Brunorized, 656
— controlled cooling studies, 702
— corrosion in tunnels, 605
— drop and bend test, 747
— effect of flat wheels, m217
— failure statistics, 645, 650, 656
— fastenings for continuous welded, 580
— fissure failures, 650, 681
— lubrication of, 626
— mechanical properties of, 726
— metallographic structure, 719
— record forms for rail failures, 641
— rolling load test, 687
— service records, 696
— shatter cracks, 702, 743
— specifications for laying, 633
— -value of different sizes, 659
— vertical web stresses in 112-lb., 755, 759
— wheel loads on, 692
Rail, report, 639, 850
Rail joints, see also Joint bars
— behavior under load, ml 73
■ — effect of camber, ml92
Records and Accounts, report, 369, 858
— avoiding duplication of reports, 385
— bibliography, 371
Records, for work equipment, 183
Reflex units for switch lamps, 606
Roadway and Ballast, report, 539, 831
— ^formation of roadway, 559
— signs, design of, 570
<
Index
Rules and Organization, report, 515, 864
— for electrified territory, ?i6
— for maintenance of way and structures
employees, 515
— for signals and interlocking, 535
■ — for telegraph and telephone, 536
Seawalls, 88
Sea water, casings in, 88, 90
Secretary, report of, 791
Scales, revision of specifications, 109, 110
— specifications for grain hopper, 115
Shore protection, 88
Siding, 108
Signals and Interlocking, report, 31, 802
Signal Section activities, 31
Signs, design of, 570
— commercial, agreement for, 39
SiHca, removal from boilers, 101 (b)
Speed through turnouts, 578
— effect on expenses, 56
Spike, cut, design, 577
— screw spike design, 583
Standardization, report, 25, 802
Steam Locomotives, rail stresses and de-
pressions, m232
Storey, Wihiam Benson, a memoir, m260
Strain gages, magnetic, ml46
Streamlined equipment, facilities for, 110
Stresses in Railroad Track, report, 753, 759,
848
Switches, plans, 595
Talbot, A. N., address of, 759
—tribute to, 848
Tamping track, 579
Tanks, cathodic protection, 97
Terminals, see also Yards
—facilities for streamlined equipment, 110
— for Diesel locomotives, 128
— for washing cars, 134
— loading highway trucks on cars, 136
— servicthg electric and air conditioning
equipment, 112
Termites, study of, 513
Tie plate, specifications, 576
Ties, report, 485, 845
— adherence to specifications, 485
— cost averages, 486
— dimensions of, 487
— renewal statistics, 486
— service test records, 490
Tools, track, plans for, 584
— limits of wear, 584
Trackwork plans, 595
Track, report, 575, 836
Track structure, relation to traffic, 48
Traffic, for export — plan, 45
— effect on operating expenses, SO
— relation to track structure, 48
Train resistance formulas, 69
Transportation, study at universities, 171
Treasurer, report of, 801
Tunnels, corrosion of rail in, 605
— -lighting, 565
— specifications for lining, 307
Turnouts, table of speeds, 57S
U
Uniform General Contract Forms, report,
37, 819
Universities, relations with, 155, 815
— graduates in railway employ, 157
— research facilities, 170
— study of transportation, 168, 171
W
Waterproofing of Railway Structures, re-
port, 353, 877
Water Service, Fire Protection and Sanita-
tion, report, 95, 820
— see also. Boiler, Corrosion, Tanks
Waterways and Harbors, report, 87, 812
Waterv/ay openings, formulas, 543
Welding, equipment for, 200
— rail, continuous, 661
Weymouth, A. P., a memoir, 370
Wood Bridges and Trestles, report, 247, 80S
— specifications for design, 273
Wood, nomenclature for, 253
Wood Preservation, report, 489, 830
Work Equipment
— economies of off-track equipment, 221
— economies of various types, ml
—off-track, 206, 221
— pneumatic tired, 194
— records of, 183
— welding, 200
Wrenches, impact, 199
Yards and Terminals, report, 107, 854
— bibliography, 140
— classification, 133
— departure, 133
— hump yards, 108
1
Live Music
Archive
Librivox
Free Audio
Metropolitan Museum
Cleveland
Museum of Art
Internet
Arcade
Console Living Room
Open Library
American
Libraries
TV News
Understanding
9/11